Nationalism Triumphs in Europe

Transcription

1 Chapter 23 Nationalism Triumphs in Europe Chapter Preview 1 Building a German Nation 2 Strengthening Germany 3 Unifying Italy 4 Nationalism Threathens Old Empires 5 Russia: Reform and Reaction Chapter Review and Assessment Unification in Europe, 1873 Nationalist movements led to the creation of several new nations across Europe. CHAPTER EVENTS GLOBAL EVENTS

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3 SECTION 1 Building a German Nation Reading Focus Vocabulary Taking Notes What early changes promoted German unity? How did Bismarck unify Germany? What was the basic political organization of the new German empire? chancellor Realpolitik annex kaiser Reich Make a flowchart showing the key events that led to a united Germany. Print out this flowchart to help you get started. Add more boxes as needed. Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Prussia, led the drive for German unity. Setting the Scene The Prussian legislators waited restlessly for Otto von Bismarck to speak. They knew he wanted them to vote more money to build up the Prussian army. Liberal members of the parliament, however, opposed the move. At last, Bismarck rose and dismissed their concerns: Germany does not look to Prussia's liberalism, but to her power. The great questions of the day are not to be decided by speeches and majority resolutions that was the mistake of 1848 and 1849 but by blood and iron! Otto von Bismarck, quoted in Modern and Contemporary European History, (Schapiro) Bismarck delivered his blood and iron speech in It set the tone for his policies in the years ahead. Bismarck was determined to build a strong, unified German state, with Prussia at its head. Steps Toward Unity In the early 1800s, German-speaking people lived in a number of small and medium-sized states as well as in Prussia and the Austrian Hapsburg empire. Napoleon's invasions unleashed new forces in these territories.

4 Impact of Napoleon Between 1807 and 1812, Napoleon made important territorial changes in Germanspeaking lands. He annexed lands along the Rhine River for France. He dissolved the Holy Roman Empire and organized a number of German states into the Rhine Confederation. At first, some Germans welcomed the French emperor as a hero with enlightened, modern policies. He encouraged freeing the serfs, made trade easier, and abolished laws against Jews. However, not all Germans appreciated Napoleon and his changes. As people fought to free their lands from French rule, they began to demand a unified German state. Napoleon's defeat did not resolve the issue. At the Congress of Vienna, Metternich pointed out that a united Germany would require dismantling the government of each German state. Instead, the peacemakers created the German Confederation, a weak alliance headed by Austria. Prussian Leadership In the 1830s, Prussia created an economic union called the Zollverein (tsawl fuh rīn). It dismantled tariff barriers between many German states. Still, Germany remained politically fragmented. In 1848, liberals meeting in the Frankfurt Assembly again demanded German political unity. They offered the throne of a united German state to Frederick William IV of Prussia. The Prussian ruler, however, rejected the notion of a throne offered by the people. Bismarck and German Unity Otto von Bismarck succeeded where others had failed. Bismarck came from Prussia's Junker (yung ker) class, made up of conservative landowning nobles. Bismarck first served Prussia as a diplomat. In 1862, King William I made him chancellor, or prime minister. Within a decade, the new chancellor had united the German states under Prussian rule. Master of Realpolitik Bismarck's success was due in part to his strong will. He was a master of Realpolitik, or realistic politics based on the needs of the state. Power was more important than principles. Although Bismarck was the architect of German unity, he was not really a German nationalist. His primary loyalty was to the Hohenzollerns, the ruling dynasty of Prussia. Through unification, he hoped to bring more power to the Hohenzollerns. Strengthening the Army As chancellor, Bismarck moved first to build up the Prussian army. Despite his blood and iron speech, the liberal legislature refused to vote funds for the military. In response, Bismarck strengthened the army with money that had been collected for other purposes. He then was ready to pursue an aggressive foreign policy. In the next decade, Bismarck led Prussia into three wars. Each war increased Prussian power and paved the way for German unity. Wars With Denmark and Austria Bismarck's first maneuver was to form an alliance in 1864 with Austria. They seized the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark. Prussia and Austria liberated the two provinces, which were largely inhabited by Germans, and divided up the spoils. In 1866, Bismarck invented an excuse to attack Austria. The Austro-Prussian War lasted just seven weeks and ended in a decisive Prussian victory. Prussia then annexed, or took control of, several other north German states. Bismarck dissolved the Austrian-led German Confederation and created a new confederation dominated by Prussia. He allowed Austria and four other southern German states to remain independent. Bismarck's motives, as always, were strictly practical. We had to avoid leaving behind any desire for revenge, he later wrote. The Franco-Prussian War In France, the Prussian victory over Austria worried Napoleon III. A growing rivalry between the two nations led to the Franco-Prussian War of War and Power In 1866, Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke analyzed the importance of Prussia's war against Austria: The war of 1866 was entered on not because the existence

