Chapter 19: U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy:

Transcription

1 Chapter 19: U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy: o CHAPTER 19.1 Roots of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy. Trace the evolution of U.S. foreign and defense policy.

2 1Th_5:3 For when they shall say, Peace and safety; then sudden destruction cometh upon them, as travail upon a woman with child; and they shall not escape.

3 Introduction: o Foreign and defense policy are two separate areas of policy making. o Foreign policy relates to how one country referred to as a state. o Builds relationships with other countries in order to safeguard its national interest.

4 Defense Policy: o Is comprised of the strategies that a country uses to protect itself from its enemies. o However, foreign and defense policy are interrelated. o Many problems for which countries use defense policy are better addressed using well-planned foreign policy. o A failure to make good foreign policy can necessitate the use of defense policy.

5 Introduction: o Like domestic and economic policies, U.S. foreign and defense policy has evolved. o Today the U.S. is a powerful and influential presence on the world stage. o But when the U.S. was founded it was a weak country. o On the margins of world affairs with a uncertain future.

6 Historical Roots o The Historical roots of American foreign and defense policy. o Are found in the period leading up to WWII when the U.S. emerged as a world power.

7 Four Phases: o The Early Republic o The United States as an emerging power. o World War I o Interwar period (between WWI and II).

8 Isolationism in the Early republic: o After American independence it faced the same foreign policy of Colonial America. o Committed to a safe course between the two feuding giants of world politics (Britain and France). o Some of the framers thought it best to make an alliance with one of these two powers. o Hamilton was pro-british foreign policy. o Jefferson was pro-french foreign policy.

9 Isolationism in the Early republic: o For other leaders, the best course of action was one of neutrality. o Relative isolationism or a national policy of avoiding participating in foreign affairs. o President Washington articulated the neutrality position most forcefully. o In his Farewell Address, he called for a policy that avoided permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.

10 Isolationism in the Early republic: o Dual goals of isolationism and neutrality did not mean the U.S. did not ignore international conflicts. o The U.S. fought in a undeclared naval war in the 1790s. o With France because France was seizing U.S. ships trading with its enemies. o The U.S. fought the Barbary Wars against North African Barbary States. o Which had captured ships and held sailors for ransom.

11 Isolationism in the Early republic: o In the early 1800s the British naval practice of impressment (stopping ships to seize suspected deserters of the Royal Navy). o Led Congress to pass the Embargo Act in o Prevented U.S. ships from leaving for foreign ports without the approval of the federal government.

12 Isolationism in the Early republic: o The Embargo Act was generally unsuccessful. o It caused economic hardships for U.S. merchants and contributed to the War of o When Napoleon was defeated and Europe was at peace. o The U.S. for the first time in two decades was afraid that European powers would expand to the Western Hemisphere.

13 Monroe Doctrine (1823) o To prevent European expansion to the Western Hemisphere. o It warned European states that the U.S. would view any attempt on their part to expand to the western hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. o It also promised to continue the American policy of noninterference in the internal concerns of European powers.

14 Trade Policy and Commerce: o Neutrality led to the free trade. o America s cornerstone guided principles was: o Reciprocity o Most favored nation status.

15 Reciprocity: o Meant that the U.S. government treated foreign traders in the same way. o That foreign countries treated American traders.

16 Most Favored Nation Status: o Guaranteed that a country s imports into the U.S. would be given the lowest possible tariffs. o Or taxes on imported goods.

17 Trade Policy and Commerce: o Increased global trade and competition following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. o Led the U.S. to abandon the policies of reciprocity and most favored nation status.

18 American System (1816) o Adopted by Congress. o Of trade protection by adding increasingly higher tariffs. o Sometimes as high as 100 percent of the value of the goods being imported. o High protectionist tariffs remained the American norm into the twentieth century.

19 Expansion and Manifest Destiny: o Is the summary phrase used to capture the logic behind American continental expansion. o During the Nineteenth Century, America expanded by taking lands from Native Americans. o Purchased land from the French, Spanish, and Russians. o Went to war with Mexico.

20 Expansion and Manifest Destiny: o According to this idea, the U.S. had divinely mandated obligation to expand across North America to the Pacific. o Overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development for our multiplying millions. o Manifest destiny was viewed as natural and inevitable.

21 Dominance over the Western Hemisphere: o The twentieth Century began with the revision of the Monroe Doctrine. o In what became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. o President Teddy Roosevelt asserted in 1904 that it was the responsibility of the U.S. to assure stability in Latin America and the Caribbean.

22 Roosevelt Corollary: o In accordance with this role, the U.S. would punish wrongdoing and establish order in these nations. o When their own governments were incapable of doing so. o Roosevelt sent troops to Latin America to stabilize the region and maintain U.S. influence. o He helped orchestrate independence of Panama from Columbia. o Which led to the construction of the Panama Canal.

