UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

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1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING HIS 410: International Relations Since 1945 (2 Units) Course Facilitator: Prof. Saliba B. James

2 STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: HIS 410: International Relations Since 1945 Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for ii

3 your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be iii

4 sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book for the activities which can iv

5 serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ v

6 activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e- tutors through their addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate , because ing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and s which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your . The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your vi

7 C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period. vii

8 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY HIS 410: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS SINCE 1945 PROF. SALIBA B. JAMES viii

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS STUDY SESSIONS 1. DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2. THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 3. NIGERIAN FOREIGN POLICY 4. TEE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION 5. THE COLD WAR 6. NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION 7. TERRORISM ix

10 GENERAL INTRODUCTION The course - International Relations Since 1945 is concerned with the study of international relations after the Second World War. It focuses on major events in international relations from The birth of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) in 945 heralded a new era in international politics and collective security. The division of the world in a bipolar system by the cold war dominated international politics. Along side this was the nuclear arms race between the two superpowers, the U.S.A. and Soviet Union, which threatened global peace and security. Also significant was the rise of terrorism associated with the struggle for freedom epecial1y among Palestinians and fringe groups in Europe and Asia. These issues are discussed in the course. The course is divided into Seven (7) different topics. Topic one concerns with the defination of some key concepts in international relations; Topic two deals with theories of international relations; while topic three dwells on the nature of Nigerian foreign policy after independence; Topic four talks on the United Nations organization, while topic five concerns with the period of cold war; where as topic six and seven treats nuclear proliferation and terrorism respectively. x

11 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY At the end of the module the students should be able to: Identify some key concepts in International relations. Explain the nature and substance of relations among sovereign states or nations. Know and explain the meanings and importance of international organizations. Know and identify some of the theories of International relations. How these theories can be applied to practical Intercourse between nation state. What are the importance of these theories in international relations. Explain what is foreign policy know the theoretical basis of Nigeria s foreign policy. How foreign policy are formulated and implemented. Know the historical origin of the United Nations Organization. How the United Nations operates or functions. Identify some of the institutions that made up the organization. Define the term cold war and its manifestation. Explain the nature and causes of the ideological hostility between the two blocs (East and West). Outline the consequences of this rivalry or clashes on international relations. Explain the term nuclear proliferation. What are the means of nuclear diffusion or proliferation. Identify the measure for the nuclear or atomic age. Know and explain the term terrorism. Explain the types and causes of terrorism. Discuss the impact of terrorism in current global dispensation. xi

12 STUDY SESSION 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS INTRODUCTION 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOME 1.2 IN-TEXT IN-TEXT QUESTION IN-TEXT ANSWER 1.3 ACTIVITY 1.4 SUMMARY 1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1.6 REFERENCE 1.7 SUGGESTED READING INTRODUCTION International relations consist of both theory and practice. As a discipline, it focuses on the relations among states and certain concepts and issues are important in defining and guiding relations between states in the international system. 1

13 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOME At he end of the study, the students should be able to: i. Identify some key concepts in international relations. ii. Explain the nature and substance of relations among sovereign states or nations. iii. Know and explain the meanings and importance of international organizations. 1.2 IN-TEXT DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS International relations (IR) consist of both theory and practice. As a discipline it focuses on relations among state Certain concepts and issues are important in defining and guiding relations between states in the international system. An understanding of these key concepts is crucial to revealing the nature of relations among states. Among the many concepts include: international relations, National interest, Diplomacy, Balance of power, foreign policy, Nation state, sovereignty, international organisation and globalization. a) International Relations: International Relations (IR) in its broadest definition refers to and includes all relations or intercourse among states and all movements of peoples, 2