5 Germans recalled only too well the invasions of Napoleon I some 60 years earlier. Bismarck played up the image of the French menace to spur German nationalism. For his part, Napoleon III did little to avoid war, hoping to mask problems at home with military glory. Bismarck furthered the crisis by rewriting and then releasing to the press a telegram that reported on a meeting between King William I and the French ambassador. Bismarck's editing of the Ems dispatch made it seem that William I had insulted the Frenchman. Furious, Napoleon III declared war on Prussia, as Bismarck had hoped. A superior Prussian force, supported by troops from other German states, smashed the badly organized and poorly supplied French soldiers. Napoleon III, old and ill, surrendered within a few weeks. France had to accept a humiliating peace. The German Empire Delighted by the victory over France, princes from the southern German states and the North German Confederation persuaded William I of Prussia to take the title kaiser (kī zer), or emperor. In January 1871, German nationalists celebrated the birth of the Second Reich, or empire. They called it that because they considered it heir to the Holy Roman Empire. of Prussia was threatened, nor was it caused by public opinion and the voice of the people; it was a struggle, long foreseen and calmly prepared for, recognized as a necessity by the Cabinet, not for territorial expansion, for an extension of our domain, or for material advantage, but for an ideal end the establishment of power. Not a foot of land was exacted from Austria. Its center of gravity lay out of Germany; Prussia's lay within it. Prussia felt itself called upon and strong enough to assume the leadership of the German races. Helmuth von Moltke, quoted in Readings in European History (Robinson) Primary Sources Why, according to von Moltke, did Prussia go to war against Austria? Coronation Of Kaiser William I A constitution drafted by Bismarck set up a two-house legislature. The Bundesrat, or upper house, was appointed by the rulers of the German states. The Reichstag, or lower house, was elected by universal male suffrage. Because the Bundesrat could veto any decisions of the Reichstag, real power remained in the hands of the emperor and his chancellor.

6 SECTION 2 Strengthening Germany Reading Focus Vocabulary Taking Notes What marked Germany as an industrial giant? Why was Bismarck called the Iron Chancellor? What policies did Kaiser William II follow? Kulturkampf social welfare Print out the diagram started here. As you read the section, add other causes that led to a strong German nation. Germany increased its power by building up its industry and armed forces. Setting the Scene In January 1871, German princes gathered in the glittering Hall of Mirrors at the French palace of Versailles. They had just defeated Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War. The palace of Louis XIV seemed the perfect place to proclaim the new German empire. To the winners as well as to the losers, the symbolism was clear. French domination of Europe, dating from the age of Louis XIV, had ended. Germany, headed by William I and his chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, was now the dominant power in Europe. The German Industrial Giant In the aftermath of unification, the German empire emerged as the industrial giant of the European continent. By the late 1800s, German chemical and electrical industries were setting the standard worldwide. German shipping was second only to Britain's among the European powers. Economic Progress Germany, like Great Britain, possessed several of the factors that made industrialization possible. Germany's spectacular growth was due in part to ample iron and coal resources, the basic ingredients for industrial development. A disciplined and educated work force also helped the economy, and a rapidly growing population from 41 million in 1871 to 67 million by 1914 provided a huge home market along with a larger supply of industrial workers. The new nation also benefited from earlier progress. During the 1850s and 1860s, Germans had founded large companies and built many railroads. The house of Krupp boomed after It became an enormous industrial complex that produced steel and weapons for a world market. Between 1871 and 1914, the business tycoon August Thyssen built a small steel factory of 70 workers into a giant empire with 50,000 employees.

