EDEXCEL IGCSE History Revision Checklist: Paper 2, Section B: China

Transcription

1 EDEXCEL IGCSE History Revision Checklist: Paper 2, Section B: China Use this revision checklist to help you keep track of all the topics you need to revise for your exam. You need to have a confident grasp of the subject knowledge about each event. Try revising facts and key features about each event and recalling the key points and details on paper. Try to answer at least one exam question for each event. When you feel confident enough, progress onto the next event. Key Question 1 Who ruled China between ? Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist The 1911 Revolution The May 4 th Movement 1919 China under the Warlords Development of the KMT Emergence of the CCP Northern March Shanghai Massacres 27 Describe the causes, events and results of the 1911 Revolution. Describe the roles of Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai. Describe what caused the May 4 th Demonstrations. Describe what happened. Describe the effect of the movement on China. Describe why China became ruled by Warlords. Describe how China was organised and ruled during the Warlord Period. Recall the names of at least one Warlord. Describe how the Warlord Period ended. Describe how Sun Yat-sen founded the KMT Describe how Sun Yat-sen re-established the KMT after 1919 Describe how Chiang Kai-shek emerged as leader of KMT Describe how, where, who and why the CCP was founded in Describe Mao s role in the early CCP. Describe how the CCP developed in the 1920s. Describe the causes, events and results of the Northern March Describe the causes, events and results of the Shanghai Massacres in April B.) Describe the key features of the 1911 Revolution (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the May 4 th Movement (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the Warlord Period (7 marks). C.) In what ways did support for the Kuomintang (KMT) change in the years ? You may use the following to help you with your answer (15 marks): 1911 Revolution Warlord Period War with Japan Civil War C.) In what ways did support for the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) change in the years ? You may use the following to help you with your answer (15 marks): Shanghai Massacres 1927 The Long March War with Japan Civil War B.) Describe the key features of the Northern March (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the Shanghai Massacre (7 marks).

2 Key Question 2 How and why did the CCP gain power? Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist The Long March War with Japan Chinese Civil War Describe the causes, events and results of the Long March. Describe how, why and when the Japanese invaded China. Describe the role of the CCP & Red Army during the War. Describe the limitations of the KMT during the War. Describe the causes of the Civil War Describe the key phases and battles of the Civil War. Explain the reasons for the success of the CCP. B.) Describe the key features of the Long March (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the War against Japan (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the Civil War (7 marks). Key Question 3 How did Mao change China? Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist Mao s Early Changes The First Five Year Plan The Hundred Flowers Campaign The Great Leap Forward Describe the Political, Economic (industry & agriculture) and Social changes Mao made to China between Describe the changes in Agriculture under the Plan. Describe the changes to industry under the Plan. Describe the successes and failures of the Plan. Describe Mao s motives behind the Hundred Flowers Campaign. Describe what the Anti-Rightist Campaign was and how it changed China. Describe the changes in Agriculture under the Plan. Describe the changes to industry under the Plan. Describe the successes and failures of the Plan. B.) Describe the key features of the Agrarian Reform Law (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the First Five Year Plan (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the Hundred Flowers Campaign (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the Great Leap Forward (7 marks).

3 Key Question 4 What was the Impact of the Cultural Revolution? Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist The Cultural Revolution Describe Mao s motives for the Cultural Revolution. Describe the key features of the Revolution including the Red Guards, education and the cult of Mao. Describe the impact of the Cultural Revolution on China and Mao s position. B.) Describe the key features of the Cultural Revolution (7 marks). C.) In what ways did support for Mao and the CCP change in the years ? You may use the following to help you with your answer (15 marks): Long March Civil War Great Leap Forward Cultural Revolution Key Question 5 Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist The Gang of Four 1960s- 1970s Describe who the Gang of Four were. Describe how the Gang of Four were defeated. B.) Describe the key features of the Gang of Four. (7 marks). How did China change under Deng Xiaoping? Deng Xiaoping s Changes s Describe Deng s changes to education. Describe Deng s changes to industry. Describe Deng s changes to farming. Describe Deng s changes to birth control Describe Deng s policy of Westernisation. B.) Describe the key features of the changes in industry and agriculture under Deng Xiaoping. (7 marks). C.) In what ways did support for Deng Xiaoping change in the years ? You may use the following to help you with your answer (15 marks): o Great Leap Forward o Cultural Revolution o Deng s Four Modernisations o Tiananmen Square Protests 1989

4 Key Question 6 How and Why did the Democracy Movement develop? Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist The Democracy Movement The Tiananmen Square Massacre June 1989 Describe Deng s opposition to political reform. Describe the origins of the Democracy Movement. Describe what the Democracy Wall Movement was. Describe the role of Wei Jingsheng. Describe the features and aims of University Protests. Describe the reaction of Deng to Protests. Describe the causes, key events and effects of the Tiananmen Square Massacre. B.) Describe the key features of the Democracy Movement (7 marks). B.) Describe the key features of the Tiananmen Square Massacre (7 marks).

5 6. What were the causes, events and results of the Northern Expedition ? 1. What were the causes, events and results of the 1911 Revolution? 2. What was the May 4 th Movement and why was it significant? 3. What happened during the Warlord Period? Who ruled China between ? 5. How did the CCP change between ? 4. How did the KMT change between ?

6 1. What were the causes, events and consequences of the Long March? 2. How, why and when did the Japanese invade China? 6. Why did the Communists win the Civil War? 3. What role did the CCP and Red Army play during the Japanese invasion? How and why did the CCP gain power? What were the key events of the Civil War ? 4. What were the limitations of the KMT during the Japanese invasion?

7 1. What changes did Mao make to agriculture? 2. What changes did Mao make to industry? 3. How did Mao change life for women? 7. What were the causes, key features and effects of the Great Leap Forward? 4. What was Thought Reform & the Three and Five Antis Campaigns? How did Mao change China ? 6. What was the Hundred Flowers Campaign? 5. How did the First Five Year Plan change China?

8 1. What were Mao s motives for the Cultural Revolution? 2. What were the key features of the Cultural Revolution? 5. What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on Mao s position? What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution? 4. What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on China? 3. What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi?

9 1. How were the Gang of Four defeated? 2. How did Deng Xiaoping regain power? 3. What changes did Deng make to education? 7. What was Privatisation and Westernisation? 4. What changes did Deng make to agriculture? How did China change under Deng Xiaoping? 6. Why did Deng introduce Birth Control? 5. What changes did Deng make to industry?

10 1. How did the Democracy Movement develop before the 1980s? 2. What caused the growth in the Democracy Movement? 3. How did University Students protest in 1986? 5. What happened at Tiananmen Square? How and why did the Democracy Movement develop? 4. What were the key features and aims of the Democracy Movement?

11 B5: CONFLICT, CRISIS AND CHANGE: CHINA Revision Notes for Edexcel IGCSE History Using this Revision Booklet Knowing and understanding the key events and facts from each topic is obviously essential. For Paper 2, Section B topics like China , you need to be able to recall the key features of events and be able to focus on the idea of change: linking events and explaining how and why changes occurred between them is an essential skill for Question C. Make sure you study the following list of key events and changes as part of your revision. By Mr. Budd -