23 Dollar Diplomacy: o Program instituted by William Taft. o Designed to make the U.S. the banker of Latin America. o To bring prosperity to both the local population and American investors.

24 Spanish-American War (1898) o Led America to take control over the Philippines. o As a result the U.S. had a major stake in Asian affairs, specifically China. o They issued the Open Door Notes to Russia, Germany, and Great Britain. o Calling upon them not to discriminate against other investors in their spheres of influence including China.

25 Interest in Asia: o Roosevelt also sought to contain Japan through a series of international agreements. o The most notable of these was the Taft-Katsura Agreement of o This act recognized Japanese preeminence over Korea. o In return for a Japanese agreement to respect American control over the Philippines and Hawaii.

26 World War I and the League of Nations: o When World War I broke out, the U.S. sought to maintain neutrality. o German unrestricted submarine warfare sinking several American ships led it to war. o U.S. entered the war as a Associated power. o Rather than a allied power in an attempt to maintain some distance between Europe.

27 World War I: The Fourteen Points o Wilson also put forward a statement of American war aims. o This called for the creation of a League of Nations at the conclusion of the war. o At the Paris Peace conference Wilson succeeded of getting the League of Nations established. o Its guiding principle was collective security. o The idea that an attack on one country is an attack on all countries.

28 World War I: o Wilson failed to get support for the treaty in the U.S. o Continued isolationist sentiments defeated the Treaty of Versailles in the Senate. o The U.S. never joined the League.

29 The Interwar Years: o The period between the two world wars saw U.S. foreign policy dominated by two issues: o Disarmament o Isolationism.

30 Disarmament: o In 1920, isolationists Senator William Borah offered a resolution. o To invite Britain and Japan to an arms limitation conference. o The result was the 1921 Washington Conference, which left a mixed legacy. o It did not produce lasting security in the far east or end arms races. o It did make a shift in the global balance of power with two of the main powers outside of Europe (U.S. and Japan).

31 The Interwar Years: Kellogg-Briand Pact o Support for disarmament led to the signing of this pact. o The U.S. the great European powers, and Japan agreed to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. o To resolve their disputes by peaceful means. o The treaty however did not stop the U.S. from taking defensive actions. o Such as building new naval vessels.

32 The Interwar Years: o There was hardening isolationist sentiment within the United States. o This sentiment led Congress to increase tariffs to protects U.S. industry from foreign competition.

33 The Interwar Years: Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (1930) o Other countries responded by raising their tariffs. o The impact that higher tariffs in conjunction with the Great Depression had on world trade was dramatic.

34 The Interwar Years: o Belief in isolationism also led to the passage of four neutrality acts in the 1930s. o Among the core provisions were arms embargoes. o Prohibition on loans to countries involved in international conflicts.

35 The Interwar Years: o After Britain and France declared war on Nazi Germany in the late 1930s. o President Roosevelt was able to soften bans. o To allow Great Britain to obtain American weapons in return for allowing the U.S. to lease British military bases.

36 Chapter 19:2 U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy: o Explain that developments that led to the rise of the United States as a world power.

37 Jer_6:14 They have healed also the hurt of the daughter of my people slightly, saying, Peace, peace; when there is no peace.

38 Introduction: Post WWII o The status of the U.S. as a world power. o Cemented by its entry into a subsequent victory in WWII.

39 Three Distinct Periods: Post WWII o The Cold War o Détente o The post-cold War period. o We are currently through the ongoing war on terrorism.

40 World War II and its Aftermath: o WWII was a watershed in U.S. foreign policy. o Prior to the war, isolationists sentiment dominated American thinking on world politics. o But after it, internationalists emerged triumphant. o Although the U.S. rejected membership in the League of Nations. o It embraced joining the United Nations (UN).

41 World War II and its Aftermath: o FDR took an activist role in WWII diplomacy. o Holding or attending eighteen major conferences during and after the war. o The best known being the Yalta Conference held in Feb o The major focus of Yalta was the future of Poland and Germany.

42 World War II and its Aftermath: o The UN also has its roots in this conference. o The UN was to be a means by which Big Three allies (U.S., Great Britain, and Soviet Union). o Continue their wartime cooperation and provide for the security of all states.

43 World War II and its Aftermath: o Believing that protectionist trade policies had led to the rise of dictators and the beginning of WWII. o The U.S. moved to create an additional set of international economic organizations. o To encourage and manage trade. o Collectively they came to be known as the Brettton Woods System. o After Bretton Woods, NH where negotiations were held.

44 World War II and its Aftermath: o The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created. o To stabilize international currency transactions. o The World Bank was set up to help the world recover from the destruction of WWII. o By providing loans for large economic development projects.

45 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) o Its mission was to help facilitate international trade negotiations and promote free trade. o This process occurred through negotiating rounds. o Or multiyear international conferences. o GATT ultimately evolved into the World Trade Organization (WTO).