7 Science, Government, and Industry German industrialists were the first to see the value of applied science in developing new products such as synthetic chemicals and dyes. They supported research and development in the universities and hired trained scientists to solve technological problems in their factories. The German government promoted economic development. After 1871, it issued a single currency for Germany, reorganized the banking system, and coordinated railroads built by the various German states. When a worldwide depression hit in the late 1800s, Germany raised tariffs to protect home industries from foreign competition. The leaders of the new German empire were determined to maintain economic strength as well as military power. The Iron Chancellor As chancellor of the new German empire, Bismarck pursued several foreignpolicy goals. He wanted to keep France weak and isolated while building strong links with Austria and Russia. He respected British naval power but did not seek to compete in that arena. Water rats, he said, do not fight with land rats. Later, however, he would take a more aggressive stand against Britain as the two nations competed for colonies to expand their overseas empires. On the domestic front, Bismarck applied the same ruthless methods he had used to achieve unification. The Iron Chancellor, as he was called, sought to erase local loyalties and crush all opposition to the imperial state. He targeted two groups the Catholic Church and the socialists. In his view, both posed a threat to the new German state. Campaign Against the Church After unification, Catholics made up about a third of the German population. The Lutheran Bismarck distrusted Catholics especially the clergy whose first loyalty, he believed, was to the pope instead of to Germany. In response to what he saw as the Catholic threat, Bismarck launched the Kulturkampf, or battle for civilization. His goal was to make Catholics put loyalty to the state above allegiance to the Church. The chancellor had laws passed that gave the state the right to supervise Catholic education and approve the appointment of priests. Other laws closed some religious orders, expelled the Jesuits from Prussia, and made it compulsory for couples to be married by civil authority. Bismarck's moves against the Catholic Church backfired. The faithful rallied behind the Church, and the Catholic Center party gained strength in the Reichstag. A realist, Bismarck saw his mistake and worked to make peace with the Church. Campaign Against the Socialists Bismarck also saw a threat to the new German empire in the growing power of socialism. By the late 1870s, German Marxists had organized the Social Democratic party, which called for parliamentary democracy and laws to improve conditions for the working class. Bismarck feared that socialists would undermine the loyalty of German workers and turn them toward revolution. He had laws passed that dissolved socialist groups, shut down their newspapers, and banned their meetings. Once again, repression backfired. Workers were unified in support of the socialist cause. Otto von Bismarck Bismarck spent his early years on his father's country estate. He worked briefly as a civil servant, but found the work boring. At 24, Bismarck resigned his post as a bureaucrat. My ambition strives more to command than to obey, the independent-minded young man explained. The resignation did not end his career in government. While he was a delegate to the Prussian assembly in 1847, his conservative views and passionate speeches in defense of government policies won him the support of the Prussian king. He was rewarded with appointment to the post of prime minister, a position he held for 28 years. Theme: Impact of the IndividualWhat path did Bismarck take to win political power? Bismarck then changed course. He set out to woo workers away from socialism by sponsoring laws to protect them. Bismarck made it clear that Realpolitik influenced social reform as well as foreign policy:

8 Give the workingman the right to work as long as he is healthy, assure him care when he is sick, and maintenance when he is old then the socialists will sing their siren songs in vain, and the workingmen will cease to throng to their banner. Otto von Bismarck, quoted in Economic Development of Europe (Ogg and Sharp) By the 1890s, Germans had health and accident insurance as well as old-age insurance to provide retirement benefits. Thus, under Bismarck, Germany was a pioneer in social reform. Its system of economic safeguards became the model for other European nations. Bismarck's plan was only partly successful. Although workers benefited from his measures, they did not abandon socialism. In fact, the Social Democratic party continued to grow in strength. By 1912, it had more seats in the Reichstag than were held by any other party. Yet Bismarck's program showed that conditions for workers could be improved without the upheaval of a revolution. Later, Germany and other European nations would build on Bismarck's social policies, greatly increasing government's role in providing for the needs of its citizens. Kaiser William II In 1888, William II succeeded his grandfather as kaiser. The new emperor was supremely confident of his abilities and wished to put his own stamp on Germany. In 1890, he shocked Europe by asking the dominating Bismarck to resign. There is only one master in the Reich, he said, and that is I. William II seriously believed that his right to rule came from God. He expressed this view when he said: My grandfather considered that the office of king was a task that God had assigned to him. That which he thought I also think. Those who wish to aid me in that task I welcome with all my heart; those who oppose me in this work I shall crush. William II, quoted in Europe Since 1815 (Hazen) Not surprisingly, William resisted efforts to introduce democratic reforms. At the same time, his government provided services, from programs for social welfare, or programs to help certain groups of people, to cheap transportation and electricity. An excellent system of public schools, begun under Bismarck, taught students obedience to the emperor along with reading, writing, and mathematics. Like his grandfather, William II lavished funds on the German military machine, already the most powerful in Europe. He also launched an ambitious campaign to expand the German navy and win an overseas empire to rival those of Britain and France. You will read in later chapters how William's nationalism and aggressive militarism helped increase tensions on the eve of World War I.

9 SECTION 3 Unifying Italy Reading Focus Vocabulary Taking Notes What were the key obstacles to Italian unity? What roles did Count Camillo Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi play in the struggle for Italy? What challenges faced the new nation of Italy? anarchist emigration As you read, make a timeline to show events from 1831 to 1871 in Italy. Print out the timeline shown here to help you get started. During the 1800s, influential leaders helped to create a unified Italy. Setting the Scene At the Congress of Vienna, Italian nationalists hoped to end centuries of foreign rule and achieve unity. To Metternich, the idea of a unified Italy was laughable. Italy, he was convinced, was a mere geographic expression. Although the people of the Italian peninsula spoke the same language, they had not experienced political unity since Roman times. By the early 1800s, though, Italian patriots were determined to build a new, united Italy. As in Germany, unification was brought about by the efforts of a strong state and a shrewd, ruthless politician Count Camillo Cavour. Obstacles to Italian Unity For centuries, Italy had been a battleground for ambitious foreign and local princes. Frequent warfare and foreign rule had led people to identify with local regions. The people of Florence considered themselves Tuscans, those of Venice Venetians, the people of Naples Neapolitans, and so on. But as in Germany, the invasions of Napoleon had sparked dreams of national unity. The Congress of Vienna, however, ignored the nationalists. At Vienna, Austria took control of much of northern Italy, while Hapsburg monarchs ruled various other Italian states. In the south, a French Bourbon ruler was put in charge of Naples and Sicily. In response, nationalists organized secret patriotic societies and focused their efforts on expelling Austrian forces from northern Italy. Between 1820 and 1848, nationalist revolts exploded across the region. Each time, Austria sent in troops to crush the rebels.

10 Mazzini's Young Italy In the 1830s, the nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy. The goal of this secret society was to constitute Italy, one, free, independent, republican nation. In 1849, Mazzini helped set up a revolutionary republic in Rome, but French forces soon toppled it. Like many other nationalists, Mazzini spent much of his life in exile, plotting and dreaming of a united Italy. The Tide of Nationalism Ideas grow quickly, Mazzini once said, when watered by the blood of martyrs. Although revolution had failed, nationalist agitation had planted seeds for future harvests. To nationalists like Mazzini, a united Italy made sense not only because of geography, but also because of a common language and history. Nationalists reminded Italians of the glories of ancient Rome and the medieval papacy. To others, unity made practical economic sense. It would end trade barriers among the Italian states and stimulate industry. First Stirrings of Nationalism After the failed revolution in northern Italy, many rebels came through Genoa, begging for funds to pay for safe passage to Spain. An impressionable Giuseppe Mazzini described his reaction to the situation: He held out a white handkerchief, merely saying, For the refugees of Italy. My mother dropped some money into the handkerchief. That day was the first in which a confused idea presented itself to my mind I will not say of country or of liberty but an idea that we Italians could and ought to struggle for the liberty of our country. The idea of an existing wrong on my own country, against which it was a duty to struggle, flashed before my mind on that day for the first time, never again to leave me. Giuseppe Mazzini, Life and Writings The Struggle for Italy Primary Sources How did the man's request influence Mazzini's thinking? After 1848, leadership of the Risorgimento (ree sor jee mehn toh), or Italian nationalist movement, passed to the kingdom of Sardinia. Its constitutional monarch, Victor Emmanuel II, hoped to join other states to his own, thereby increasing his power. * Cavour In 1852, Victor Emmanuel made Count Camillo Cavour his prime minister. Cavour came from a noble family but favored liberal goals. He was a flexible, practical, crafty politician, willing to use almost any means to achieve his goals. Like Bismarck in Prussia, Cavour was a monarchist who believed in Realpolitik.