14 goods, ideas and services across national boundaries. It deals with relations among states in the political, diplomatic, economic, cultural, organizational and military areas. International relations is conduct by governments and other international actors such as diplomats, statesmen, intellectuals, students, businessmen and women, tourists etc. International relations is necessitated by the transformation of the world into a global village and the increasing interdependence among states. No state is an island on can survive alone in the international system. b) National Interest: National interest can be defined as those things that states seek to achieve or protect in their relations with other states. Those things are related to or important for the survival, security, wellbeing and good image of the state. National interest can be classified into two namely: Vital national interests and secondary national interests. Vital national interests, are those for which a state is normally willing to fight immediately or ultimately. An example will be the violation of the territorial intergrity of the state through invasion or war. Secondary national interests includes the many desires of individual states which they would like to achieve but for which they will not fight. A case in point is success in sports. 3

15 c) Diplomacy: Simply defined, diplomacy is the promotion of national interests by peaceful means. Diplomacy is the most important peaceful means or instrument through which states deal with each other as they pursue their common national interest. Traditionally, diplomacy referred to the process of political relations among states. It is the art of negotiation and compromise, requiring the use of intelligence and fact in the conduct of official relations between governments. Diplomacy is carried out by diplomats especially Ambassadors. In the past diplomats were seen as people who lied on behalf of their countries, to achieve national interest or to give the country a good image. But this is not correct. Diplomats are statesmen of integrity. d) Balance of Power: According to Hans J. Morgenthau, balance of power refers to an actual state of affairs in which power is distributed among nations with approximate equality. It refers to an approximate equal distribution of power among several states in order to prevent abuse of strength. The purpose of balance of power is to correct imbalance in the strength of nations that can lead to military aggression. The achievemnt of power equilibrium guarantees international peace and stability. A common method of ensuring balance of power is through military alliances. 4

16 e) Foreign Policy: Foreign policy refers to the policy of a sovereign state in its interaction with other sovereign states. According to Frederick Hartmann, foreign policy consists of selected national interests or goals which are formulated into a logically consistent whole that is then implemented. Foreign policy includes the objectives and goals which a nation sets for the purpose of dealing with other nations in the international system. Foreign policy deals with a nations external interests just as domestic policies focus on internal interest. f) Nation-state: The term nation sate is a concept used by modern states or political leaders in order to connect the state to the nation to attract nationalist support from the people that make up the nation. The state as the political unit that has ultimate sovereignty needs the nation, that is the group of people that makeup the nation. Nation-state therefore helps the leaders who control the state to gain the support of the people who make-up the nation. Without the support of the citizens who make-up the nation that state cannot operate in the international system with legitimacy. The nation state is the basic unit of the international system. 5

17 g) Sovereignty: Sovereignty can be defined as the most essential characteristic of an international state. The term strongly refers to and implies political independence from any higher authority. It also suggest, at least theoretically, equality and the right to decide on any course of action. A sovereign nation is therefore an independent nation that has the right to make its own decisions. Sovereign states are considered equal no matter the differences in their sizes and strengths. h) International Organizations: International organizations, are organizations that conduct business across national boundaries and have members from or units operating in more than one country. International organisations whose members and countries are called intergovernmental organisations, e.g. the U.N.O., A.U., EU etc. Intergovernmental organisations whose members are consist of individuals or private groups are called Non-governmental organizations or (NGOs) NGOs or INGOs compliment the efforts of governments in providing much needed services to the peeple. INGOs are governmental organisations and therefore recognized internal actors. 6

18 i) Globalization: Globa1isation refers to the greater movement of people, goods, capital and ideas due to increased economic integration which in turn is propelled by increase trade and investment. It is a movement towards a borderless world. Globalisation therefore has serious implications for international relations. It has increases the interdependence of states and could affect that sovereignty IN-TEXT QUESTION Mention six concepts that guide relations among states in the International system and explain any two IN-TEXT ANSWER The concepts that guide relations among states in the International system include the following: a. National Interest b. Balance of Power c. Diplomacy d. Foreign Policy e. Nation-state and f. Globalization National interest are those interest for which a state is normally willing to fight immediately. National interest is classified into two namely vital or 7