46 The Cold War and Containment: o The cold war was the defining feature of the international system. o From the end of WWII in 1945 until the fall of the Berlin Wall in o It was a tense competition between the Western powers and the Communist bloc states. o It was intense, but the Cold War never escalated into direct and open warfare.

47 The Cold War and Containment: o American foreign policy during the Cold War never escalated into direct and open warfare. o American foreign policy during the Cold War, was organized around two key components.

48 The Cold War and Containment: o The first was containment. o The main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union. o Must be long-term patient but firm and vigilant containment. o Of Russian expansionist tendencies.

49 Deterrence: o During the 1950s and 1960s, the United States and Soviet Union developed larger nuclear arsenals. o Stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction on either side of the conflict. o Assured that both sides would prevent one another from actually deploying their arsenals.

50 Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) o They created a condition of mutual assured destruction (MAD). o Although the Cold War began in Europe it quickly became a global conflict.

51 The Marshall Plan: o Among the first Cold War trouble spots were Greece and Turkey. o Both of which came under pressure from communists. o In February 1947, Great Britain informed the U.S. that it could no longer afford to protect Greece and Turkey.

52 Truman Doctrine: o Truman addressed congress and appealed that free peoples who resist subjugation should be supported. o Truman doctrine, the policy led the United States to provide economic assistance. o Military aid to countries fighting against Communist revolutions or political pressure.

53 The Marshall Plan: o Announced three months after Truman s address by Secretary of State George Marshall. o That the U.S. would help finance Europe s economic recovery. o The U.S. took major action consistent with this political worldview. o All European states were invited to participate in the drafting of a European collective recovery plan.

54 The Marshall Plan: o Importantly the Soviet Union chose not to participate in this program. o Prevented Eastern European states from joining as well. o This effectively served to divide postwar Europe into two parts.

55 NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION: o This alliance was the first peacetime military treaty joined by the U.S. o Was a collective security pact between the U.S. and Western Europe.

56 NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (1949): o This alliance was the first peacetime military treaty joined by the U.S. o Was a collective security pact between the U.S. and Western Europe. o It reinforced the economic partition of Europe into a military one. o Soviet Union and Eastern Europe responded with the WARSAW Pact.

57 The Cold War in Latin America: (1950s and 1960s o Cold War Competition between the U.S. and Soviet Union moved to Latin America. o Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba in o President Eisenhower approved a plan of sending a small group of Cuban exiles back to Cuba to conduct an insurgency against Castro.

58 The Cold War in Latin America: o This plan evolved into the Bay of Pigs. o An incident where JFK decided not to provide air support to the invading Cuban exiles. o Fearing a greater outside escalation. o The exiles were routed by superior Cuban forces.

59 The Cold War in Latin America: o This led to the U.S. and the Soviet Union to be locked into a test of wills. o When it was discovered that missiles were discovered on the coast of Cuba. o This led to the Cuban missile crisis. o A 1962 confrontation over the deployment of ballistic missiles in Cuba. o That nearly came to a war between the United States and the Soviet Union.

60 The Cold War in Latin America: o A positive result of this crisis was a series of arms control efforts. o The U.S. and the Soviet Union set up the hot line to permit secure and direct communication between two nations. o The same year, the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed limiting the test of nuclear weapons. o In 1968, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (preventing the spread of such armaments) was approved.

61 The Vietnam War: o America s involvement in Vietnam began in the 1950s after the end of World War II. o After France attempted to reassert their colonial control over the nation and asked the U.S. for help. o Eisenhower provided financial support but no troops.

62 The Vietnam War: o The French were defeated. o At the Geneva Peace Accords, Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel. o With communist forces controlling the North and pro-western forces the South. o A scheduled election in 1956 was cancelled by the South and with support with the U.S. o North Vietnam began a military campaign to unify the nation.

63 The Vietnam War: o In the 1960s, President Johnson Americanized the war with a huge commitment of military troops. o To the region resulting in large scale casualties. o Public opinion turned against the war. o In the 1970s, President Nixon sought a stage for American withdrawal. o With a policy called Vietnamization. o Where the South Vietnamese Army would do the bulk of the fighting.

64 The Vietnam War: o The U.S. would invade Cambodia to clean out North Vietnamese sanctuaries. o Increased bombing of North Vietnam. o The strategy failed. o In spring 1972, North Vietnam attacked the South. o Ultimately the U.S. forces left in 1973 following the Paris Peace Agreement. o In April 1975 South Vietnam fell.

65 Détente and Human Rights: o The improvement in U.S.-Soviet Relations. o When Nixon became president he declared it was time to move from confrontation to negotiation in relation to the Soviet Union. o At its center was a series of negotiations that sought to use linked rewards and punishments. o Rather than military power to contain the Soviet Union.

66 Détente and Human Rights: o Another key element of détente was improved relations with China. o Politicians at the time felt that improved Chinese relations would give the U.S. a potential ally against the Soviet Union. o Nixon stunned the world by recognizing China and normalizing relations with the country.