12 1.) The 1911 Revolution: 10 th October 1911 Causes What happened? Effects Long-term Causes Decay of the Qing Government The Qing Emperors in the 19 th century were weak and corruption rife. Troop morale was low leading to a series of defeats to foreign powers. People lost confidence in Manchu rule. Role of Cixi The Empress Dowager was deeply unpopular & opposed reforms like the Self-Strengthening Movement and Hundred Days Reform. Political Decentralisation The provinces of China were weakly controlled by Beijing. Short-term Causes Growth of Nationalist Movement Sun Yat-Sen founded the Tongmenghui in 1905 which coordinated anti-qing protests across China. Dr. Sun organised 8 uprisings in Immediate Cause The Railway Problem Protests broke out when the government tried to nationalise (take-over) regional railways in an attempt to gain revenue and control local authorities. This was strongly opposed by provincial authorities esp. in Sichuan because the gentry, landowners and merchants had all invested money in railways. Railway Protection Societies were formed which the government tried to suppress with force. This intensified anti-qing feeling and led to a series of violent revolts across the country. An uprising in Wuchang was planned by revolutionaries for 16 th October 1911 however on the 9 th October, a list of the revolutionaries names were discovered so the uprising was brought forward to the 10 th October The uprising was unplanned and disorganised however by the morning of the 11 th October, the entire city of Wuchang had been captured. A Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China was created led by Li Yuanhong, the assistant commander of the New Army. 15 other provinces quickly declared their independence from the Qing Dynasty. On 1 st November, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as the prime minister of the imperial cabinet. He was the leader of the Beiyang Army and the Qing government s last hope. On 25 th December 1911, Sun Yat-Sen returned to China and was elected President of the Chinese Republic. On 1 st January 1912 the Republic of China was declared. Yuan Shikai was offered the position of President of the new Republic of China. In return, Yuan was to persuade the Emperor Puyi to abdicate which he did on 12 th February Yuan Shikai was inaugurated as the Second Provisional President of the Republic of China in Beijing on 10 th March End of Dynastic System revolution ended Qing Dynasty and Imperial China which had existed for over 2000 years. The Republic was a new form of government and a milestone in Chinese history. The Failure of Democracy Despite elections in Feb 1913 in which Sun Yat-Sen s Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang/KMT) won 43% of the vote, real democracy could not be established. Yuan Shikai ignored the constitution, became a dictator and even tried to restore the monarchy. Lack of Social Improvement Little attention was paid to the economy or social reform so China still remained weak. Increased Foreign Aggression Although the new Republic was recognised by most of the world, many foreign powers like Japan still forced China to sign unequal treaties like the Twenty-One Demands in January China was still weak internationally. Sun Yat-sen Emperor Puyi Yuan Shikai

13 2.) May Forth Movement: May 4 th 1919 Causes What happened? Effects Long-Term Cause New Culture Movement: this movement sprang from the disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture following the failure of the Chinese Republic to address China s problems. Led by Scholars like Chen Duxiu, the movement created a desire for change across China. Immediate Cause Treaty of Versailles: In 1917, China had joined WW1 on the Allied side, with the condition that all German spheres of influence in China, like Shandong province, be returned to China. 140,000 Chinese labourers were sent to work for the British army in France. American advocacy of selfdetermination at the Versailles Conference was attractive to Chinese intellectuals, so the failure to award China Shandong province was seen as a betrayal. The May 4 th Movement was the name given to an explosion of yearning for change and national rebirth, particularly amongst young students. In 1919, news reached people in China that the Allies at the Versailles Peace Conference in Paris were planning to allow Japan to keep the German possessions in Shandong province. Students at Beijing University began an explosive protest. On Sunday 4 th May, 3000 students from 13 colleges assembled in Tiananmen Square. They demanded their government assert itself against the Japanese. They wrecked the house of the government minister responsible for the treaty. A city-wide student union was then established devoted to change the May 4 th Movement. This was replicated across China in cities like Shanghai, Wuhan and Tianjin. The rising tide of protest prevented the Chinese delegation from accepting the terms of the treaty and China refused to sign however Japan still had control of Shandong. Cultural Turning Point - the movement proved that China s social classes could successfully collaborate given proper motivation and leadership. Traditional Chinese values began to be questioned and people became more willing to support change from the warlords. Intellectual Turning Point - The movement encouraged many people to become more political and also showed that Westernstyle democracy was the wrong path to take it hypocritically ignored China s pleas for fairness. This encourage many Chinese intellectuals to turn to new ideologies like Marxism and the CCP was founded in Chen Duxiu

14 3.) The Warlord Period: How did it begin? What happened? How was it ended? In 1913 Yuan Shikai took over the government. He dissolved the national and provincial assemblies, and the House of Representatives and Senate were replaced with a Council of State. He had himself elected President for 5-years and banned the KMT. By 1914 he was dictator of China. Yuan reorganised the provincial governments with each province supported by a Military Governor as well as a civil authority, giving each governor control of their own army. This decentralised power further. On 12 th December 1915 Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of the Chinese Empire but badly miscalculated. Many of his closest military supporters abandoned him and the southern provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, Shandong, Hunan, Shanxi, Jiangxi and Jiangsu all declared their independence and began to rebel. Yuan was forced to abandon the empire on 22 nd March Yuan died on 5 th June He was replaced by his vice-president Li Yuanhong who tried to rule China until 1 st July 1917 when he fell victim to a coup by Yuan s commanders. Infighting amongst cliques in the Beiyang government began and the government quickly lost control of China to warlords in the provinces. An independent military government was setup in Guangzhou by Sun Yat-Sen in 1917 based on the old 1911 constitution. Sun was elected President supported by other Southern Provinces who again declared independence from Beijing. Northern provinces supporting the central government tried and failed to capture the Southern Provinces. Competing groups of warlords began to fight battles all over China. Loyalties shifted constantly but there was generally a north/south divide between warlords in China with further divisions within these regions. Warlords came in all shapes and sizes. The Christian General converted to Methodism, banned foot-binding, opium and brothels and wore a simple uniform. Zhang Zong Chang (the Dogmeat General) of Shandong Province was the opposite, keeping numerous concubines. His troops were very brutal. Zhang Zuolin of Manchuria was the most powerful ruling an area the size of Western Europe. Warlords taxed and squeezed cash from peasants across China. The economy collapsed as warlords simply printed money to pay for their armies. This resulted in severe inflation. Droughts in northern China in 1918, famines in and flooding in brought misery to millions, weakening the control of the warlords. The anarchy of the warlord period convinced Sun Yat-Sen that he needed an army if he was ever to defeat them and reunite China. This led to Sun appealing to the USSR for help. The USSR established the Whampoa Military Academy in Canton (Guangzhou) and supplied arms to the KMT from 1923 onwards. The USSR encourage the KMT and CCP to join forces to create the United Front. In 1925, Sun Yat-sen died at the age of 56 from liver cancer. He was replaced by Chiang Kiashek. The Warlord Period ended as a result of the Northern Expedition of the United Front from Yuan Shikai

15 4.) The Kuomintang: Early Life Re-establishment Road to Victory The Kuomintang (KMT) began life as the Revive China Society (Xingzhonghui), founded in 1894 by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, a proponent of Chinese nationalism and democracy. In 1905, Sun joined forced with other anti-qing groups to form the Tongmenghui (Revolutionary Alliance) who planned and supported the 1911 Revolution. In August 1912, the Kuomintang was formed with Sun elected as Party Chairman. It was based on 3 principles: Nationalism, Democracy and Social Advance. The KMT won an overwhelming majority in elections to the National Assembly in Dec The KMT was banned by Yuan Shikai in November 1913 and Sun Yat-sen was forced to flee to Japan. In Shanghai in 1919 the KMT was reformed & established its HQ in Guangdong Province in In 1923 the KMT accepted aid from the USSR after being denied recognition by Western Powers. Soviet COMINTERN advisers like Mikhail Borodin arrived with aid and weapons, reforming the KMT along the lines of the CPSU with a Leninist structure. Some elements within the KMT were landlords or from the business classes so the KMT remained wary of the growing CCP. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was instructed by the COMINTERN to unite with the KMT to establish the United Front to fight the warlords and reunite China. At the KMT s first party congress in 1924, Sun s political theory was adopted which included the Three Principles of the People Nationalism, Democracy and People s Livelihood. Sun Yat-sen died in 1925 and was replaced by Chiang Kai-shek who was the superintendent of the Whampoa Military Academy in Canton and had near complete control of the military. Chiang launched the Northern Expedition in 1926 to defeat the warlords of northern China and unite the country. In 1927 a split emerged in the KMT. The left-wing under Wang Jing Wei sided with the CCP and disagreed with Chiang over strategy. Chiang responded by massacring Communists in Shanghai and by the end of 1927, had reunited the KMT under his control. Chiang finally took Beijing in 1928 and led a new unified government based in Nanjing. It was to last until Mikhail Borodin Sun Yat-sen Chiang Kai-shek