19 primary national interest and secondary National interest. Vital or primary National Interest include for all states as a minimum the protection of territorial integrity. The secondary National Interest however covers many desires of individuals of which they would like to attain but for which they would not fight. Balance of power is the regulatory mechanism in international relations. It serves as a check on powerful individual state or alliances and military camps. During the cold war for example, the North Atlantic Treaty organization and the Warsaw pact alliance balance each others strength. 1.3 ACTIVITY Activity Timing: 5 minutes Activity Text: Meet a colleague and discuss the phrase International relations. 1.4 SUMMARY The topic discusses some of the key concepts in international relations, which are as main: international relations; Balance of power; national interest; sovereignty; Foreign policy; Nation state; International organization and Globalization. 8

20 1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1. Write short notes on the following: - Foreign Policy - International Organization - Globalization 1.6 REFERENCE 1. Palmer, Norman, D. and Perkins Howard C. International Relations: the world community in Transition, Delhi A. ITB. S, publisher and distributors (regd) SUGGESTED READING 1. Zimako O. Z. Face of a Nation: Democracy in Nigeria, Foreign Relations and National Image, India, Thomson press,

21 STUDY SESSION 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS INTRODUCTION 2.1 LEARNING OUTCOME 2.2 IN-TEXT IN-TEXT QUESTION IN-TEXT ANSWER 2.3 ACTIVITY 2.4 SUMMARY 2.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 2.6 REFERENCE 2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS INTRODUCTION The topic examines the various theories of international relations such as the historical and philosophical school, systems theory, the power or realist paradigm, games theory and maxist framework. It shows the importance of theory to the practice of international relations. 10

22 2.1 LEARNING OUTCOME At the end of the study unit, the student should be able to: i. Know and identify some of the theories of international relations. ii. How these theories can be applied to practical intercourse between nation states. iii. What are the importance of these theories in international relations. 2.2 IN-TEXT THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS As mentioned in lecture one, international relations is about theory and practice. Theories are abstract assumptions about issues that however produce guidance in dealing with practical matters of human existence. Theories provide direction for dealing with issues. International relations theories have over the years guided the foreign policies of many states and influenced the behaviour of rulers and state men. They are therefore important and should be understood. There are many theories of international relations but only a few will he considered here. Among those to be considered include the historical and philosophical framework, systems paradigm, the power or realist school, Games theory and the Marxist framework. The philosophical and historical framework advocates the role of morality and value judgment in the conduct of international relations. It therefore raises questions of value judgment, ethnical considerations and 11

23 investigations into good and bad, right and wrong, just and unjust and morality and expediency. In other words foreign policy of a nation should be based and conducted on morality, that is whether the objectives and methods are right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust etc. It understandably calls for free trade, liberty, equality and fraternity among men and nations. It demands greater global economic justice. Systems theory is aimed at systems preservation, that is, the preservation and sustenance of the international system. Systems theory looks at the international system as an organism consisting of various interdependent parts or elements interacting together. The mutual interdependence and interaction of the different parts ensures the dynamic and smooth functioning and survival of the system. In the same manner the international system can survive and function well only if the elements or nation-states that constitute its basic units relate harmoniously and interdependently. States are therefore expected to recognize their mutual interdependence as none can survive without the other. Systems theory aims at promotion of systems preservation, peace and order, international cooperation, friendship and human rights and liberties. Only these will ensure peace in the international system. The power school which is also called the realist theory focuses on the role of power in international relations. It stresses the ability of states to get what they want through the use of power despite opposition. Advocates of the power school believe that power is the most important element in relations 12

24 among states. Thomas Hobbes argued that humans possess the natural urge to dominate each other or animus dominandi. Hans J. Morgenthau believed that the three basic drives of men are the will to power that is the drive to live, the drive to reproduce and the drive to dominate. According to Morgenthau, power politics in international relations is therefore inevitable. One cannot avoid power struggle in international relations. The need for security drives nations to depend on power. The power school believes that in international relations might is right that is, it is proper to use power in foreign policy. The United States of America and European nations and also China and Japan have used the power school. The Games theory is a popular framework that focuses attention on rational choices and conflict resolution. That is to say, it emphazises the need for national decisions and choices in formulating and implementing foreign policies. The need for bargaining and peaceful resolution of disputes are also stressed. Games theory however, looks at international relations as a zero sum game and minimax. Zero sums refers to game of chance or winner takes all games. In such games A s gains are equal to B losses. The goal of foreign policy is therefore to maximise gains and minimise losses i.e. Minimax. In other words, foreign policy should work to the advantage of the state and not against it. The Marxist paradigm is premised on class struggle as the critical element in international relations. The struggle of the working class against the 13