67 Détente and Human Rights: o The greatest success of détente was in the area of arms control. o With the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and SALT II). o The greatest failure was an inability to establish agreed-upon rules to govern competition. o In the developing world particularly Africa and the Middle East. o Both sides used covert operations for their respective agendas to influence the politics of these nations.

68 Détente and Human Rights: o When Jimmy Carter became president in o Changed the emphasis of American foreign policy from the management of the Cold War to the promotion of human rights. o That is the protection of people s basic freedom and needs. o The dictators that the U.S. relied upon to contain Communism were a major target for Carter s policies.

69 Détente and Human Rights: o Among these was the Shah of Iran. o Where a popular unrest and the takeover of a fundamentalists Islamic government overran the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. o The embassy staff was held captive. o The hostages were not released until the day that Carter left office.

70 Reagan Doctrine: o President Reagan replaced Carter and promised to reestablish American credibility. o Restore American military strength. o The Reagan administration s committed to end communism. o By providing military assistance to anti-communist groups (Reagan Doctrine).

71 Reagan Doctrine: o Two prominent examples of supporting anti- Communist forces in Nicaragua and Afghanistan. o Reagan supported an insurgency group called the Contras. o To battle the pro-leftist Sandinista government. o Money from unauthorized sale of weapons to Iran which was known as the Iran-Contra Affair. o U.S. also supported an insurgency in Soviet occupied Afghanistan arming them with weapons.

72 The Post-Cold War World: o The Cold War effectively ended in o With the fall of Communism in the Soviet Union. o George Bush was president. o On June 4, 1989, Chinese troops attacked demonstrators on Tiananmen Square, killing hundreds of people.

73 The Post-Cold War World: o Bush administration suspended political contact. o Imposed economic sanctions. o Secretly sent a delegation to China. o To make sure that U.S. security and economic interests were not permanently harmed.

74 The Post-Cold War World: o The defining moment of the Bush administrations foreign policy was the Persian Gulf War. o That was brought on by Iraq s invasion of Kuwait in August o Bush sent military forces to drive the Iraqis out of Kuwait.

75 Clinton: o Clinton succeeded Bush in o Committed to actively promote the expansion of democracy and free markets through out the world (enlargement ). o There are two main types of enlargement: o Economic and Democratic.

76 Clinton: o Economic enlargement was easier to accomplish. o Clinton secured approval of North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) o Free movements of goods and services in North America among other things.

77 The Post-Cold War World: o Democratic enlargement proved more difficult. o Was driven off the agenda by the need to deal with three failed States. o Somalia led to the withdrawal of U.S. forces after 18 American soldiers were killed.

78 The Post-Cold War World: o Yugoslavia where three ethnic factions began to kill one another. o Commit genocide called ethnic cleansing. o Led to both military involvement and a political solution with the Dayton Accords.

79 The Post-Cold War World: o When the democratically elected president was overthrown in Haiti. o The U.S. planned to invade Haiti after thousands took to sea to escape the island to the U.S. o But with the help of President Carter, arranged for Aristide to return to power. o Military action was avoided.

80 The War on Terrorism: o During the 2000 presidential election, George W. Bush was highly critical of President Clinton s foreign policy. o Bush did not want the U.S. to frequently intervene in humanitarian crisis.

81 The War on Terrorism: o At first the Bush administration largely adhered to this agenda. o Distanced itself from Clinton s foreign policy. o The administration rejected the international global warming treaty known as the Koyoto Protocol. o Withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. o Refused to participate in the formation of the International Criminal Court.

82 The War on Terrorism: o But after the 9-11 attacks the administration declared a global war on terrorism. o To weed out terrorist operatives throughout the world. o The U.S. invaded Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban government and to capture Osama Bin Landen.

83 The War on Terrorism: o Bush later identified Iraq as part of the Axis of evil that threatened American security interests. o American military forces invade Iraq to depose of dictator Saddam Hussein. o But did not plan for a long or contested occupation on the ground where American casualties mounted. o Today because of sectarian violence the U.S. is still involved with the ISIS crisis.

84 Chapter 19:3 U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy: o 19.3: Covering the shape of foreign and defense policy decision making.

85 Pro_20:18 Every purpose is established by counsel: and with good advice make war.

86 Introduction: o The basic structure of foreign and defense policy decision making is laid out in the Constitution. o The executive branch is the most powerful branch of government. o In formulation and implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy.

87 Introduction: o Congress also influences and shapes policy. o Through oversight, treaties, appointments, appropriations, and the War Powers Act. o Interest groups such as the military-industrial complex also play an important role.

88 CLASS ACTIVITY o What powers are given to the President and Congress have in regards to foreign and defense policy?

89 The Constitution: o When the framers of the U.S. Constitution met in Philadelphia in o They wanted a stronger national government to keep the U.S. out of European affairs. o To keep Europe out of American affairs. o As a result, the power to formulate and implement foreign policy. o Was given to the national government and not to the states.