16 5.) The Chinese Communist Party: 1921-Present Early Life Civil War & WW Ruling Party 1949-Present The CCP had its origins in the May 4 th Movement which encouraged many Chinese intellectuals to turn to new ideologies like Marxism/Leninism. The Party was co-founded by Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu on st July 1921 in Shanghai. Chen was elected leader and the Party was declared to be part of the COMINTERN. The COMINTERN provided $5000 USD per year in support. Under pressure from the USSR, the CCP joined with the KMT in 1923, forming the First United Front against the Warlords. Mao Zedong was a delegate at the first Party Conference but did not get on with the CCP leadership of Chen Duxui, disliking their intellectualism and focus on cities. In 1925 he was excluded from the CCP Central Committee and was attracted to the Rural Communism of Peng Pai. In 1927, Chiang Kai-Shek turned on the Communists massacring over 5000 in Shanghai. By July, the KMT had expelled all communists from the Party and the CCP was forced to flee to the province of Kiangsi. The CCP reacted by founding the Red Army and by reorganising the Party according to democratic centralism, forming a Politburo. By In Oct 1934, surrounded by KMT troops, the CCP was forced to flee on what became known as the Long March. At the end in Oct 1935, Mao Zedong had taken over leadership of the Party. In Dec 1936 at the Xi an Incident, Chiang was forced to agree a Second United Front with the CCP against the Japanese, who in July 1937 had begun their invasion of mainland China. By the end of the war in August 1945, the CCP controlled over 95 million people. Both the CCP and KMT raced to accept the surrender of Japanese held areas. By early 1946, civil war had broken out again. The CCP had only 900,000 soldiers vs. 2.7million KMT troops but by Sep 1949, most of China was under CCP control. Chiang Kai-Shek fled to Taiwan. The People s Republic of China (PRC) was declared by Mao on 1 st October The ideology of the PRC was founded on a Sinification of Marxist-Leninist principles and was officially known as Mao Zedong Thought or Maoism. During the 1960s, the CCP broke relations with the USSR and begun a second Cultural Revolution in 1966 against alleged class enemies. Mao died in 1976, resulting in a power struggle between General Secretary Hua Guofeng, Deng Xiaoping and the Gang of Four. Deng became leader of the CCP and instigated a reform and process of Socialism with Chinese charateristics. This meant China would be communist in politics but capitalist in economics. Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng after the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests. Hu Jintao replaced him in 2002 and later resigned in 2012 to be replaced by Xi Jinping. All three leaders would continue Deng s modernisation policies. Peng Pai Hua Guofeng Chen Duxiu Li Dazhao Mao Zedong Deng Xiaoping

17 6.) The Northern Expedition: Causes What happened? Effects After the death of Sun Yat-Sen in 1925, Chiang Kai-Shek became leader of the KMT and was eager to destroy the warlords and reunite China. The Whampoa Military Academy in Canton produced a National Revolutionary Army (NRA) which was superior to many warlords. The NRA was 100,000 strong and equipped with the latest Russian and German weapons. Chiang personally relied on the Russian Military advisor, General Blyucher, known as Galen. The NRA was supported by the communist Farmers Movement Training Institute in which Mao worked. Propaganda from this institute persuaded many peasants to serve as guides and labourers for the NRA against their warlords. The declared political objectives of the NRA were: to protect the welfare of the people. We must overthrow all warlords and wipe out reactionary power so that we may implement the Three Principles and complete the National Revolution. The Northern Expedition was a combined military operation by the United Front (KMT & CCP) against the rule of the warlord Beiyang Government in Beijing as well as local warlords. It started in July 1926 and targeted the three most notorious and powerful warlords: Zhang Zoulin of Manchuria, Wu Peifu in the Central Plain region and Sun Chuanfang on the east coast. By 10 th October 1926, Wuhan on the Yangtze had been captured and the NRA had grown to 250,000. By 1927, Nanjing and Shanghai had been captured. This was achieved by a combination of NRA military success, communist propaganda and bribing many warlords. The United Front ended on 12 th April Chiang Kai-Shek arranged the massacre of over 5000 communists with the help of the triad Green Gang in Shanghai. The KMT and NRA pressed on along and by June 1928, Beijing had been captured and Chiang setup a new capital of unified China at Nanjing. It was recognised by foreign powers. The Communists were left with little alternative to armed struggle against the KMT. After the Shanghai Massacre they were forced to flee to Kiangsi Province, setting up a Soviet which they were eventually forced to abandon in The Warlord problem was still not fully resolved. Many warlords simply formed an alliance with the KMT to avoid being destroyed. They continued to fight amongst themselves and treated peasants badly resulting in continual resentment of Chiang s new KMT government. Chiang Kai-Shek s position was strengthened. And he ruled as dictator, similar to Hitler in Germany. He was chairman of the military committee and commander in chief, prime minister and head of the KMT party. Chiang s new regime was supported by the army and enforced control through a secret police called the Military Bureau of Statistics. Most social support came from rich, commercial elites in the cities and richer peasants and gentry in the countryside. Chiang Kai-shek General Blyucher or Galen

18 7.) The Shanghai Massacre: 12 th April 1927 Causes What happened? Effects The CCP Problem In 1923 Sun Yat-Sen concluded an alliance with the USSR. This gave the KMT financial and military support but in return, the KMT had to cooperate with the CCP. Sun agreed to let individual Communists join the KMT as long as their remained loyal. Covert Communist activities soon attracted opposition amongst many right-wing KMT members. The KMT Split Since the death of Sun in 1925, the KMT was divided between the NRA and Chiang Kai-Shek on the right and KMT leader Wang Jingwei, Communists and Soviet Agents on the left-wing. Chiang was concerned to protect the business interest of many KMT supporters. Attacks on Foreign Concessions - Between Jan-Mar 1927, the leftwing of the KMT and CCP forces began attacking western interests in Hankou and Nanjing. Chiang Kai- Shek needed the support of western powers in order to take Shanghai. By April, Chiang and the right-wing of the KMT became determined to purge the party of communist influence. The massacre occurred on 12 th April 1927 and was the violent suppression of Communist Party organisations in Shanghai by the KMT. After capturing Shanghai, the CCP began inciting huge protests and strikes, demanding the return of international settlements. Chiang immediately made arrangements with representatives of the commercial classes and Shanghai underworld to purge the CCP. On the morning of 12 th April, heavily armed members of Big-eared Du s Green Gang moved through the international settlement to attack the CCP union strongholds in the workingclass districts. Du met with the leader of the big CCP workers union to persuade him to change sides but he refused and was beaten and buried alive. Du s men aided by General Bai Chongxi s troops, rounded up Communists and beheaded or shot them. Some were thrown alive into the fires of locomotives at the South Railway Station. Police put the death toll at 400 although the American journalist Edgar Snow estimated between ,000 deaths. CCP leader Zhou Enlai escaped. Power Struggle The KMT left-wing government in Wuhan expelled Chiang from the Party on 17 th April. However he simply declared a rival KMT government in Nanjing. His financial links with commercial interests in Shanghai enabled him to gain more influence, resulting in the Wuhan Nationalist government collapsing. Wang Jingwei fled to Europe. End of USSR/KMT Cooperation Stalin recalled all Soviet advisors to the KMT included Galen and Borodin. Stalin switched his support to the CCP, inciting the Autumn Harvest Uprising in Nanchang in August 1927 and later in Canton both were complete failures. Over 300,000 people died in the ensuing anti- Communist suppression. CCP Forced to Flee The CCP was forced to flee from the Urban areas of China, with many Communists like Mao setting up soviets in Jiangxi and Hunan provinces. This transformed the Communist Party s base of support from the urban proletariat to the rural peasantry. Old CCP leaders like Chen Duxiu were discredited and lost their leadership roles to Zhu De and Mao, both leaders of the biggest CCP army groups. Big-eared Du