25 exploitative dominance of the bourgeoisie in the capitalist world system is the defining issue in international relations. The proletariat or working class must seek to overthrow the bourgeoisie who control the states in the international system for their benefit. Due to this class struggle between the proletariat and bourgeoisie international relations therefore focuses on conflict confrontation between the two classes and on the fundamental question of how the world economy should be owned, controlled and used. With the transformation of capitalism and imperialism into globalization Marxist theory focuses on the evils of globalisation today. It opposition of the creation of a borderless world for the benefit of rich capitalist industrialized western nations IN-TEXT QUESTION System theory is one of the International relations theory. Discuss IN-TEXT ANSWER System theory as one of the International relations theory is primarily concerned with system preservation. In other word, in terms of International relations system theory is focused on the preservation and survival of the International system. Advocate of system theory have used the analogy of an organism to explain the imperative of system preservation. Like a biological organism that has different but interdependent parts, the International system is made up of Sovereign Nation-State as its interdependent parts. Although these 14

26 sovereign states have their individual national interest and formulated foreign policy objectives, such interest and objectives are pursued with the mutual recognition of the interest of other state. 2.3 ACTIVITY Activity Timing: 5 minutes Activity Text: Meet a colleague and examine communication theory. 2.4 SUMMARY The topic deals with the issue of theories in international relations and some of these theories are mentioned as: power theory; Games theory; system theory; philosophical and historical framework. 2.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1. Write short note on the following: a. Game theory b. Power theory 2.6 REFERENCE 1. Dougherty James E. and Pfallzgraff. Jr., Contending theories of International Relations New York, Harper and Row,

27 2.7 SUGGESTED READING 1. Ofaegbu, Roy, Foundation course in International Relations for African University London George Allen and Unwin,

28 STUDY SESSION 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS NIGERIAN FOREIGN POLICY INTRODUCTION 3.1 LEARNING OUTCOME 3.2 IN-TEXT IN-TEXT QUESTION IN-TEXT ANSWER 3.3 ACTIVITY 3.4 SUMMARY 3.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 3.6 REFERENCE 3.7 SUGGESTED READING INTRODUCTION This topic focuses on the history of the formulation and implementation of Nigeria s foreign policy over the years. It particularly attempts a definition of foreign policy; looks at the theoretical basis of Nigerian foreign policy; the domestic environment of Nigerian foreign policy; the implementing mechanism and examples of Nigerian foreign policy implementation under the various regimes since independence. 17

29 3.1 LEARNING OUTCOME At the end of the study unit, the student should be able to: i. Explain what is foreign policy. ii. iii. Know the theoretical basis of Nigeria s foreign policy. How foreign policy are formulated and implemented. 3.2 IN-TEXT NIGERIAN FOREIGN POLICY This lecture focuses on the history of the formulation and implementation of Nigeria s foreign policy over the years. It particularly attempts a definition of foreign policy; looks at the theoretical basis of Nigerian foreign policy; the domestic environment of Nigeria s foreign policy; the implementing mechanism; and examples of Nigeria s foreign policy implementation under the various regimes since independence. Definition Foreign policy, again refers to the policy of a sovereign state in its interaction with other sovereign states in the international system. Foreign policy is also the actual or intended course of action by a country in the pursuit of its national interests, goals and objectives within the context of other sectors in the international system. It is therefore the actions of a country towards the 18