90 The Constitution: o Many foreign and military powers not enumerated in the Constitution were accorded to the national government. o The Framers of the Constitution divided national authority for foreign and military policy functions. o Between the president and Congress. o The framers named the president commander in chief of the armed forces. o But gave Congress power to fund the army and navy and to declare war.

91 The Constitution: o The president has authority to negotiate and sign treaties. o But those agreements only take effect after the Senate ratifies them by a twothirds majority. o The president appoints ambassadors and other key foreign and military affairs officials. o But the Senate grants advice and a majority of senators must given them consent to nominees.

92 The Constitution: o The Constitution provides a starting point. o For understanding the way in which the President, Congress and the Supreme Court come through to make U.S. foreign policy. o It does not however provide the final word on how they will interact.

93 Congress Declared War (5 Times) o War of 1812 o Spanish-American War o The Mexican War o World War I o World War II o But most accounts the U.S. has engaged in more than 125 wars.

94 The Executive Branch: o Is the central place for creating and implementing U.S. Foreign and defense policy. o Within the Executive Branch the president is the most important individual. o Among executive departments, the Department of State is primarily responsible for foreign, diplomatic activity. o Department of Defense for military policy.

95 The Executive Branch: o Other executive agencies such as the National Security Council. o The Joints Chief of Staff. o The Central Intelligence Agency provide additional resources for the president. o The Department of Homeland Security has a role to play in foreign and defense policy making.

96 The President: o The president is preeminent in foreign and defense policy. o Presidents have greater access to and control over information than any other government official or agency. o The president alone can act with little fear with his actions will be countermanded.

97 The President: o Presidents have also come to increasingly rely on organizations and individuals within the White House. o To help them make foreign policy. o The most notable is the National Security Council (NSC) led by the National Security Advisor.

98 The President: o The NSC brings together key foreign policy actors. o From the Department of State and Defense, intelligence officials, military leaders, presidential advisors. o The organization s primary goal is to advise and assist the president on foreign and defense policy. o Particularly in crisis situations when speed in decision making is essential.

99 Department of State: o According to tradition, is the chief executive branch department responsible for formulation and implementation of U.S. foreign policy. o The State Department serves as linkage between foreign governments and U.S. policy makers. o A source of advice on how to deal with these problems.

100 Department of State: o The State Department must today navigate with the competing views of other departments. o Within the executive branch in regards to foreign policy. o The ambassador is often described as head of the country team. o That operates inside a U.S. embassy.

101 Department of State: o In the U.S. Embassy in Mexico, this means not only coordinating with the Department of State. o But also with the EPA, Defense Department, DEA, etc.

102 Department of Defense: o Is the chief executive branch department responsible for formulation and implementation of U.S. military policy. o Was formed after World War II. o When the War Department and the Navy Department were combined. o Into a central clearinghouse for military affairs. o Their voice in policy making is greatest in questions involving the use of military force.

103 Department of Defense: President Relies On o The (The military advisory body) Joint Chiefs of Staff. o This includes: o The Air force Chief of Staff. o Chief of naval operations. o Marine Commandant. o To give a unified voice on the concerns and needs of the military.

104 Department of Homeland Security: o This Cabinet department was created after 9/11. o Coordinates domestic security efforts. o Straddles the line between foreign and domestic policy making. o The department brought together twenty-two existing agencies. o Approximately thirty newly created agencies under a single department.

105 Department of Homeland Security: o Among key units is Transportation Security Administration (TSA). o The organization responsible for aviation security, o The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). o The primary federal disaster relief organization; o Customs and Border Protection. o The Coast Guard. o The Secret Service. o immigration services and enforcement.

106 The Intelligence Community: o Is a term used to describe the agencies of the U.S. government. o That are involved in the collection and analysis of information. o Counterintelligence (the protection of U.S. Intelligence) and covert action. o The head of the intelligence community is the Direction of National Intelligence (DNI). o This was created after o Before the head of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) held that position. o Also part of this department is the FBI and NSA.

107 Congress: o The Constitution gave Congress fewer responsibilities in foreign and defense policy than the president. o But the legislative branch plays a significant role in the policy process. o Congress is the second most important actor in shaping American foreign and defense policy.

108 Oversight: o The common method of congressional oversight is holding hearings. o Monitoring agency activities, as well as the content and conduct of U.S. policy. o Conducting congressional oversight by establishing reporting requirements.

109 Oversight: o Agencies are required to submit annual evaluations. o Except under exceptional circumstances, the president must notify congress in a timely fashion of CIA covert actions. o Congress routinely carries out committee hearings. o Monitoring agency activities as the content and conduct of U.S. foreign policy.

