[From B. Davidson, Modern Africa, p.130]

Transcription

1 Nationalism was a way to become less poor, to send their children to school, benefit from better roads, prices, public services. They [the majority of the people] looked to nationalism for social gains, while the educated few mostly had their eyes on political gains. [From B. Davidson, Modern Africa, p.130]

2 WWII: Europe, Africa & the World - post-war world saw creation of United Nations (to replace League of Nations) - Increase in anti-colonial rhetoric (including Pan-Africanists) - independence in various Asian regions, especially India, had major impact on colonizers and colonized alike

3 WWII: Europe, Africa & the World -Britain and France began speaking of changes to colonialism - allowed formation of Workers Unions where previously illegal - United States and Soviet Union emerged strong from the war: demanding access to colonial world by supporting anti-colonialism

4 WWII: Europe, Africa & the World [Not everyone accepted the liberal, progressive aims touted by the Colonial Powers and the United Nations. Some African leaders, like Amical Cabral ( ) of Portuguese Guinee questioned whether the aim of the imperialist countries in the context of an emergent cold war -- in agreeing to African independence was not to prevent:] the enlargement of the socialist camp, [to] liberate the reactionary forces in our countries stifled by colonialism, and enable these forces to ally themselves with the international bourgeoisie [middle class]. [from B Davidson, Modern Africa, p.104]

5 From Gold Coast to Ghana: First Steps United Gold Coast Convention typical of educated professional elitist political party: - choice of Kwame Nkrumah as secretary in keeping with that social root - Nkrumah educated in US, lived in London before returning to Gold Coast. - his beliefs, policies, moved far beyond those of UGCC colleagues - supported local boycotts, strikes - believed in independence NOW!

6 From Gold Coast to Ghana (cont.) February 28, 1948: - local boycott European goods in Accra forced merchants to lower prices - several hundred ex-servicemen marched on Christianbourg Castle (Governor s office) seeking promised payment pensions, jobs - neither UGCC nor Nkrumah involved -became historical watersheds, affecting not only the Gold Coast but all of Africa. (Davidson Video: The Rise of Nationalism )

7 End of Empire : signficance? - expectations/treatment ex-servicemen reflected British as well as African views - legacy of colonialism in creating moderate elite closer to British than to ill/semi-literate, working class/rural Africans - political shift: not only more radical but more aware of social groups (workers, women, unions) and willing to address their needs

8 End of Empire : signficance? - new awareness of modern politics : role of charisma, organizing, advertising, slogans - links to wider decolonizing world (eg. India) - but: difference between agitating for power & exercising it in context of governing

9 Nigeria: following in the wake Political activity in Nigeria began during war, directly reflected Colonial Policy of ruling country through arbitrarily determined regions: - south east: NCNC (Azikiwe) - south west NAG (Awolowo) - north NEPU (Amin Kano); 1951 became NPC (Sir Ahadu Bello) (1951 saw short-lived UMBC in middle regions)

10 Nigeria (cont.) Richards Commission (1946): - all Nigerian Legislative council: advisory only, with two Nigerian representatives - three regional councils (south east, south west and north) -Intended as moderate reform, responding to slowly changing ideas of colonialism in London - widely criticized in Nigeria -- even by the elite it was supposed to please.

11 Nigeria (cont.) Emergence of Tribal Nationalism: - regions galvanized majority ethnic groups into dominant ones. - constitution revamped 1951 (Macpherson Constitution), greater devolution power under Federal Government

12 Nigeria (cont.) Emergence of Tribal Nationalism: - regions increasingly identified with ethnic groups: Ibo/Igbo (south east); Yoruba (south west); Hausa-Fulani (north) - potential established for religious divides as well: Christian south versus Muslim North - scrapped in 1954

13 Emergence of Tribal Nationalism Regional Leaders: Sir Ahamado Bello (NPC, north); Obafemi Awolowo (AG, south west); Nnamdi Azikiwe (NCNC, south, then south east). [ photo-essay-on-nigeria.html]

14 Nigerian Postage Stamps Decolonisation articulated in Postal System [

15 Currency of Colonialism Colonialism had many daily reminders even as movement was being made towards independence. These notes/coins are also evocative of Azikiwe s early insistence on the need for financial independence: African controlled banks to support African initiatives.

16 Nnamdi Azikiwe As a young student (above) and an inspirational leader (right) of southern Nigeria. [ ]

17 The French Experience Post-war change came first in France: - left-leaning coalition (including Communist Party) immediately moved for change in the colonial world : Union Francaise created commonwealth of French Colonies - 20 Africans to be elected representatives to French Assembly - others to serve in new Assembly for the Union

18 French Africa Responds French Africa responded: - many new political voices, including Rassemblement Democratique Africaine founded in Bamako, 1946, by all 12 colonies. -Included participation key players, many future leaders - aims: better deal in broader French empire - one of first, most important actions was repeal of Forced Labour (Lamine Gueye, Senegal) Future looked promising.