11 Once in office, Cavour moved first to reform Sardinia's economy. He improved agriculture, had railroads built, and encouraged commerce by supporting free trade. Cavour's long-term goal, however, was to end Austrian power in Italy and annex its provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. Intrigue With France In 1855, led by Cavour, Sardinia joined Britain and France in the Crimean War against Russia. Sardinia did not win territory, but it did have a voice at the peace conference. Sardinia also gained the attention of Napoleon III. In 1858, Cavour negotiated a secret deal with Napoleon, who promised to aid Sardinia in case it faced a war with Austria. A year later, the shrewd Cavour provoked that war. With help from France, Sardinia defeated Austria and annexed Lombardy. Meanwhile, nationalist groups overthrew Austrian-backed rulers in several other northern Italian states. These states then joined with Sardinia. Garibaldi's Red Shirts Next, attention shifted to the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in southern Italy. There, Giuseppe Garibaldi, a longtime nationalist and an ally of Mazzini, was ready for action. Like Mazzini, Garibaldi wanted to create an Italian republic. He did not, however, hesitate to accept aid from the monarchist Cavour. By 1860, Garibaldi had recruited a force of 1,000 red-shirted volunteers. Cavour provided weapons and allowed two ships to take Garibaldi and his Red Shirts south to Sicily. With surprising speed, Garibaldi's forces won control of Sicily, crossed to the mainland, and marched triumphantly north to Naples. Unity at Last Garibaldi's success alarmed Cavour, who feared that the nationalist hero would set up his own republic in the south. To prevent this, Cavour urged Victor Emmanuel to send Sardinian troops to deal with Garibaldi. Instead, the Sardinians overran the Papal States and linked up with Garibaldi and his forces in Naples. In a patriotic move, Garibaldi turned over Naples and Sicily to Victor Emmanuel. Shortly afterward, southern Italy voted to approve the move, and in 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king of Italy. Two areas remained outside the new Italian nation: Rome and Venetia. Cavour died in 1861, but his successors completed his dream. In a deal negotiated with Bismarck, Italy acquired Venetia after the Austro-Prussian War. Then, during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, France was forced to withdraw its troops from Rome. For the first time since the fall of the Roman empire, Italy was a united land. Challenges Facing the New Nation Italy faced a host of problems. Like the many states Bismarck cemented into the German empire, Italy had no tradition of unity. Few Italians felt ties to the new nation. Strong regional rivalries left Italy unable to solve critical national issues. Divisions The greatest regional differences were between the north and the south. The north was richer and had more cities than the south. For centuries, northern Italian cities had flourished as centers of business and culture. The south, on the other hand, was rural and poor. Its population was booming, but illiterate peasants could wring only a meager existence from the exhausted farmland. Hostility between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church further divided the nation. Popes bitterly resented the seizure of the Papal States and of Rome. The government granted the papacy the small territory of the Vatican.