110 Treaties and Executive Agreements: o The Constitution gives the Senate explicit power to approve treaties. o But the Senate has rejected treaties only twenty times in U.S. History. o Presidents can avoid the treaty process by using executive agreements. o Which unlike treaties do not require Senate approval. o Prior to 1972, the president did not have to inform Congress of the text of these accords.

111 Treaties and Executive Agreements: o Although many executive agreements deal with routine foreign policy matters. o A great many also involve major military commitments on the part of the U.S.

112 Appointments: o Although the Constitution gives the president the power to appoint ambassadors, and other involved in foreign and defense policy. o It gives the Senate the responsibility to provide advice and consent on these appointments. o The Senate has not exercised this power in any systematic fashion.

113 Appointments: o It has given its approval to its nominees with little expertise largely on the basis of their party affiliation. o And contributions to presidential campaign funds. o It has also rejected otherwise qualified nominees because of objection to the president s foreign policies.

114 Appointments: o Presidents have long circumvented congressional approval. o By using and creating new positions not subject to Senate confirmation. o Most recent presidents have created policy czars to coordinate the administration's foreign policy in specific areas.

115 Appropriations: o Congress also shapes foreign and defense policy through its power to appropriate funds. o Its influence when the United States fights through its control of the budget. o Although the power to go to war is shared by the executive and legislative branches of government. o The power to appropriate funds belong to the legislature alone.

116 The War Powers Act (1973): o Tries to prevent future interventions overseas without specific congressional approval. o Under the act, the president is required to consult with Congress. o Before deploying American troops into hostile situations. o Under certain conditions, the president is required to report to Congress within forty-eight hours of deployment.

117 The War Powers Act: o A presidential report can trigger a sixty-day clock. o That requires congressional approval for any continued military involvement past the sixty-day window. o If Congress does not give explicit approval within sixty days. o The president then has thirty days to withdraw the troops.

118 The War Powers Act: o Under the act, the president can respond to an emergency such as rescuing endangered Americans. o But cannot engage in a prolonged struggle without congressional approval. o No president has recognized its constitutionality. o Nor has any president felt obligated to inform Congress of military action.

119 Judicial Branch: o Limited role in foreign policy. o Courts usually avoids clearly stating the functions of the executive and legislative functions in this area. o Regarded most disputes over foreign policy to be political in nature and not subject to judicial rulings.

120 Judicial Branch: o The Courts do at times determine the role for each branch. o When dispute arises in the realm of foreign policy. o The Court at times, step in to determine the appropriate role for each branch when a dispute arises in the realm of foreign policy. o Such cases most likely involve the extent of executive authority with respect to protecting the nation s security. o Just like Congress, the courts tend to be deferential to the president in times of war or threats to security.

121 Judicial Branch: o Just like Congress, the courts tend to be deferential to the president in times of war or threats to security. o The Supreme Court held that the powers of the president as sole commander in chief of the armed forces, authorized President Lincoln s deployment of troops without a declaration of war from Congress.

122 Judicial Branch: o In ex parte McCardle, the suspension of Habeas corpus initiated by the president in certain cases was constitutional. o Since the jurisdiction of the courts in such cases had been stripped by congress.

123 Judicial Branch: o WWII Japanese internment case, Korematsu v. United States (1944), the Supreme Court upheld the policy as constitutional. o Holding that it was not a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. o Nor a violation of the government s constitutional authority.

124 Judicial Branch: o U.S. response to the attacks in 9/11 resulted in several instances of judicial rulings on presidential powers. o The most significant of which been the Guantanamo Bay Detainment Center. o The courts have not been consistently deferential to the executive-the record has been mixed. o Ruling in favor for Habeas Corpus in some instances and against in other instances.

125 Judicial Branch: o Hamdan v. Rumsfield (2004), the court stated that the military tribunals set up to try detainees at Guantanamo could not proceed, since they did not conform to U.S. law. o Subsequently legislation, however, authorized the military tribunals, and the court has upheld this authority.

126 Interest Groups: o Also play a role in shaping foreign policy. o Business groups are the first type of interest groups that lobbies heavily on foreign policy issues. o Controversial is the lobbying carried out by defense industries, often in cooperation with the military. o These groups are identified as the military-industrial complex. o A term coined by Eisenhower.

127 Interest Groups: o Ethnic interest groups are heavily involved in Foreign Policy decision making. o Such as the American Israel Public Affairs Committee.

128 Interest Groups: o Foreign governments and companies are another organized interest lobbying in this area. o The most common concerns of foreign governments are acquiring foreign aid. o Preventing hostile legislation from being passed.

129 Interest Groups: o Ideological-Public interest groups are active in foreign policy lobbying. o Such as Amnesty International or Religious organizations. o In issues such as human rights and religious liberty.

130 Chapter 19:4 U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy: o Contemporary Challenge in Foreign and Defense Policy: o Identify four contemporary foreign and defense policy challenges confronting the U.S.

