AUTHORITARIAN STATES. Mussolini s Italy

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1 AUTHORITARIAN STATES Mussolini s Italy

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3 ITALY IN 1914 A constitutional monarchy established in 1870 after the Kingdom of Piedmont- Sardinia successfully united the various Italian states under their flag (see notes on website). Parliament elected via proportional representation with a limited franchise was a liberal government under the dominance of the wealthy bourgeoisie (Think France 1791). A third rate European power with significant internal class and geographic divisions.

4 ITALY AND WW1 People were divided about whether to join the war in support of their allies (Germany & AH). Remained neutral in Entered the war in May of 1915 on the side of the Entente Powers. Why? 1) Imperialism hoped to expand empire Treaty of London (1915) Britain and France promise territory in Austria, the Balkans, and colonies in event of victory. 2) Nationalism government and monarchy were widely unpopular in 1914, war was seen as a unifying factor and victory would boost support. Some Italians believed that Italy must fight to gain prestige as a great power. 3) Militarism was a factor in Italy as it was elsewhere in Europe.

5 RESULTS OF WW1 Italians had fought on southern front against the Austrians. Had been dealt a devastating defeat in 1917 in the Battle of Caporetto but as AH faded in 1918 they won a decisive victory in the 1918 Battle of Vittorio Veneto. Italy had played a comparatively small role (see Italy at war ), but had made sacrifices and expected to make promised gains at the Paris Peace Conference. As in other countries opposition to the war increased with time. Divisions increased between those that fought (mostly poor peasants and workers), and those that did not (mostly wealthy or skilled labour), those that gained (industrialists and imperialists), and those that did not (the rest). Resulting growth in socialist/communist movements put pressure on government and elites. Reaction to this was an increase in radical nationalism and violence.

6 Italy only got some of the territory promised due largely to the influence of Woodrow Wilson and his goal of selfdetermination. Mutilated peace leads to rise in support for nationalists and occupation of Fiume by Gabriel d Annunzio increases opposition to government (see Fiume handout Treaty of London Promises

7 CONCLUDING QUESTION -WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF WW1 ON THE EMERGENCE OF FASCISM IN ITALY?

8 CLASS ACTIVITY PG TEXT (MAP) There were significant divisions within Italian society which could be exploited politically briefly describe them here:

9 It can be helpful to divide a country into groups with similar socio-economic circumstances. Though we ignore variability in political thought within these groups, they provide a general framework for us to study the rise of Mussolini. Who were the major political groups in Italy after WW1?

10 Industrialists Socialists (PSI) Leader Filippo Turati Growing in wealth and power new money terrified of socialism in Italy and growth of Communism in Europe want colonies and new markets Fascists (PNF) Mostly supported by working class people in the North - growing with industrialization and the war % of vote % Opposed government dominated by bourgeoisie. Moderate (minimalist) and radical (maximalist) elements. Communists (PCI) Only 5% of vote by 1921 linked to Bolsheviks in USSR Liberals Leader and PM post WW1 Giovanni Giolitti Main party from 1870 on mostly dominated by the enlightened bourgeoisie, but steered a middle group in an attempt to appease right and left. That strategy was becoming very difficult post WW1 Not socialist enough for left too socialist for right. Supported by middle classes and some landowners they survived by forming coalitions. Seen as lame duck status quo type government. Petty Bourgeoisie Shopkeepers, artisans, small landowners self made people wanting to guard their new position. Landowners Traditional nobility (Agrari) mostly in the south very conservative Futurists Militarists and social Darwinists that saw government as corrupt and lacking glory were imperialistic dreamers. Catholic Church - Pope Political Party (PPI) Leader Benito Mussolini Never supported the Italian state and often boycotted elections. Socialism seen as a greater evil, cooperated with parties looking to curb it. Local priests were very influential with common people.

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12 HOW DID MUSSOLINI BECOME IL DUCE? We ve reviewed the bitter divisions within Italian society and how World War I increased that division. The war transformed Mussolini as well it was the moment he broke with his radical socialist views and saw the power of nationalism to potentially unite Italy, enrich her, and as an avenue to gain power for himself. He started the fascist movement in Above all there was my own country. I saw that INTERNATIONALISM was crumbling. The unit of loyalty was too large. All within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state. Democracy is beautiful in theory; in practice it is a fallacy.

13 The fascists started as small militia groups that came to be known as squadristi (Black Shirts). Their main aim was to unite Italy by attacking traitors to the nation mostly Socialists and to promote an expansionist and aggressive foreign policy (regain the greatness of Roman Empire) Mussolini spread the fascist message (and his own fame) through his newspaper Il Popolo d Italia. Regional fascist organizations inspired by Mussolini began popping up mostly left leaning lead by powerful local leaders called Ras.