12 Popes, however, saw themselves as prisoners and urged Italian Catholics almost all Italians not to cooperate with their new government. Turmoil Under Victor Emmanuel, Italy was a constitutional monarchy with a two-house legislature. The king appointed members to the upper house, which could veto bills passed by the lower house. Although the lower house consisted of elected representatives, only a small number of men had the right to vote. In the late 1800s, unrest increased as radicals on the left struggled against a conservative government. Socialists organized strikes while anarchists, people who want to abolish all government, turned to sabotage and violence. Slowly, the government extended suffrage to more men and passed laws to improve social conditions. Still, the turmoil continued. To distract attention from troubles at home, the government set out to win an overseas empire. Progress Despite its problems, Italy did develop economically, especially after Although the nation lacked important natural resources such as coal, industries did sprout up in northern regions. Industrialization, of course, brought urbanization as peasants flocked to the cities to find jobs in factories. As in other countries, reformers campaigned to improve education and working conditions. The population explosion of this period created tensions. One important safety valve for many people was emigration, or movement away from their homeland. Many Italians left for the United States, Canada, and Latin American nations. Vatican City As Italian nationalists unified Italy, the Papal States lost their independence. Today, only one Papal State exists: Vatican City. Located in Rome, Vatican City is the world's smallest and least populated nation. At just over 108 acres, it is just big enough to keep body and soul together, noted Pope Pius XI. In 1929, the Italian government granted the pope control of Vatican City. This gave him political independence as head of the Catholic Church. Named a United Nations world heritage site, Vatican City houses St. Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, and other churches and museums. Theme: Political and Social SystemsWhy do you think the government granted the pope control of Vatican City? Looking Ahead Although unification brought great challenges, it also brought increased strength. By 1914, Italy was significantly better off than it had been in But it was hardly prepared for the great war that broke out in that year and into which it was soon drawn.

13 SECTION 4 Nationalism Threatens Old Empires Reading Focus How did nationalism contribute to the decline of the Austrian empire? What were the main characteristics of the Dual Monarchy? How did the growth of nationalism affect the Balkans? Taking Notes Print out the table shown here. As you read this section, add information about the threats and changes that led to the decline of the Hapsburg and Ottoman empires. Desires for national independence threatened to break up the Austrian and Ottoman empires. Setting the Scene The Hapsburgs had controlled the Holy Roman Empire for nearly 400 years when Napoleon invaded the German-speaking states. Austria's center of power now lay in Eastern Europe. Further wars resulted in continued loss of territory to Germany and Italy. Why did nationalism bring new strength to some countries and weaken others? In Eastern Europe, the Austrian Hapsburgs and the Ottoman Turks ruled lands that included diverse ethnic groups. Nationalist feelings among these subject people contributed to tensions building across Europe. A Declining Empire In 1800, the Hapsburgs were the oldest ruling house in Europe. In addition to their homeland of Austria, over the centuries they had acquired the territories of Bohemia and Hungary, as well as parts of Romania, Poland, Ukraine, and northern Italy. Challenge of Change Since the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian emperor Francis I and Metternich, his foreign minister, had upheld conservative goals against liberal forces. Rule and change nothing, the emperor told his son. Under Francis and Metternich, newspapers could not even use the word constitution, much less discuss this key demand of liberals. The government also tried to limit industrial development, which would threaten traditional ways of life. Austria, however, could not hold back the changes that were engulfing the rest of Europe. By the 1840s, factories were springing up. Soon, the Hapsburgs found themselves facing the problems of industrial life that had long been familiar in Britain the growth of cities, worker discontent, and the stirrings of socialism. A Patchwork of People Equally disturbing to the old order were the urgent demands of nationalists. The Hapsburgs presided over a multinational

14 empire. Of its 50 million people at mid-century, fewer than a quarter were German-speaking Austrians. Almost half belonged to different Slavic groups, including Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Often, rival groups shared the same region. The empire also included large numbers of Hungarians and Italians. The Hapsburgs ignored nationalist demands as long as they could. Peoples? Francis I once exclaimed. What does that mean? I know only subjects. As you have read, when nationalist revolts broke out across the Hapsburg empire in 1848, the government crushed them. Early Reforms Amid the turmoil, 18-year-old Francis Joseph inherited the Hapsburg throne. He would rule until 1916, presiding over the empire during its fading days into World War I. An early challenge came when Austria suffered its humiliating defeat at the hands of France and Sardinia in Francis Joseph realized he needed to strengthen the empire at home. Accordingly, he made some limited reforms. He granted a new constitution that set up a legislature. This body, however, was dominated by German-speaking Austrians. The reforms thus satisfied none of the other national groups that populated the empire. The Hungarians, especially, were determined to settle for nothing less than total self-government. The Dual Monarchy Austria's disastrous defeat in the 1866 war with Prussia brought renewed pressure for change from Hungarians within the empire. One year later, Francis Deák (deh ahk), a moderate Hungarian leader, helped work out a compromise that created a new political power known as the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Under the agreement, Austria and Hungary were separate states. Each had its own constitution and parliament. Francis Joseph ruled both, as emperor of Austria and king of Hungary. The two states also shared ministries of finance, defense, and foreign affairs, but were independent of each other in all other areas. Parliament Building In Budapest Although Hungarians welcomed the compromise, other subject peoples resented it. Restlessness increased among various Slavic groups, especially the Czechs in Bohemia. Some nationalist leaders called on Slavs to unite,