19 8.) The Long March: Causes What happened? Effects Growth of Jiangxi Base Area After the Shanghai Massacre, many Communists regrouped in rural areas. Communists like Zhu De and Mao Zedong led Red Army/PLA units in these areas. Zhou Enlai arrived in 1932 and ousted Mao from his military positions. In 1933 the rest of the leadership arrived, along with German COMINTERN agent Otto Braun. The CCP at this time were led mainly by Zhou, Braun and Bo Gu. KMT Extermination Campaigns - The growth of the base area began to concern Chiang. Between he launched 5 massive extermination campaigns. They were failures but over 1 million civilians died with brutality on both sides. The fifth campaign in Summer 1933 was finally successful due to the blockhouse tactics of German General Hans von Seeckt. The KMT surrounded the Soviet with over 500,000 troops, building roads and 14,000 blockhouses which slowly strangled the Soviet area. Zhu, NOT Mao, was forced to make the decision to abandon the Soviet. Planned by Zhou Enlai, on the night of 16 th October 1934, 80,000 Communists started to cross the Gan River and break out westwards towards Guangxi province. Two corps led the break-out, one under Lin Biao, and a smaller one of 13,000 under Peng Dehuai. Zhou had negotiated with the warlord of Guangdong for safe passage The governor did not want to give Chiang an excuse to interfere in his area. In Dec 1934, the CCP faced a major defeat on the Xiang River, on the border of Hunan. The CCP lost most of their baggage and over half of their troops. This forced the CCP to change direction westward into Guizhou. The Wu River was crossed on 7 th Jan 1935 and the city of Zunyi captured where a meeting was held. The Zunyi Conference criticised Bo Gu and Otto Braun for their mistakes (retreating in straight lines, carrying too much equipment), and Mao was made a full member of the Politburo. Under Mao, the columns changed routes and split up, trying to avoid KMT and warlord forces. On 25 th May 1935 they crossed the Dadu River which would later be turned into a propaganda event. By Oct 1935, they had reached the communist base at Yanan in Shaanxi province where they were safe. They had: fought dozen of battles; crossed 24 rivers; 18 mountain ranges; 24 miles a day; 6000 miles in total; out of 85,000 had remained alive. Survival The Long March had seemed like a disaster but it enabled the CCP to survive and rebuild for the next 12 years. It was remote enough to be safe from Japanese attack. Propaganda Victory The march was vital in helping the CCP gain a positive reputation amongst peasants due to the determination and good nature of the Red Army. The Eight Points of Attention issued by Mao instructed the army to avoid harm or disrespect to peasants. Land redistribution along the way also help gain support. Strengthened Mao s Position Mao was hailed as the great hero of the March and was reestablished as the unchallenged leader of the CCP. Zhou Enlai Otto Braun

20 9.) War with Japan: Causes of the War What happened? The KMT/CCP during the War The Mukden Incident In Sep 1931 the Japanese invaded the northern province of Manchuria and renamed it Manchukuo. Fearing a full-scale invasion, Chiang did little to stop them other than complain to the League of Nations. He was more concerned with the Communists, saying: The Japanese were a disease of the skin, but the Communists were a disease of the heart. Xi an Incident - In 1936 he ordered another extermination campaign against the CCP base in Yanan. However KMT troops led by Zhang Xueliang, the warlord of Manchuria, refused to fight the CCP. They wanted Chiang to focus on the Japanese. To ensure this, in Dec 1936 Chiang was kidnapped at Xi an by Zhang s troops and kept prisoner for 2 weeks. He was eventually released when he agreed to form a Second United Front. Marco Polo Bridge Incident On 7 th July 1937, a clash occurred between Japanese and Chinese troops around the famous bridge 10 miles west of Beijing. By 26 th July, China was given an ultimatum to withdraw all forces from Beijing. Chiang finally refused and war was declared. The Japanese swept the KMT armies away for most of the war in Nov 1937 Shanghai fell, Nanjing in Jan 1938, Wuhan and Canton in Oct 1938, Hong Kong in By 1941, the Japanese had 34/50 divisions in China and had over extended themselves. By declaring war on the USA in December 1941, Chiang had just secured a new ally against the Japanese. US supplies were flown to Chiang s capital of Chongqing over the Himalayas by following a route called the Hump. The assistance of the American air force also helped. Despite the success of the Ichigo Offensive of 1944, Japan was finally forced to surrender with the dropping of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August The USSR had also declared war and invaded Manchuria on 8 th August. The KMT generally emerged weaker as a result of the war: The KMT appeared unpatriotic & unwilling to attack Japan. Chiang took until 1937 to declare war & had retreated to Sichuan. He was cut off from his main industrial base. KMT officials were corrupt and did little to improve welfare problems. Rents remained high, lack of medical care and the economy was wracked by high inflation. Warlords remained able to do what they wished doing little for their people. KMT had little support in countryside, being seen as the Party of bankers, business and landowners. However the CCP actually emerged stronger from the war: Quality of life for peasants was better: land was redistributed to peasants, rents and taxes were reduced. Women s lives improved: foot binding was eradicated, new marriage laws introduced and Women s Associations set-up. Red Army treated peasants well & were military successful 100 Regiments Battle in 1940 paralysed Japanese transport; by the end of the war controlled 300,000 sq miles and over 95 million people. Zhang Xueliang