30 external environment or actions a country takes in its relationship with other nations in international politics. Theoretical Basis of Nigeria s Foreign Policy Scholars believe that Nigeria s foreign policy has theoretically been based on the Realist or power school of thought. Realism holds that power struggle among states is unavoidable as they pursue their mutually conflicting national interests in an interdependent world. That is to say, the use of power to achieve a nation s foreign policy goals and objectives has the practice in Nigeria s foreign policy. However, other scholars observe that Nigeria has also used idealism which encourage the use of diplomacy in pursuing foreign policy goals. The Domestic Environment of Nigeria s Foreign Policy The domestic environment of Nigeria s foreign policy include, the strength of the economy, the military institution, political stability, quality of national leadership etc. Nigeria s foreign policy has been conducted on the assumption that the economy is strong (or the nation is rich), and the military institution is also powerful. But in reality the economy has only been potentially strong. The political system has not been stable especially with coups and coups d tate; electoral violence, and ethno-religious crises. The large income from oil revenues provides the semblance of strength. 19

31 Foreign Policy Implementation During the colonial period the British were responsible for Nigeria s foreign policy, that is, as a colonial master it decided on matters of Nigeria s foreign policy. However, after independence in 1960 the newly elected Tafawa Balewa regime took over the implementation of Nigeria s foreign policy. Since then, the implementing mechanisms have been, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, head by the Minister. The Ministry makes and implements foreign policy. Other national agencies such as the National Institute for International Affairs (NIIA) Lagos and the National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (NIPSS), Kuru, Jos also contribute to policy making on foreign affairs. The Abubakar Tafawa Balewa regime presumably adopted the realist or rationalist approach to foreign policy, that is, to pursue foreign policy based on power and on domestic and international realities. Consequently, the famous Balewa Doctrine was issued on October 7, 1960 by the Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, on the occassion of Nigeria s admission to the United Nations Organisation. Nigeria foreign policy objectives were identified as: a) the defense of Nigeria s sovereignty, territorial integrity and national independence b) the creation of necessary economic, political, social and cultural conditions to secure the independence of Nigeria and other African countries 20

32 c) promotion of the rights of all black people and others under colonial rule and apartheid. d) promotion of African Unity e) promotion of international peace and cooperation and mutual respect and equality for all people s of the world f) Non-partisanship in East-West ideological disputes and freedom of association and action in the international system. However, in reality Nigeria s foreign policy under Balewa was pro-west and anti-east or communism. Under the Gowon regime Nigeria s foreign policy became more balanced. Diplomatic relations were established with communist countries which assisted Nigeria during the Gulf war, especially Russia. Gowon also continued with the fight against colonialism, racism and apartheid in Africa, and other parts of the world. Nigeria became a more active member of the Nonaligned Movement (NAM) and the U.N.O. The Murtala/Obasanjo regime pursued a diplomatic foreign policy for Nigeria which earned the country respect. Murtala rejected American orders on the Angolan Gulf war and war of independence. He said Africa had come of age and will no longer take dictation from any country big or small. Nigeria therefore assisted the MPLA, a communist party against UNITA and CIA sponsored party. The war against racism and apartheid was intensified. Nigeria became the Giant of Africa and big brother in West Africa. 21

33 The Babangida regime introduced a new idea in Nigeria s foreign policy, that is economic diplomacy and peace-keeping operations in West Africa. Economic diplomacy was aimed at attracting foreign investment and technology to Nigeria. Peace-keeping operations was aimed at protecting Nigeria s security in the West African subregion. Nigerian soldiers and policemen were therefore sent to Sierra Leone and Liberia. The emphasis on economic diplomacy has been sustained by most regimes then. Today Nigeria s foreign policy under Good Luck Jonathan is focus on economic diplomacy. The need for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in order to grow the economy and create employment opportunities is the key emphasis in our foreign policy. Nigeria s aim is to belong to the G20 group through vision 20: Nigeria also continues to be the champion of African unity and black freedom IN-TEXT QUESTION What were the foreign policy objectives of Nigeria on admission to the United Nations Organization? IN-TEXT ANSWER follows: The Nigeria foreign policy objectives on admission to the U.N.O. were as 22