19 French Africa (cont.) - as in British Africa, Francophone labour unions became voices of response -one of most well-known actions: Dakar-Niger railway strike - lasted from 10 October to 19 March - support spread to other French colonies - now-famous novel Gods bits of wood penned by Senegalese writer, film maker Ousman Sembene, to memorialize it

20 Ousmane Sembene [himself a dockworker in Marseilles, all his novels are highly politicized.] The Author s Note from the novel expresses the role played by African workers: The men and women who took part in this struggle for a better way of life owe nothing to anyone: neither to any civilizing mission, nor to any parliament or parliamentarian. Their example was not in vain. Since then, Africa has made progress.

21 Post 1947: French Africa (cont.) - conservative political forces in France government in favour of businessmen, settlers - against such rapid or radical actions as predecessors proposed -attacked Houphouet-Boigny (Cote d Ivoire) and regional partie democratique (PDCI) for communist leanings - several dozen members killed, hundreds imprisoned.

22 French Africa (cont.) -RDA drawing direction from progress in British Territories (Gold Coast and Nigeria) - suggested new self-governing federations based on the old FWA and FEA - French government preferred twelve smaller states, all part of French nation - some (eg. Houphouet-Boigny) accepted - became junior minister French Gov t others (egseko Toure,Guinee) pushed for greater autonomy.

23 From Gold Coast to Ghana: the 1950s Struggle for independence not only about struggle against British: -also struggle to agree on what nationalism meant - who it was to benefit - struggle for Independence as much an internal, civil struggle as one against external enemy

24 From Gold Coast to Ghana: the 1950s - battle against conflicting views of traditional versus modern authority - battle against conflicting needs of different regions and ethnic groups in those regions - battle against practices, behaviour generated by colonialism but destructive to independence

25 Kwame Nkrumah Prime- Minister (left) of Gold Coast, 1956 [B Davidson, Africa, History of a Continent, (1966), 298] President (right) of Ghana, 1957 H. Spodek, The World s History 2 nd ed. (2001), 751]

26 Opening of Parliament: Ghana [ from McKay, Hill & Buckler, A history of World Societies, Vol.II, 1996, 1159] Combined old and new : two medicine men pour sacred oil -- libations and call on the gods to bless the work of the Second Parliament. (President Nkrumah on the right)

27 Independence in the Marketplace Celebrating Independence: market women played a critical role in the CPP s victory. Note the cloth worn by the woman, right foreground. [from B. Davidson, Africa: History of a Continent, 1966, 301]

28 Kwame Nkrumah on Nationalism In accepting the British government s offer of 1951 to make him leader of a government pledged to an eventual African independence Nkrumah told his voters: there is a great risk in accepting office under this new constitution which still makes us half-slaves and half-free. There would be a great need for vigilance and moral courage to withstand the consequent temptations of temporary personal advantage. This was because bribery and corruption, both moral and factual have eaten into the whole fabric of our society and these must be stamped out if we are to achieve any progress. [from Davidson, The Black Man s Burden, pp ]

29 Nigeria: a case of federalism As Nkrumah and his Veranda Boys were consolidating power in southern Gold Coast, yet another constitution imposed in Nigeria document placed more emphasis on role of Federal government - but regional ethnic rivalries, tensions already well entrenched south east and west were granted selfgovernment the north joined Nigeria gained full independence

30 Francophone Colonies: the 1950s 1956 Loi Cadre : -devolved government from Dakar and Brazzaville (centres for the former federations) to each of 12 colonies. - context of imminent independence for Gold Coast, Nigeria (also Morocco,Tunisia) and crisis in Algeria led new leader, de Gaulle, to alter policy

31 Francophone Colonies: the 1950s - decided to protect future influence: new Communaute Francaise - France continued to control finance (common currency), foreign policy, military affairs - local parliamentary government, flag, anthem devolved to states

32 Francohpone 1950s (cont.) Reactions varied: - some not happy but felt Communaute gave time for weaker, poorer colonies to gain strength - others pleased to see small elite kept in positions of power - cultural reactions expressed in part by Leopold Senghor s concept of negritude a curious modern-concervatism or return to Mother Africa within larger French community

33 Francophone : : the Referendum 1958 France held a referendum on the question of belonging to the Communaute: - de Gaulle made special tour of each colony preparing voters - maintained control over voting apparatus - YES vote meant continuing patronage of France aid, military support, currency stability (the FWA, FEA franc tied to French franc) - NO vote meant withdrawal of all support

34 Francophone : : Referendum (cont.) Every colony voted yes EXCEPT Seku Toure s Guinea: - Toure strongly based in workers unions - Partie Democratique de Guinee successful at winning popular support, undermining authority of traditional chiefs - 95% voters rejected the Communaute, opted for real independence

35 Francophone : : Referendum (cont.) - all aid immediately cut off - all French infrastructure that could be removed was even telephones ripped off walls! Guinea reflected potential danger: if one colony could make it alone, how long before the others did the same?

36 Note the Banner: Long Live the Guinea- Ghana Union Trade Unionist Movement and Revolution in Guinea [from Ministry of Information and Tourism, Four Years of Independence and Liberty, Republic of Guinea, 1962, 111-3]

37 The Independence of Africa