21 10.) The Chinese Civil War: Causes What happened? Reasons for CCP Victory Phase 1: Early Setbacks: July 46 May 47 Long-Term: Chiang s Conduct during the War Chiang s attacked the CCP, despite their United Front. Chiang was seen as unpatriotic whereas the communists were seen as true patriots. Corruption, low morale & lack of trust between generals further weakened the NRA & Chiang s prestige. Nationalist-minded Chinese were more impressed by the CCP, making a renewed conflict more likely. Short-Term: A Divided Country At the end of War, Japanese forces still controlled much of China, the KMT were strong in southern/central China, the CCP controlled most of north/north-east China whilst the USSR had invaded Manchuria. The race was on to occupy as much territory as possible. US aircraft airlifted 100,000 nationalist troops into northern China. In response, the CCP moved into Manchuria, receiving many captured Japanese weapons from the Red Army. Clashes soon broke out between the NRA and PLA. Immediate: Failure of Mediation -The USA & USSR wished to avoid civil war and under US pressure, Chiang agreed to peace talks. In Oct 1945, an agreement was reached however both sides were unwilling to give up military control. Stalin ordered the CCP to hand over cities in Manchuria to the KMT. In 1946, the US sent General George Marshall to mediate again but talks broke down. The CCP took control of Harbin in northern Manchuria and rural areas. By late 1946, civil war had broken out. The KMT started the war with 2,800,000 troops & 6000 artillery pieces however the CCP could only muster 320,000 and 600. The KMT took the initiative and captured larger cities, establishing a corridor of control through Manchuria. The CCP were in full retreat and even lost their base at Yanan. Chiang committed over half a million of his best troops to capture Manchuria however he failed to break through PLA defences in Harbin. The PLA from their rural bases adopted Guerrilla Warfare, ambushing KMT units and keeping them locked down in cities by blowing up railway lines. The KMT became isolated in the cities whilst the CCP controlled all the countryside. Phase 2: Counter-Attack: May 47 Nov 48 In May, Lin Biao decided launch a full-scale assault on KMT positions. Despite not having an airforce, the PLA inflicted serious losses on the NRA which sapped the morale of troops. In 1948, the PLA moved to a strategy of conventional warfare with massed infantry assaults. They captured Luoyang in April 48 and made gains in Shandong, isolating the KMT. In June they captured Kaifeng giving the CCP access to the interior of China up the Yellow River. Jinan (Shandong) was captured in Sep. On 15 th Oct, the key railway junction of Jinzhou was captured, trapping KMT forces in Manchuria. Changchun fell in Oct and Shenyang on 2 nd Nov. Manchuria was lost and Chiang had lost over 400,000 of his best troops. Phase 3: Final Stages: Dec 48 Oct 49 Northern China was captured in two major offenses. The first against the vital railway junction of Xuzhou which lasted 65 days from Dec 49 to Jan 49. Both sides committed over 600,000 troops each. The defeat of the KMT was a major blow and cut off the rest of northern China from Chiang. Tianjin was easily captured first then Beijing on 31 st Jan. The whole of China north of the Yangzi was now under PLA control. In April, the PLA renewed the attack. Chiang s capital of Nanjing was captured on 23 rd April with Wuhan and Shanghai falling in late May. The PLA then divided into two to attack the south. Peng Dehaui struck westwards towards Xian and Lanzhou, falling in August 49. Lin Biao marched south, capturing Canton in Oct. Chongquing was taken in November with Chiang and the remnants of the KMT fleeing to Taiwan. On 1 st October 1949, Mao declared the creation of the People s Republic of China (PRC) with himself as Chairman. Military Factors Manchuria was well suited to guerrilla warfare with its hills and forests. KMT forces were slowly worn down, reducing their numerical advantage. They were also able to seize the initiative by destroying KMT railway lines, isolating them in cities. The PLA led by Lin Biao also became a formidable fighting force. Intensive training and political indoctrination enabled them to adapt and absorb nationalist deserters. Chiang also made a serious error by overstretching his best forces. The NRA was also corrupt with poor morale, lacking fighting spirit. Many KMT commanders like Wei Lihuang were even CCP spies, supplying information to the PLA! Political Factors The CCP was a peasant-based party and attracted huge support with land reform. They were adept at using propaganda to spread support in the cities. PLA troops were indoctrinated and disciplined, going out of their way to help peasants. This was in contrast to the unruly behaviour of KMT troops. Economic Factors The economy under Chiang suffered from high inflation with 3000% in Feb 1947, reducing support further. Foreign Support The KMT failed to make full use of US equipment whilst the CCP was highly trained and equipped by the USSR. The US brokered ceasefire in 1946 even prevented the CCP from being wiped out in Harbin! Role of Mao Whilst Mao made military mistakes, his cult of personality and use of terror made the CCP an efficient fighting force, whilst Chiang s weak leadership allowed corruption to spread, affecting KMT morale.

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23 11.) Mao s Early Changes: Problems Political The communists had to prove they were capable of providing a strong and effective government. 37 years of warlords and war had produced social disintegration and criminal habits on a vast scale. There were an estimated one million bandits in Thieves and gangsters stalked the cities. Many women had turned to prostitution as a means of survival. There was also many exsympathisers with the KMT regime who had not escaped to Taiwan and some even launched sabotage expeditions. Opposition to the government had to be removed or brought under control. Changes To strengthen control of China, the CCP turned China into a one-party state. All other political parties were suppressed in a series of purges from Foreigners were also driven out and foreign businesses taken over or had their assets frozen. The basis of control was the danwei, a work or neighbourhood unit. It exercised surveillance over its members and demanded active participation. The 1951 Movement for the Study of Mao Zedong s Thought encouraged this. This involved close study of his writings, combined with public self-criticism at Party meetings. Special labour camps were set up for those who resisted and by 1953, filled with over 1.5 million inmates. As many as one million opponents were executed between 1949 and 1951, with over 65,000 killed in Guangzhou alone. To gain further control, mass participation was encourage through mass campaigns: 1950 Three Mountains Campaign targeted feudalism, capitalism and imperialism Three Antis Campaign targeted party members and bureaucrats and sought to combat corruption, waste and bureaucracy Five Antis Campaign targeted businessmen and sought to combat bribery, tax evasion, fraud, theft and spying. Economic The Chinese economy had been devastated by war. Production was down 50% on pre-war levels and food production down by 25%. Manchuria has been devastated and the economy racked by rapid inflation. Agriculture was dominated by richer landowners who controlled the peasants. Social Most of the population were peasants who could not read or write. Chinese people did not want change. Many distrusted modern ideas, especially on women s rights. The economy was brought under control by a series of short-term measures: The state nationalised major banks, railways and heavy industry. In 1951 a People s Bank was opened which replace private banks and controlled the issuing of money. It fixed the prices of goods to control inflation. Food shortages were dealt with by making farmers sell 20% of grain at fixed low prices to the government. The Communist had been committed to land reform since 1921 but arguments occurred within the Party on how to proceed. Many favoured extreme redistribution schemes by Mao favoured moderate reforms: June 1950 Agrarian Reform Law Attempted to speed up the process of land reform even though Mao was resistant to targeting wealthy peasants due to their productivity. CCP members were sent to villages to organise peasants against the landlords in People s Court s. Peasants were encouraged to denounce the landlords and many were beaten or executed. Mutual-Aid Teams (10 families) were also setup that pooled labour and equipment. By 1952 land reform had transformed China. 40% of land was redistributed with 60% of the population benefiting. However between 750,000 1 million landlords had been killed. Many women benefited from the 1950 Marriage Law which declared women have equal rights and forbade arranged marriages, dowries, concubinage, child marriage. Women s property rights were also asserted and divorce became available on equal terms. Prostitution was declared illegal with all houses registered and visitor lists kept by street committees. Opium addiction was also targeted with poppy fields uprooted and dealers shot.

24 12.) The First Five-Year-Plan: Area Reasons for Change Changes Agriculture Industry Mao s long-term aim was to transform China into a socialist country. He believed this would take 15 years. In agriculture, he envisaged grouping together small, privately owned farms into much larger, collective farms. He believed this would make farms more productive and able to feed China s growing industrial population. However, Mao also recognised that peasants had long been exploited by the landlords and wanted nothing more than their own small farms. He knew peasants showed a spontaneous tendency towards capitalism. He was unwilling to lose their support during the war with the KMT, but by 1953, Mao felt that his position was secure enough, and the economy stable enough, to press ahead with rapid collectivisation of farming. Industrialisation was necessary in order to build socialism but Mao also believed that China should be self-sufficient in food and manufactured goods. Foreign-owned businesses were nationalised and foreign trade was to be kept at a minimum. Industrial development was therefore an absolute priority. The Plan was focused on increasing the capacity of heavy industry such as iron, steel, energy, transport, communications, machinery and chemicals. The production of consumer goods was a low priority due to scare resources and money. The plan was to be aided by over 10,000 Soviet advisors and 13,000 Chinese students were educated in Russia The first cautious steps towards more cooperative forms of farming. Mutual-aid teams group 10 or more households together to share labour, tools and animals Lower-Stage Cooperatives were introduced. These were groups of households who pooled land as well as labour. By working together, peasants were able to get rid of the old system of strip farming, which released more land for cultivation, cut down travel time and enabled peasants to share the cost of new machinery. Peasants still owned their private plots within the cooperative and any profits were shared between all households Higher-Stage Cooperatives were introduced which consisted of households. Families were not paid rent for their land and only received wages for labour. Equipment, land and animals were now property of the cooperative except for a small plot (5%) kept for private use. Success? By 1957, 97% of all peasants land had been collectivised. CCP control in the countryside was strengthened and Mao declared it a success however, during the Five-Year Plan, agricultural production had only risen by an estimated 3.8%. The government tried to persuade people to save money in State banks through patriotic savings campaigns, which helped fund investment. By deliberately limiting the supply of consumer goods, the government ensured that workers had little to spend their money on, further increasing savings. Success? The Plan set ambitious targets for all key sectors of the economy, and most targets were achieved and even exceeded (see table below). There was greater job security and incomes and living standards even rose in cities. Failures? However there were failures: Workers lacked skills and were not trained for industrial work; emphasis on quantity rather than quality; serious bureaucratic delays and competition for scarce resources; lack of consumer goods. Industrial Sector 1952 (actual) 1957 (target) 1957 (actual) 1957 (% target) Coal (million tonnes) % Steel (million tonnes) Cement (million tonnes) % Electrical Power (billion kwh) % Locomotives (units) % Trucks (units) % Insecticide (tonnes) ,000 61, % Machine Tools (units) 13,734 12,720 28, % Bicycles (thousands) , %