34 a) The defense of Nigeria s sovereignty, territorial integrity and national Independence. b) The creation of necessary economic, political, social and cultural conditions to secure the independence of Nigeria and other African countries. c) Promotion of the right of all black people and others under colonial rule and apartheid. d) Promotion of African unity. e) promotion of international peace and cooperation and mutual respect and equality for all peoples of the world. f) Non-partisanship in East west Ideological disputes and freedom of association and action in the international system. 3.3 ACTIVITY Activity Timing: 5 minutes Activity Text: Meet a colleague and outline the theoretical basis of Nigeria s foreign policy. 23

35 3.4 SUMMARY The course discusses the phenomena of Nigeria s foreign policy. Equally discussed are - Definition of foreign policy; Theoretical basis of Nigeria s foreign policy, the domestic environment of Nigerian foreign policy and foreign policy implementation by the various regimes in Nigeria. 3.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION i. Define the term Foreign Policy. 3.6 REFERENCE 1. Rouke, John T., International politics on the world stage U.S.A. McGraw Hill/Dushkin. 3.7 SUGGESTED READING 1. Sissinger, Henry, Diplomacy. New York, Simon and Schuster, Akinyemi, A. B. (et al), Nigeria since Independence, The first 25 years, Vol.x International Relations, Ibadan, Educational Books,

36 STUDY SESSION 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO) INTRODUCTION 4.1 LEARNING OUTCOME 4.2 IN-TEXT IN-TEXT QUESTION IN-TEXT ANSWER 4.3 ACTIVITY 4.4 SUMMARY 4.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 4.6 REFERENCE 4.7 SUGGESTED READING INTRODUCTION The United Nations came into existence in 1945 in the declaration by the United Nations draft proposal for the new organization which was prepared under the auspices of the four sponsoring powers - The United States, United Kingdom, USSR and China at a conference held at Dumberton Oaks, near Washington. 25

37 4.1 LEARNING OUTCOME At the end of the study unit, the student should be able to: i. Know the historical origin of the United Nations Organization. ii. iii. How the United Nations operations or functions. Identify some of the institutions that made up the organization. 4.2 IN-TEXT THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO) Historically the U. N. began as a grand-alliance for fighting the Axis and Japan. The principles of the Atlantic Charter were reaffirmed by the twenty -Six (26) allied states. On 1 st January, 1942 the Declaration by the U. N : draft proposals for the new organisation were prepared under the auspices of the four sponsoring powers (The U. S., U. K, USSR and China) at conferences held at Dumberton Oaks, near Washington, in the autumn of They reached agreement on important Matters except Voting Procedure and that was settled by the Big three ) at Yalta in February, The draft Charter was then discussed, modified, improved and finally signed by representatives of fifty (50) states at the San Francisco conference in April-June They turned the U. N from a war time alliance into a permanent peace time organization for general inter national cooperation Thus it formally came into full force on 24, October

38 The new organization differed fundamentally from the League of Nations, in that both the United States and the Soviet Union were in it from the start, and therefore the real balance of power in the world was reflected in its structure. The functions and duties of the organization was mostly carried out under the auspices of the General Assembly and the Security Council. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY: Just like the league of Nations, the U. N. too have a general assembly, in which all member states enjoyed equal representation and equal voting power. The functions of this assembly were: to debate matters of common concern, and all important decisions had to be taken by a majority of atleast 2/3 of the member present through voting. Thus, it is important to know that decisions at the assembly were conducted by the head of states or head of governments of all the member states. Still, the general assembly operates on the basis of equality, with one vote allowed to each member. It meets annually, with one vote allowed to each member. Much of its works is done through Committees and is carried on in the five official languages of the organization - English, Russian, French, Chinese and Spanish. THE SECURITY COUNCIL: The Security Council composed partly of all the great powers as permanent members and partly of six other member states elected to it in two-years rotations by the Assembly. Article 24 confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international 27