131 Pro_21:31 The horse is prepared against the day of battle: but safety is of the LORD.

132 Trade: Three Basic Approaches (International Trade Policy) o Protectionism o Strategic trade o Free trade.

133 Protectionism: o A trade policy where a country closes off its markets to foreign goods. o It may also provide domestic producers with subsidies. o To help them compete against foreign imports.

134 Protectionism: o Second, countries may embrace a strategic trade policy. o Under such a trade policy governments identify key industries that they want to see grow. o They then provide these industries with economic support through tax breaks, low interest loans, and other benefits.

135 Strategic Trade Policy: o The driving force behind the modern American strategic trade policy is China. o It is now the second largest market for new cars. o GM sells well in China.

136 Free Trade: o The hallmark of such a system is limited government interference in international trade. o Goods and services cross borders based on supply and demand. o Also based on the principle of comparative advantage. o Where countries sells goods they can produce most efficiently and buy from countries what they cannot. o Creating and supporting a free trade system has been a major goal of U.S. trade policy since WWII.

137 Free Trade Approach (Three Broad Policy Options) o The First is to emphasize bilateral trade or trade between two nations. o Although it is no longer the most popular option. o Such trade has a rich history in the U.S. and continues to be used on a limited basis today.

138 Free Trade Approach (Three Broad Policy Options) o A variety of issues lead to congressional opposition to bilateral trade agreements. o Among the most frequent are concerns for workers rights. o Labor standards. o Environmental protection policies.

139 Free Trade Approach (Three Broad Policy Options) o Presidents have sought to overcome congressional opposition. o Tried to stop legislators from inserting amendments to these agreements. o By obtaining what is known as fasttrack authority. o Congress gives this power to the president for a specific period of time.

140 Fast Track Authority: o It requires that Congress may vote on but not amend trade agreements concluded by the president. o In an attempt to adapt to globalization and incorporate a greater number of trading partners. o Presidents have increasingly turned to regional trade agreements.

141 Making Trade Policy: o Such agreements involve more than two but as few as three states. o 1993 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) created the world s largest regional free trade area.

142 Making Trade Policy: o Most modern trade agreements are concluded under a global free trade system. o The best known but not necessarily most successful example of this system is the World Trade Organization (WTO) o An international organization created in 1995 to supervise and open international trade.

143 Making Trade Policy: o The WTO has had difficulty in establishing agreements. o And negotiations have stalled due to competing interests between rich and poor nations.

144 Immigration and Border Security: o The immigration issue is a growing concern in American foreign and domestic policy. o India, Mexico, and the Philippines being the most frequent birthplaces of new citizens. o Four distinctions are helpful to keep in mind in considering migration flows.

145 Push and Pull Factors: o First, deals with primary factors that influence an individual s decision to cross an international border. o Push factors include political instability and poverty drives people to leave their home country or place of residents.

146 Pull Factors o Include the availability of jobs, political freedoms. o The presence of existing communities attract individuals to a specific location.

147 Voluntary and Forced Migrations: o Voluntary migrants make a free and independent decision to move. o Often they are pursuing work or family goals. o Forced migrants in contrast feel they have no choice but to move. o And may because of a natural disaster, economic depression, military conflict, or government policy.

148 Legal and Illegal Migration: o This distinction is at the heart of much of the immigration debate in the U.S. o Legal immigrants are documented immigrants that come to the U.S. with proper approval and disclosure. o Illegal immigrants in contrast come without documentation or government knowledge.

149 Refugees: o International law defines a refugee as an individual who has left their country and cannot return. o Due to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.

150 Refugees: o It is up to the country in which the refugee is seeking asylum. o To determined if these conditions apply. o Once identified as refugees. o Individuals cannot be sent back to their homeland without their consent.

151 Immigration Policy (Three Broadly Defined Options) 1. Create an open-door policy that welcome virtually all immigrants. 2. Set restrictive quotas or outright restrictions on who may enter a country. 3. To attempt to blockade a nation s borders.

152 Immigration Policy (Three Broadly Defined Options) o Current U.S. policy with regard to entry by sea is defined as wet foot/dry foot. o If an individual can reach U.S. shores, they are eligible to request refugee or immigrant status (dry foot). o If the individual is intercepted on the sea, where the Coast Guard on patrol, they are returned home (wet foot). o This has been abolished for Cubans seeking to come to the U.S. o After the normalizing of nations.

153 Terrorism: o Is violence for purposes of political intimidation. o Governments may engage in terrorism, o But so too can non-governmental organizations. o Terrorism is used to protect the environment, stop abortions, preserve racial supremacy, defeat imperialism, and enrich drug traffickers.

154 Making Counterterrorism Policy: o Terrorist activity is difficult to combat. o Because it usually has broad base of support. o It can also be difficult to define victory against terrorist groups.