25 13.) The Hundred Flowers Campaign: Causes What happened? Effects Historians have drawn sharply different conclusions about Mao s motives in launching the 100 Flowers Campaign: 1.) Serious Error of Judgement - One school of thought argues that he genuinely encouraged free speech and criticism but was shocked by the reaction and then clamped down on his critics. Jonathan Spence argues: a muddled and inconclusive movement that grew out of conflicts within the Communist Party leadership. At its centre was an argument about the pace and type of development that was best for China. 2.) Trap to Expose Anti-Communist Elements This school of thought believes that the Campaign was a deliberate plan by Mao to flush out critics of the government and CCP. Jung Chang and John Halliday argue: He cooked up a devious plan. Few guessed that Mao was setting a trap and that he was inviting people to speak out so that he could then use what they said as an excuse to victimise them. Despite the debate, what is clear is that Mao was influenced by a number of considerations: The CCP was now securely in control and felt able to relax its grip of free speech. The First-Five-Year Plan had been achieved but serious problems of waste and chaos in planning, esp agriculture, had led to debate with the CCP. Mao wanted to speed up economic change but faced opposition in the Politburo. He also believed the greatest danger facing the CCP was growing bureaucratism. He thought Party officials were becoming too alienated from the masses and serving the needs of the organisations they worked for rather than themselves. In February 1957, Mao made a speech on the subject of On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People, in which he repeated his early call to Let a hundred flowers blossom, let a hundred schools of thought contend. He meant that free speech was healthy and should be encouraged. The speech was published widely and Mao supported it with a 3-week train journey through eastern China, spreading this message. In April the Politburo were persuaded by Mao to sanction the campaign and it was officially launched in May, unleashing a torrent of criticisms that attacked the communist system. In the press, magazines, at rallies and on posters, intellectuals attacked the regime for treating people as their obedient subjects and for developing into a new, privileged, bureaucratic class that was out of touch with the people. At Beijing University, students created a democracy wall that was covered with posters critical of the communist party. Even Mao himself began to be criticised. This was too much for Mao who, in June 1957, suddenly cracked down on his critics. A full-scale counter-attack on intellectuals was launched. In the ensuing anti-rightist campaign, perhaps as many as 500,000 intellectuals were branded rightists and subjected to persecution. Some were sent to labour camps, others to the countryside for re-education. Many were driven to suicide by the severe mental pressure they were subjected to. Some were sacked from their jobs and a few students were shot in public. Silenced Criticism for a Generation - As a result of this wave of persecution, independence of thought was systematically crushed; intellectuals in China would never trust Mao or the CCP again and intellectual life was stultified. Party Unity was Strengthened Mao s position became unchallengeable which enabled serious problems in the Great Leap Forward to go unchecked by the Party. A popular saying at the time was: After the Three-Antis no one wants to be in charge of money; after the anti-rightist campaign no one opens their mouth.

26 14.) The Great Leap Forward: Mao s Motives What happened & Why did it fail? Results of the GLF Political Context - Mao believed mass mobilisation could be used to take China very quickly from the stage of Socialism to fully developed Communism without the need for more bureaucracy. A success like this would further consolidate his political power. Propaganda could be used to encourage peasants to work harder. Mao s regime also lacked checks and balances to stop him: nobody had the courage to stand up to him! Economic Context The First Five Year Plan boosted industrial production by 18.7% but agriculture lagged at 3.8%. Unless agriculture could be improve, industrialisation would be held back. Surplus food would free peasants to work in factories. Ideological Context - Mao wanted to decentralise control away from the centralised State bureaucracy to local Party cadres as he feared the revolution was becoming bogged down in bureaucracy. The GLF would be a way to continue the revolution. International Context Mao wanted China to become a great power, free of foreign influence, including the USSR. Khrushchev s peaceful coexistence policy with the USA scared Mao and enforced the belief that China had to stand alone. The GLF was in part, an assertion by Mao of Chinese independence from the USSR. In January 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward which was his Second Five Year Plan. China was to be transformed into a leading industrial power, overtaking Britain in 7 years and the USA soon after. Mao quickly got caught up in the euphoria of his belief that communist rule could finally unlock China s vast potential. In Autumn 1957, he declared China would produce 40 million tonnes of steel by the 1970s. By Autumn 1958 he raised this to 100 million by 1962 and 700 million by early 1970! Agriculture High-Level Cooperatives were to be incorporated into even larger units called people s communes. Communes held over 20,000 people and would become the basic unit of rural society. Workers were organised into platoons and by the end of 1958, 700 million people (90%) lived on 26,578 communes. Mao aimed to communise the peasants by abolishing the private lives of peasants and take away private plots of land. Work was organised military style and children looked after in kindergartens. Industry Communes also had to aid industrial production by building 600,000 Backyard Furnaces to produce iron and steel. Metal implements of all kinds were melted down into pig iron. Why did it Fail? Mao ignored economic realities - Economic laws could ignored as bureaucratic or revisionist. The speed with which communes were established and the exaggerated production figures which local officials anxious to avoid being labelled rightists reported to the government caused Mao s confidence to grow, further inflating already impossible targets. Anti-Rightist Campaign Had purged China of crucial experts and scared officials into telling Mao what he wanted to hear. Targets were inflated to ensure survival. Waste & Inefficiency Military training & factory work took peasants away from food production, leaving grain to rot. Farming tools were even melted down to produce steel! Failure of Commune System Peasants resented being forced to give up land and private lives. There was no incentive to work hard and many peasants hoarded grain due to lack of food. Natural Disasters In 1960 north & central China faced droughts and the Yellow River dried up. Flooding hit southern China. Split with USSR In 1960 the USSR withdrew its technical advisors, leaving China short of technicians. Food production actually slumped - Too many peasants were forced into industry. In 1958 there was a good harvest of 375 million tonnes of grain recorded but closer to 200 million. Nevertheless, Mao set an even more fantastic figure 430 million for The harvest of 1959 was a disaster with only 170 million tonnes produced. In 1960, it was only 143 million. By summer 1959, food shortages hit cities. The Great Famine Inefficiencies combined with floods and droughts and between 1959 and 1962, over 20 million people died of starvation! Industrial Production Slumped - 11 million tonnes of Steel was produced by 1958 however only 9 million was of acceptable quality and most was left to rust. They also required too much fuel, leading to a lack of fuel for trains. People could not work fast enough, often falling asleep at machines. Overworked machines even broke down. Targets remained set at impossible high levels which were not met and Backyard Furnaces were abandoned in Mao Steps Down Mao took part of the blame and stepped down as China s head of state. He was still Chairman of the CCP but China was now controlled by President Liu Shao-chi, Prime Minister Zhou Enlai and General Secretary Deng Xiaoping. They reversed many of Mao s policies, reducing communes in size and returning some private plots of land.