39 peace and security and agree that in carrying its duties under this responsibility the security council acts on their behalf. Each of the eleven members of the Security Council has one vote. On procedural matters an affirmative vote of any seven members is enough. On all other matters, decision require an affirmative vote of seven members including the concurring votes of the five permanent members. This gives each of the great powers as virtual veto over all major decisions. It also makes it necessary even when all five great powers are in agreement for them to gain the support of at least two out of the six non-permanent members. Thus, the power of veto, highly valued by each of the great powers, can be condemed as giving large powers an undue importance vis-a-vis smaller nations and as rendering the security council ineffective for taking any action against aggression by a major power. This certainly gives each great power an absolute veto against the admission of new members, since recommendations for admission lie with the Security Council. The powers repeatedly used this veto and thereby delayed the grow of the U.N. towards universality. THE SECRETARIAT: The secretariat operates in a similar way to the league. The Secretary-General is recommended by the Security Council and appointed by the General Assembly for a term of five years, during which time they control the secretariat and may bring before the security council matters which threaten international peace. Differences among the great powers have 28

40 sometimes led to difficulties in choosing a Secretary General. But all the Secretaries-General have been chosen from the lesser powers. SPECIALISED AGENCIES Article 55 of its charter committed the U. N. to promote higher standards of living, full employment and conditions of economic and social progress and development; solution of international economic, social health and related problems; and international cultural and educational cooperation, and universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion. Acknowledging that this formidable series of tasks would call for a variety of suitable organizations, it was added in Article 57, that the various specialize agencies established by inter-governmental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, shall be brought into relationship with the U.N.. The Economic and Social Council (UNESCO) of the U.N., the Council s Commission and specialized agencies, the Trusteeship council, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the Secretariat are primarily concerned with work in these field IN-TEXT QUESTION How does the General Assembly operate in the discharge of its functions? 29

41 4.2.2 IN-TEXT ANSWER The General Assembly debates matters of common concern and all important decision are taken by 2/3 majority of the members present through voting. Decisions at the assembly were conducted by the head of governments of all the member states. The General Assembly also operate on the basis of equality. It meets annually, with one vote allowed to each member and much of its works are done through committees and are carried out in the five official language of the organization. Such as English, French, Spanish, Chinese and Russian. 4.3 ACTIVITY Activity Timing: 5 minutes Activity Text: Meet a colleague and assess the composition of the security council of United Nations Organisation. 4.4 SUMMARY The topic traces the historical origin of the United Nations as an organization and equally the functions and duties of the new organization were discussed too. This notwithstanding, some of the important institutions that made up the organization were identified. 30

42 4.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION i. How does the United Nations carry out its duties. ii. Write short note on the following: a. General Assembly b. Security Council c. Secretariat. 4.6 REFERENCE 1. Hartman, Frederick H, The Relation of Nations, (Sixth Edition) London, Macmillan, SUGGESTED READING 1. Morgenthau, Hans, J, Politics among Nations, Chicago,

43 STUDY SESSION 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS THE COLD WAR INTRODUCTION 5.1 LEARNING OUTCOME 5.2 IN-TEXT IN-TEXT QUESTION IN-TEXT ANSWER 5.3 ACTIVITY 5.4 SUMMARY 5.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 5.6 REFERENCE 5.7 SUGGESTED READING INTRODUCTION Cold war was the name normally given to the period of intense ideological conflict or hostility between the United state and the Soviet Union in the period after the second world war. The study was mainly concern with the nature of this ideological rivalry and the impact of this on international relations. 32

44 5.1 LEARNING OUTCOME It is assumed that at the end of this study unit, the student should he able to: i. Define the term cold war and its manifestation. ii. Explain the nature and causes of the ideological hostility between the two blocks (East and West). iii. Outline the consequences of this rivalry or clashes on international relations. 5.2 IN-TEXT THE COLD WAR Cold war was the name normally given to the period of intense ideological conflicts or hostility between the United States and the Soviet Union in the period after the second world war. Cold war was a description of the series of mounting tensions between the communist or socialist east, championed by the Soviet Union and the capitalist or democratic west headed by the U.S. which dominated the international scene during these post war years. Relations between the two powers were relations of constant manouvers for advantage and almost incessant hostility. These hostilities were governed by positive aims and strategies like military campaigns and they involved tactical skirmishes, careful deployment of forces, surprise attacks and improvised counter-attacks, in which 33