15 insisting that only through liberty, equality, and fraternal solidarity could Slavic peoples fulfill their great mission in the history of mankind. By the early 1900s, nationalist unrest often left the government paralyzed in the face of pressing political and social problems. Balkan Nationalism Like the Hapsburgs, the Ottomans ruled a multinational empire. It stretched from Eastern Europe and the Balkans to North Africa and the Middle East. There, as in Austria, nationalist demands tore at the fabric of the empire. In the Balkans, Serbia had won autonomy in 1817, and southern Greece won independence in the 1830s. But many Serbs and Greeks still lived in the Balkans under Ottoman rule. The Ottoman empire was home to other national groups, such as Bulgarians and Romanians. During the 1800s, various subject peoples staged revolts against the Ottomans, hoping to set up their own independent states. Such nationalist stirrings became mixed up with the ambitions of the great European powers. In the mid-1800s, Europeans came to see the Ottoman empire as the sick man of Europe. Eagerly, they scrambled to divide up Ottoman lands. Russia pushed south toward the Black Sea and Istanbul, which Russians still called Constantinople. Austria-Hungary took control of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This action angered the Serbs, who also had hoped to expand into that area. Meanwhile, Britain and France set their sights on other Ottoman lands in the Middle East and North Africa. In the end, a complex web of competing interests contributed to a series of crises and wars in the Balkans. Russia fought several wars against the Ottomans. France and Britain sometimes joined the Russians and sometimes the Ottomans. Germany supported Austrian authority over the discontented national groups. But Germany also encouraged the Ottomans because of their strategic location in the eastern Mediterranean. In between, the subject peoples revolted and then fought among themselves. By the early 1900s, observers were referring to the region as the Balkan powder keg. The explosion that came in 1914 helped set off World War I.

16 SECTION 5 Russia: Reform and Reaction Reading Focus Vocabulary Taking Notes How did conditions in Russia affect progress? Why did czars follow a cycle of absolutism, reform, and reaction? How did the problems of industrialization contribute to the growing crisis and outbreak of revolution? colossus emancipation zemstvo pogrom Duma As you read this section, make an outline of the information. Use Roman numerals for the main headings. Use capital letters for the subheadings, and use numbers for the supporting details. Print out this outline that has been started for you. Industrialization and reform came more slowly to Russia than to Western Europe. Setting the Scene Although serfdom had almost disappeared in Western Europe by the 1700s, it survived and spread in Russia. Masters exercised almost total power over their serfs. In the 1800s, a noble who became a revolutionary described the brutal treatment of serfs: I heard stories of men and women torn from their families and their villages, and sold, or lost in gambling, or exchanged for a couple of hunting dogs, and then transported to some remote part of Russia to create a [master's] new estate; of children taken from their parents and sold to cruel masters. Peter Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist Reformers hoped to free Russia from autocratic rule, economic backwardness, and social injustice. But efforts to modernize Russia had little success, as czars imprisoned critics or sent them into icy exile in Siberia. Conditions in Russia By 1815, Russia was not only the largest, most populous nation in Europe but also a great world power. Since the 1600s, explorers had pushed the Russian frontier eastward across Siberia to the Pacific. Peter the Great and Catherine the Great had added lands on the Baltic and Black seas, and