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28 15.) The Cultural Revolution: Causes What happened? Effects Power Struggle After the GLF Mao s own political position was weakened whilst his economic policies had been rejected. One aim was to defeat his opponents, regain political supremacy and ensure his economic policies were accepted. Economic Arguments - From the leaders of the CCP argued with one another about which road they should follow in developing China. Moderates led by President Liu Shao-chi and General Secretary of the CCP Deng Xiaoping, wanted to introduce more incentives to get peasants working hard like wages and private plots. By 1962, 20% of farm land had actual reverted to private ownership. They also wanted a new class of skilled managers to plan the economy. Mao totally opposed these policies and retained his faith in mass mobilisation. Purify Communism Ideologically, Mao was upset by the direction of the CCP. Incentives undermined the ideal of communist equality. In 1962 he launched the Socialist Education Movement to get people back on the right road. Chinese culture and education were also criticised by Mao for producing high and might bureacrats. Culture had to change to reflect the ideological purity of Maoism. New Support The PLA led by Lin Biao supported Mao from Lin reformed the PLA, emphasising loyalty to Mao through the issuing of the famous Little Red Book. Mao began to rely on the army as a counterweight to the revisionists. Mao s wife, Jiang Qing was also a powerful supporter, in charge of cultural change. In early 1965 Mao began scheming against his revisionist rivals, using his allies to place attacks in newspapers. On 16 th May 1966, Mao persuaded the Politburo to issue a circular which launched the Cultural Revolution: Representatives of the bourgeoisie have sneaked into our party. They are a bunch of country-revolutionary revisionists. Some these people have already been exposed. Others have not. Mao then publically announced his return to political life with a 15 km swim in the Yangtze and gave a speech to the CCP in Beijing, launching the Cultural Revolution with an attack on the Four Olds old culture, old ideas, old customs and old habits. On 18 th August, Mao gave the first of eight giant rallies, calling on Red Guards to attack the four olds and root out revisionists. The Red Guards were groups of young people and students who were encouraged to do Mao s bidding. They formed under the slogan: We are the critics of the old world; we are the builders of the new. They were given the right to travel free on railways and the Police and PLA were ordered not to interfere. They soon used violence to achieve their aims: shaving hair off girls with western style haircuts, burning libraries and museums, attacking foreign embassies. By 1967 there was anarchy as the Red Guards split into rival factions, with over 400,000 deaths. Red Guards were inspired by the Cult of Mao. Mao was worshipped as a new emperor, with workers forced to worship his portrait and read his sayings in the Little Red Book. 740 million copies were printed in They were even inspired to attack Party leaders like Liu Shaochi who was physically attacked and expelled from the Party in By Sep 1967, Mao attempted to restore order. The PLA was used to quell the fighting and over five million young people were sent to the countryside for compulsory re-education. By 1969, law and order had been restored. Mao Triumphant The 9 th Party Congress in April 1969 confirmed Mao s thought as the guiding ideology in China. Liu Shaoqi was denounced as a hidden traitor and scab and died of medical neglect. All rivals had been demoted or killed although Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping had survived by not opposing Mao. Army most Powerful Institution Lin Biao was named as successor to Mao and over half of delegates wore army uniforms. The army composed 45% of the 279 members in the new Central Committee. The 25-man Politburo contained 9 serving soldiers and 3 former marshals. Education Disrupted During the Revolution, some schools were close for up to 2 years and the exam system was abolished. Deaths 500,000 have been estimated to have been killed, mostly through torture and beatings. Millions more were sent for re-education through hard labour. Industrial Output Dropped by 14% in 1967 and fell in Incentives were stopped and technicians dismissed. Culture Culture and the arts had suffered heavily in the four olds campaign and under Jiang Qing, became agitprop (propaganda pretending to be art).

29 16.) The Gang of Four: Growing Power Struggle Rise of the Gang of Four Fall of the Gang of Four After the Cultural Revolution, Mao developed a suspicious hostility to the power of the army and removed many of Lin Biao s supporters. In retaliation, Lin drew up a plan to overthrow Mao in 1971 but was discovered. He tried to escape in an aircraft but died when it in the Mongolian desert. After Lin s death, Mao s health began to fail and there was a growing power struggle between right-wing moderates and left-wing radicals for control of the CCP. The Left led by Mao s wife Jiang Qing and 3 radical politicians from Shanghai, known as the Gang of Four: Zhang Chunquiao, Yao Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen. They were supported by the Communist Youth League, and control press and radio. The left believed in Maoism and wanted to continue the political struggle against revisionists. They put all their energy into a series of campaigns against bourgeois and outdated ideas like the 1973 Anti-Confucius Campaign. The Right led by Prime Minister Zhou Enlai & Deputy Prime Minister Deng Xiaoping who had been rehabilitated by Mao who wanted to balance the factions within the CCP. The right was supported by the CCP and PLA, who were eager to end political arguments. They supported Zhou s plan for Four Modernisations of China s industry, farming, defence and science. In 1976, the right suffered a setback when Zhou Enlai died and was succeeded by Deng. Thousands went to Tiananmen Square to pay their respects, laying wreathes and posters. On 5 th April 1975 visitor found all the wreaths removed. 10,000 people rioted in support of Zhou and Deng, followed by over 200 arrests. There were similar protests in other cities like Shanghai however the left blamed Deng and removed him from the Party and government. He was replaced by a minor official called Hua Guofeng who was nicknamed the helicopter due to his rapid rise to power. The Gang of Four now seemed in control of the CCP when Mao died on 9 th Septemeber When Mao died, Hua Guofeng succeeded to all the top positions in government. Whilst he now controlled the CCP and army, he lacked real status of his own and the Gang of Four prepared to manipulate him out of power. He was rescued by the army. There was evidence that they had plotted against Hua and on the night of 6 th October 1976, the Gang of Four were arrested. Their supporters were also put in prison. They were hated and many demanded severe punishments. The CCP used the press, radio and newspapers to attack the Gang of Four and in the winter of , they were put on trial and found guilty sentenced to long prison terms. Over the next three years, the moderates led by Deng Xiaoping gently eased Hua from power, and in 1980, from office. Under Deng, China began a period of moderate policies, carrying out the Four Modernisations of Zhou Enlai. The Cultural Revolution was finally over. In 1981 the Central Committee of the CCP announced that Mao had been 70% correct and 30% mistaken. The CCP could not condemn its Chairman without fatally undermining its own legitimacy. Zhang Chunquiao Jiang Qing Deng Xiaoping Yao Wenyuan Wang Hongwen Zhou Enlai

30 17.) Changes under Deng Xiaoping: s Area Reasons for Reform Reforms Industry Agriculture Education Birth Control Westernisation The economy had suffered hugely under Mao and the Gang of Four. Many machines were old-fashioned and many Chinese factories were oldfashioned and inefficient, running at a loss. The economy was also too micromanaged by Beijing. In one area, there were 2 million pairs of shoes piled up in warehouses. Nobody was buying them because the style was old-fashioned, yet factories were still producing them because the managers were under order to do so. The cooperative farms were failing to produce enough food. In 1982 China had to import 13.7 million tons of grain to feed its population. Under Mao, students were admitted to university if they had a good political, not academic, record. Examinations were boycotted because they were seen as creating an unequal society. During the Cultural Revolution, birth control programmes were abandoned and the birth rate spiralled out of control. It was estimated that by the year 2000, China s population would be billion. Moreover, a 1982 census of the population showed that ¾ of the population worked in agriculture and that population was increasing by 12 million a year. China s economic growth would be slowed if this carried on unchecked. Under Mao, China was virtually closed off from the world. Foreign influences and trade was limited and during the Cultural Revolution, many foreign embassies were attacked. This improved in 1972 when US President Nixon visited China leading to a thaw in relations. Deng recognised that China lagged in economic development in comparison to the West. In 1979 a new and ambitious Ten-Year Plan was introduced. New factories were built and workers were paid bonuses for extra output. People were free to own their own businesses. Record numbers of consumer goods, such as bicycles, watches and sewing machines were produced. Foreigners were encouraged to visit China and invest their money, even from the USA. There was far less control from the centre. Factory managers were told to run their factories profitably and to produce what people wanted to buy. Many switched to consumer goods. Deng also created Special Enterprise Zones (SEZ) and open coastal sites. The SEZs were to encourage western firms to establish themselves in areas such as Shanghai and Guangdong, through the promise of cheap land and local labour. These foreign businesses were expected to train Chinese personnel and to give priority to using Chinese raw materials. The size of peasant plots was increased. A Responsibility System for commune land was started in 1978, by which families were given responsibility for cultivating areas of land within their commune. They signed contracts promising to produce fixed amounts of food for sale to the state, and were allowed to sell any surplus at market for profit. By 1983 China had 44,000 markets as farmers could sell their produce privately. The income of agricultural workers tripled between 1977 and Deng restored tough examinations for university places. Success in academic subjects once again became essential. Special key schools for the best students were set up to provide China with the skills needed to prosper. Moreover, the time spent on political education and manual labour was reduced. In 1979 he introduced the one-child family policy with massive publicity. It was a series of measures designed to discourage couples from having more than one child. The minimum age for marriage was set at 20 for women and 22 for men; Couples had to get the consent of their commune and take a written test in family planning; Those with only one child were given generous family allowances and more rations; Single children found it easier to get into higher education whilst their parents got priority housing; People who were willing to be sterilised got extra cash and holidays. The 1978 Open Door Policy was designed by Deng to open up China to world capitalism and western influences. On TV, the Chinese were able to see the Pope or US President. They could buy foreign books in translation and listen to foreign music. There was more entertainment and less political meetings. In communist newspapers, the Chinese could read about the darker side of life in China such as industrial accidents, crime and Party officials who had used their power for their own ends. Deng realised that economic recovery would be helped by Western technology and expertise. He sent students abroad to study engineering and technology. He encourage foreign companies to set up projects in China in partnership with state-owned Chinese businesses. These ranged from textiles and hotel construction to oil prospecting.