45 each side incurred serious losses or made considerable gains. The persistence of such tensions throughout the 1950 s meant that internal and international affairs become more inseparably and intricately interrelated than ever before. Manifestation The first international skirmishes took place during the negotiation of p eace treaties with the lesser enemy countries of Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungry and Finland, at the peace-conference of Paris in the late summer of The delegates of twenty-one nations, there assembled into the first clear sign of intransigent enmity between the Soviet Union and the Western powers. Thus, the first pitched battle between the two camps, was the Greek civil war which brokeout again in 1947; the height of the battle in Europe was reached inevitably, in Germany itself in l948 and the struggle first assumed global proportions in the war in Korea in Thereafter the decade of the l950s was one of repeated tussles, overshadowed increasingly by the competition of communist or socialist East and the capitalist or democratic west for the support of the un committed peoples of Asia and the new insurgent nationalities of Africa and Latin America whom constituted the non alignment. The cold war from 1947 onwards is marked by the Berlin Blockade crisis of , the victory of Mao s Red Army over the American backed Nationalist government in China in 1949, the Korea war in 1950, the Soviet Military occupation of Hungry in 1956, Soviet pressure on Berlin from 1958 culminating in the Berlin wall crisis of 1961 and the Cuban missile crisis of 34

46 1962. During this period, the Americans consolidated their new role as leader of the west: they offered assistance to the economics of the Western European states through the Marshall plan of The Impact of Cold War The cold war had affected in no small way the conduct of relations among sovereign states during 1950s to For example the period saw the transition from multi polarism to biopolarism interms of international politics. Equally important, during this period, Western nations formerly allied themselves to an emerging alliance of western European states in the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) of 1949; took the lead in establishing the federal republic of Germany from the three western zones of occupation in 1949 and in the early 1950 s worked for the rearmament of this new state and its full membership of NATO in On the eastern part, the Soviet Union proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany as the German Democratic Republic in 1949 and established a formal alliance with its Eastern European partners in 1955 by signing the War Saw pact treaty organization. This notwithstanding, throughout this period, the world witnessed a dramatic arm race, more than during the two world wars. Thus throughout this period, the two sides also pursued politicies of nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons with which they could strike the homeland of the other. 35

47 After the Cuban missile crisis, relations improved, thus agreements were concluded to normalize the situation in Europe, particularly the Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin in By the mid-1970s the cold war in its original term can be said to have died away. The arms race between East and West had all the characteristic of a classic action-reaction model of international conflict in which each side reacts to an earlier step by the other side. By 1987, the two super powers had moved decisively back towards agreement and by Soviet power itself had crumbled. The united state and Russia agreement to work together against terrorism after the September 11, 2001, mark the most dramatic change in their relations since the start of the cold war IN-TEXT QUESTION What do you understand by the phrase cold war? IN-TEXT ANSWER The cold war, the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. The cold war was waged on political, economic and propaganda fronts. Although the rivalry did not result in actual war between the two countries it did lead to a number of smaller wars. In other words, cold war is the name given to the relationship that developed primarily between the USA and the USSR after the World War II. 36

48 5.3 ACTIVITY Activity Timing: 5 minutes Activity Text: Meet a colleague and discuss on manifestation of cold war. 5.4 SUMMARY The topic treated the following: a. Definition of the term cold war; b. Manifestation of cold war; c. Causes and impact of cold war. 5.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION i. Discuss the impact of cold war. 5.6 REFERENCE 1. Huntington Samuel P, Clash civilizations and the making of a New York, the Free press, SUGGESTED READING 1. Rouke, John, T, Taking: Clashing views on controversial issues in politics (Eleventh edition) Lowa, the McGraw-Hill company,