155 Making Counterterrorism Policy: o The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism first published in o Defined victory over terrorism in terms of a world in which terrorism does not define the daily lives of Americans.

156 4D Strategy 1. Defeat terrorist organizations. 2. Deny them support from rogue states. 3. Work to diminish the conditions that give rise to terrorism 4. Defend the U.S., its citizens, and foreign interests from attacks.

157 Making Counterterrorism Policy: o American policy makers have four policy instruments. o To choose from in designing a strategy to combat terrorism. o The first policy tool is diplomacy. o To get other states to assist the U.S. to combat terrorism. o Second policy is military power.

158 Making Counterterrorism Policy: o Policy makers use also the economic power to defeat terrorism. o Economic power can be used to defeat terrorism in two different ways. o First, it can be used to coerce states to stop supporting terrorism through economic sanctions.

159 Sanctions: o The goal is to affect a hostile government s decision-making process. o By imposing economic hardship on the country. o The second use of economic power in a war against terrorism. o Is to provide foreign aid to alleviate the social, economic, and political conditions that may give rise to terrorism.

160 Making Counterterrorism Policy: o Finally policy makers may use covert or undercover action to combat terrorism. o Such as the use of Special Forces to conduct delicate military strikes and espionage. o Drone Attacks to kill terrorists.

161 Two Questions on How To Control Nuclear Weapons: o The first question is why do countries go nuclear? o No single reason exists. o But three motivations are particularly common.

162 Nuclear Weapons: o Involves defense. o They do not have to depend on other nations for help. o The pursuit of nuclear prestige. o Nuclear weapons bring prestige o Because of the central role military power plays in world politics. o Nuclear weapons elevates a country into a small select group of states whose power dwarfs all others.

163 Nuclear Weapons: o Domestic politics. o Pressure to go nuclear may come from the military seeking to add its power. o Scientists seeking to demonstrate their knowledge and qualifications. o Political parties seeking electoral victory and running on a strong defense platform, o Individual leaders seeking to realize political power for themselves or their country.

164 Nuclear Weapons: o A second major question. o How inevitable is the proliferation of spread of nuclear weapons? o Countries have access to the technology. o But have not pursued to seek those weapons.

165 Making Arms Proliferation Policy. o Efforts to deal with nuclear weapons and means of delivering them have taken numerous forms. o Several strategies traditionally have been used to limit arms proliferation. o Disarmament takes the very existence of weapons as the cause for conflict. o And hopes to secure peace through eliminating the means of conflict.

166 Making Arms Proliferation Policy. o The second strategy is arms control. o It takes the existence of conflict between countries as a given in world politics. o And seeks to find ways of reducing the danger that those conflicts will become deadly. o Reducing the number and types of weapons at the disposal of policy makers is one approach.

167 Making Arms Proliferation Policy. o Third strategy is denial. o The goal is to prevent would-be nuclear states from gaining access to the technology they need to make or deliver nuclear weapons. o Denial has become more difficult in a globalized world.

168 Making Arms Proliferation Policy. o A fourth strategy is defense. o This strategy is gaining popularity today. o Essentially its goal encourages the system to block and intercept attacks from other countries.

169 Making Arms Proliferation Policy. o The final strategy that is embraced by many countries is counter-proliferation. o Begins with the assumption that certain terrorist groups and some states cannot be deterred. o They have given evidence responding irrationally to threats of military force or other forms of coercion. o Thus, utilize preemptive action by a military operation of that nation or organization.

170 Rethinking American Power: o The U.S. faced many challenges with respect to trade, immigration, terrorism, and nuclear weapons. o Selecting a course of action while drawing on history is only one part of the difficulty in foreign policy. o The second aim is ensuring that the United States has enough power to accomplish its goals.

171 Rethinking American Power: o The U.S. has emerged from the cold war as the world s dominant power. o Today, because of its wars in the middle east and a struggling global economy. o The U.S. has more challenges as the dominant power.

172 Rethinking American Power: Three Views For Partners & Allies: o Ally with nations such as China that are major players in the international economy. o Another view is that the U.S. should partner with other democracies. o To counter countries that sponsor or harbor terrorists (League of Democracies). o The third view is temporary alliances to counter particular challenges as they arise.

173 Rethinking American Power: o Another question is what power to use. o Hard Power. o Is the power to coerce, or to make another nation do what the U.S. wants. o (Defense policy, military strength and economic power)

174 Rethinking American Power: o Soft Power. o Is the ability to persuade. o It is most commonly seen in foreign policy making. o It attracts other countries to the U.S. in a voluntary fashion.

175 Soft Power Includes: o Political ideas o Economic ideas o Legal ideas o Scientific and technological research o Popular Culture

176 Getting Consensus: o In the cold war there was consensus to contain Communism. o Today, foreign policy issues has deep divisions.

177 Guns and Butter: o The American public is more concerned with butter or domestic policy than guns, foreign policy. o This makes foreign policy challenges today.