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32 18.) The Democracy Movement: Deng s Opposition to Reform Although Deng believed in economic reform and Westernisation, he was a communist hardliner and was very conservative towards political change. He believed that China had gone through too much in the Cultural Revolution and needed a rest from political argument. Deng believed popular democracy would undermine his economic reforms. This was expressed in 1980 by the National People s Congress which condemned the view that people had a right to speak freely and even criticise the government. He was influenced by his four cardinal principles : Keeping to the Socialist road Upholding the people s democratic dictatorship Upholding leadership by the CCP Upholding Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought In addition, Deng wanted to restore the authority and control of the CCP after the disasters of the GLF and Cultural Revolution. He wanted to show that the CCP was still capable of governing China. Rise of the Democracy Movement The Democracy Wall movement began in early Wall posters began to appear in the Avenue of Eternal Peace, near Tiananmen Square. It was a common meeting place for students who often attached small letters and posters onto walls. Some were political graffiti whilst others expressed antigovernment and anti-party feelings. Many Chinese suffered during the Cultural Revolution but struggled to benefit from Deng s reforms. Wei Jingsheng was one such person. He was a writer who on 25 th March 1979, published an article called Democracy or New Dictatorship which attacked Deng. The attack shocked Deng and in Summer 1979, the government tore down the posters. Wei was brought to trial and sentenced for 15 years imprisonment. Wei was viewed as the first martyr of the movement who saw in Deng s reforms the opportunity to modernise the political system as well as the economy. It urged Deng to adopt Democracy and accused the CCP of corruption. In 1986, major disturbances broke out in universities in Hefei, Wuhan and Shanghai. Thousands followed Fang Lizhi who was a professor at Hefei and demanded open government and democracy. On 5 th Jan 1987 students at Beijing University burnt copies of local CCP newspapers and protested against conservatives. Deng generally tolerated the movement unless he was personally attacked. The punishment of Wei Jingsheng was a warning and insisted that genuine Democracy was not an option for China. Growing Opposition and Unrest Opposition grew throughout the mid to late 1980s. The Democracy Movement was disappointed at his rejection of democracy and repression of student demonstrations. Many economic reforms proved to be very disappointing. Inflation had risen as had unemployment. The growing population and rural to urban migration led to severe overcrowding in the cities. Students felt that Deng and the CCP had failed to deliver. Many also resented the lack of jobs and the fact that top jobs often went to members of the CCP. Wei Jingsheng Fang Lizhi

33 19.) The Tiananmen Square Massacre: June 1989 What happened? The events of 1989 were a culmination of tension that had been building up for over 10 years: Death of Hu Yaobang Hu was the General Secretary of the CCP and died on 15 th April He had been sympathetic to the democracy movement but had been removed in Jan 1987 for supporting protests. Large crowds gathered in Tiananmen Square for his memorial. 3 students tried to give a petition to Premier Li Peng. He refused it which sparked off sit-ins and boycotts of university classes. Students from 40 universities joined protesters in Tiananmen Square with transport workers giving them free travel. Hunger Strike By mid-may, a group of 300 students went on hunger strike and they refused government calls to end it. They were receiving worldwide publicity for international journalists. USSR leader Gorbachev was also visiting Beijing and protesters believed the authorities wouldn t dare to crush the protest during the visit. Zhao Ziyang On the 6 th day of the hunger strike, General Secretary Zhao asked students in tears to end the strike, promising to resolve all issues. He was dismissed from his post with Deng deciding that force would be used and declared martial law. Protests continued. Further Support When news broke of the continuing protests, many thousands returned to the square. Residents in Beijing blocked the roads leading to Tiananmen Square to prevent troops from entering. Troops hastily withdrew to the outskirts of the city. Troops Move In By 2 nd June 1989, 350,000 PLA soldiers and crack troops supported by tanks surrounded the Square and controlled all routes in, ignoring protests of local people. The Massacre At 10PM on the night of the 3 rd June, shots were fired at demonstrators and by midday, the occupation was over. Tanks were even used to drive at groups of students. Some groups of students were marched away and imprisoned. No one knows the real number of casualties although it includes PLA soldiers beaten to death by angry crowds and could be well in the thousands. The government imposed a news blackout but information leaked out. Effects In the weeks that followed, demonstrators who escaped were rounded up and imprisoned. Ringleaders were given heavy sentences. CCP officials that had supported the protests were dismissed whilst those who opposed the demonstrations were promoted. The government admitted that 23 students had been killed accidentally. The massacre marked the end of the democracy movement in China. At the 14 th Party Congress of the CCP in Oct 1992, the dictatorship of the Communist Party was confirmed no criticism was allowed to be permitted. Political reform would not be allowed.

34 B5: Conflict, Crisis and Change: China Exam Questions Section C topics are split into three questions. The wording and pattern of the questions will always be the same so remember the three types of questions you have to deal with: a) Take information from a source b) Describe the key features of an event c) an essay on change. Possible topics include: China The causes, events and results of the 1911 Revolution, China under the Warlords, The May the Forth Movement, Sun Yat-Sen, Chiang Kai-Shek and the Kuomintang, Mao Zedong and the emergence of the Chinese Communist Party, The Northern March and the Shanghai Massacres. The Triumph of Mao and the CCP The events and importance of the Long March , War with Japan , Role of the CCP, Red Army and failures of the KMT during the war, Key features of the Civil War , The battle of Huai-Hai, Reasons for the success of Mao and the CCP. Change under Mao Changes in agriculture and Industry, first Five Year Plan, attack on landlords, the Agrarian Reform Law, cooperatives and collectives. Changes in the role of women, political changes including Thought Reform, the Three and Five Antis Campaigns. The Hundred Flowers campaign, Reasons for, key features and effects of the Great Leap Forward. The Impact of the Cultural Revolution Mao s motives for the Cultural Revolution, Key features, the Red Guards, education, the Cult of Mao, Impact on China and Mao s position. Changes under Deng Xiaoping The Rise of the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, Changes under Deng, education, birth control, agriculture, industry, privatisation and westernisation, The Development of the Democracy Movement Deng s opposition to political reform, origins of the Democracy Movement 1979, The Democracy Wall movement, Wei Jingsheng, Features and aims of the University Protests 1986, Reaction of Deng, Tiananmen Square Protests You only have about 45 minutes to answer all three sub-questions. The amount of marks for each questions should help you judge how much to write. For Question a) give 5 minutes, Question b) 10 minutes, Question c) 30 minutes. Grade boundaries are at end of document.