14 Socialists were protesting the poor conditions in Italy after the war 1919/20 known as the Bienno Rosso (Red Years) featured riots and breakdown of order in many parts of Italy. Squadristi played key role in breaking these up and attacking labour unions. With success, movement grew and violence increased. Combined with success of aggressive nationalists like d Annunzio, more and more Italians saw both safety and efficiency in this movement of political outsiders that attacked socialists and intimidated the old political elites. It was a movement of the people.

15 Mussolini created the PNF party out of the fascist movement, moved politically to the right to appeal to the growing number of elites supporting the movement. In the 1921 election, PM Giolitti included fascists on the government list of candidates (people voted for party lists in PR system) in an attempt to absorb their popularity but also try to control violence. It worked in the short term (election was won), but it also legitimized Fascist movement in the eyes of many Italians. Fascists now had 35 seats (7% of parliament). As the Ras began to take over regional governments by force in 1922, many right leaning Italians did little about it, preferring them to the socialists, seeing them as a legitimate arm of government, and/or fearing them. Giolitti could have used the army against them but feared civil war. Socialists planned a general strike to protest against the growing power and violence of the Fascists this led to the Ras devising a plan to March on Rome and save the country. Fascists again seen as the saviours of peace and order.

16 With the threat of thousands of Black Shirts ready to march on Rome, King Victor Emmanuel III tried to avert a crisis by offering Mussolini the job of Prime Minister. Mussolini preferred this to a military coup because: 1) The traditional elites were handing him power and he could rely on their future support. King s offer made him more legitimate. 2) It would not appear that he owed his power to the Ras and the Squadristi. Mussolini accepted the Black Shirts marched on Rome anyways as a celebration and an affirmation of the new order. Italy was not yet a dictatorship, but the PNF was in power.

17 CONSOLIDATION OF POWER PM TO DICTATOR Mussolini was now PM but faced several challenges to his power: King/Elites Brought him into government, but could dismiss him if the fascist movement appeared to falter. Socialists weakened by fascist violence, but not eliminated. Still a presence in parliament. Fascist Left Many powerful Ras resented Mussolini s right leaning policy shifts. Could he control them? Also, now that he was in power he actually had to act. He needed to have successful domestic and foreign policies to solidify his rule.

18 Mussolini s Tactics to 1924 To consolidate his position, Mussolini used a combination of violence, propaganda, realpolitik, and legislation. He exploited the fact that the King and many elites had lost faith in democracy. He demanded, and was granted, emergency powers for one year in 1922 to deal with Italy s problems. He created a Fascist Militia, funded by tax dollars. He created a Fascist Grand Council, with himself as the head, to bring more control over the Ras. He took advantage of a rebound in the European economy and took credit for improving conditions. He pushed the Great Powers and Yugoslavia to accept official Italian annexation of Fiume and forced the Greeks to pay Italy an indemnity for the Corfu Incident.

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20 Looking ahead to the 1924 election, he passed the Acerbo Law in This law automatically gave 2/3 of parliamentary seats to the party with the most votes. Sold as a way to avoid political infighting and coalitions but really to assure fascist party dominance in the next government. The Acerbo Law was passed in part by the intimidation of Blackshirts who were outside parliament. Fascists won the 1924 election by a wide margin controlled 66% of seats. Mix of actual support, election fraud, and intimidation. He continued to move to support moderate policies winning trust of Catholics, petty bourgeoisie, and other elites. Increased propaganda creating the myth of Mussolini a manly warrior, an intellectual, a patriot, an everyman.

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25 Giacomo Matteoti, a socialist member of parliament, gave a scathing speech against Mussolini and the rigged election, declaring that it should be invalidated. He was assassinated by fascists a short time later. Lead to a CRISIS his murder leads to moderate Italians withdrawing support. Some liberal and socialists left parliament and formed their own parallel body the Aventine Secession. Mussolini looked close to political defeat he had to impose a dictatorship or fall from power.

26 ACTIVITY Look over each of the points in this section and select which tactic Mussolini used to consolidate his power: Violence Realpolitik Legislation Propaganda

27 Mussolini gave a speech in parliament in January 1925 where he took full responsibility for the violence and appealed for additional powers: I declare.in front of the Italian people that I alone assume the political, moral and historic responsibility for everything that has happened. Italy wants peace and quiet, work and calm. I will give these things with love if possible and with force if necessary. The rump parliament approved of his establishment of a full dictatorship and police state which included: 1925 Christmas Eve Law Mussolini declares his rule to be totalitarian and he was deemed the Head of Government (no longer responsible to parliament, just the King). Local governors and mayors replaced by Podestes appointed by Mussolini. Parliamentary elections abolished now people voted on a list of candidates drawn up by Fascist Grand Council.

28 1926 Full censorship rival political parties and opposition newspaper banned establishment of OVRA (Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism) secret police. Widespread monitoring of society, infiltration of underground opposition suspects arrested and detained by 1940, but few executions Italian Race Laws forbid rights and citizenship to Italian Jews and inter-marriage. Largely done to appease Nazi Germany, a new ally. Why was he able to do this? The King preferred Mussolini to the opposition in the Communists and the politicians in the Aventine Secession. Others either supported Mussolini or feared reprisals from Black Shirts. Over time, propaganda and successes helped.

29 MUSSOLINI S ITALY DOMESTIC POLICIES Political Largely a personal dictatorship King was a yes man and he dismissed most of his capable ministers. Was surrounded by sycophants. He was an ideas man, but vague on how to actually achieve things this was left to underlings and Podeste to figure out. Not very efficient. (see pg. 90 of text) Social/Cultural Fascists set up organizations that aimed to indoctrinate people into fascism, further the Mussolini personality cult, and promote national unity. Strength of family and Catholicism were threats to Fascist dominance.

30 School curriculum was changed to include fascist ideology, especially in history. Anti-socialist, militarist, and nationalist. Youth organization set up ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla) Teachers were strongly encouraged to be ONB leaders Somewhat like modern day Scouts male groups played sports, camped, learned outdoor skills, marching emphasis on physical health and preparation for military. Female groups focused on personal health, child rearing, household work. Had to be a member to become a part of the PNF membership was mandatory by Only mildly successful many saw ONB as a chore, not really committed. Influence of Catholic youth groups still strong. Young people naturally rebellious opposed ONB

31 Adults could join the OND (Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro). Fascist sports and leisure clubs like the YMCA. Offered subsidized activities even travel. High membership rates (80%) and popular, but mostly simply for recreation purposes. Had little impact on creating passionate fascists. At best, it helped in the popularity of the movement.

32 Mussolini s leisure groups were designed to weaken the bond with family and increase the bond to the State. He knew he could not weaken Catholicism so he decided to try and win its support. He pursued socially conservative family and gender policies (see textbook excerpts) 1927 onwards Battle for Births wanted to boost population from 40 to 60 million by Good for military, civil service, and to appease Pope. Abortion was made illegal / contraception frowned upon Loans offered to married couples each child would lead to part of debt being forgiven. Men with over six children were tax exempt. Bachelors were taxed more / employers were discouraged from hiring women. Little impact on birth rate Mussolini complained that it cost him 15 army divisions in WW2!

33 The Pope remained critical of the regime for its promotion of the supremacy of the State, violence, and imperialism. Mussolini makes concessions to the Pope to achieve a concordat between the Italian State and the Church: Lateran Treaty 1929 Established the Vatican as an independent state with the Pope as sovereign. The Fascists paid reparations for the losses of papal territory during unification. Catholicism was recognized as the official religion of Italy and religious instruction was provided in schools. The Pope officially recognized the Kingdom of Italy with Rome as its capital (had held out since 1870)

34 Economy Mussolini promoted a third way an alternative to greedy capitalism and divisive socialism. It was called corporatism. Corporations were set up with the goal of overseeing improvement and growth in a given industry. Representatives from all the cycles of production were part of the corporate structure. For example, Workers, tradespeople, and industrialists in the Corporation of Metallurgy worked together to ensure productivity and benefits for all. Labour unions were seen as divisive and representative of class struggle therefore the were banned. In reality, economy was heavily planned by government and corporations were dominated by the old elite. Many historians argue that the entire corporate system was a sham and was never really implemented that it was a scheme to destroy labour unions.

35 Mussolini focused on boosting agriculture (Battle for Grain, Battle for Land) and improving the value of the currency (Lira). Mussolini aimed for greater autarky (self-sufficiency) to improve Italy s balance of trade. Increased exports of agricultural goods would help make up for necessary imports especially oil and coal which Italy lacked. Invested in more science and technology in a search for synthetic replacements and to make heavy industry more productive. Increased spending on military was also a major feature. Most historians see Mussolini s economic policies as moderately successful in converting Italy into a more modern economy, but characterized by mismanagement and unintended negative consequences (ex. increase in grain exports led to increase in imports for other agricultural products). SEE TEXTBOOK EXCERPTS.