17 czars in the 1800s had expanded into Central Asia. Russia had thus acquired a huge multinational empire, part European and part Asian. Other European nations looked on the Russian colossus, or giant, with a mixture of wonder and misgiving. It had immense natural resources. Russia's vast size gave it global interests and influence. But Western Europeans disliked its autocratic government and feared its expansionist aims. Obstacles to Progress Despite efforts by Peter and Catherine to westernize Russia, it remained economically undeveloped. By the 1800s, czars saw the need to modernize but resisted reforms that would undermine their absolute rule. While the czars wavered, Russia fell further behind Western Europe in economic and social developments. A great obstacle to progress was the rigid social structure. Landowning nobles dominated society and rejected any change that would threaten their privileges. The middle class was too small to have much influence. The majority of Russians were serfs, laborers bound to the land and to masters who controlled their fates. Serfdom Most serfs were peasants. Others might be servants, artisans, or soldiers forced into the czar's army. As industry expanded, some masters sent serfs to work in factories but took much of their pay. Many enlightened Russians knew that serfdom was inefficient. As long as most people had to serve the whim of their masters, Russia's economy would remain backward. Landowning nobles had no reason to improve agriculture and took little interest in industry. Russian Absolutism For centuries, czars had ruled with absolute power, imposing their will on their subjects. The changes brought about by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution had almost no effect on Russian autocracy. Alexander I When Alexander I inherited the throne in 1801, however, he seemed open to liberal ideas. The new czar eased censorship and promoted education. He even talked about freeing the serfs. By the time Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, Alexander had drawn back from reform. Like earlier czars, he feared losing the support of nobles. At the Congress of Vienna, he joined the conservative powers in opposing liberal and nationalist impulses in Europe. Revolt and Repression When Alexander I died in 1825, a group of army officers led an uprising known as the Decembrist Revolt. They had picked up liberal ideas while fighting Napoleon in Western Europe and now demanded a constitution and other reforms. The new czar, Nicholas I, suppressed the Decembrists and cracked down on all dissent. Nicholas used police spies to hunt out critics. He banned books from Western Europe that might spread liberal ideas. Only approved textbooks were allowed in schools and universities. Many Russians with liberal or revolutionary ideas were judged to be insane and shut up in mental hospitals. Up to 150,000 others were exiled to Siberia. Nicholas I and Absolutism To bolster his regime, Nicholas I embraced the three pillars of Russian absolutism symbolized in the motto Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism. Orthodoxy referred to the strong ties between the Russian Orthodox Church and the government. Autocracy was

18 the absolute power of the state. Nationalism involved respect for Russian traditions and suppression of non-russian groups within the empire. Still, Nicholas realized that Russia needed to modernize. He issued a new law code and made some economic reforms. He even tried to limit the power of landowners over serfs. But he could see no way to change the system completely without angering Russian nobles and weakening the power of the czar. Before he died, he told his son, I am handing you command of the country in a poor state. Reforms of Alexander II Alexander II came to the throne in 1855 during the Crimean War. The war had broken out after Russia tried to seize Ottoman lands along the Danube. Britain and France stepped in to help the Turks, invading the Crimean peninsula that juts into the Black Sea. The war, which ended in a Russian defeat, revealed the country's backwardness. It had only a few miles of railroads, and the military bureaucracy was hopelessly inefficient. Many felt that dramatic changes were needed. Emancipation A widespread popular reaction followed. Liberals demanded changes, and students demonstrated for reform. Pressed from all sides, Alexander II finally agreed to reforms. In 1861, he issued a royal decree that required emancipation, or freeing the serfs. Freedom brought problems. Former serfs had to buy the land they had worked for so long. Many were too poor to do so. Also, the lands allotted to peasants were often too small to farm efficiently or to support a family. As a result, peasants remained poor, and discontent festered. Still, emancipation was a turning point. Many peasants moved to the cities, taking jobs in factories and building Russian industries. Equally important, freeing the serfs boosted the drive for further reform. Other Reforms Along with emancipation, Alexander set up a system of local government. Elected assemblies, called zemstvos, were made responsible for matters such as road repair, schools, and agriculture. At the local level, at least, Russians gained some experience of self-government. The czar also introduced legal reforms based on ideas such as trial by jury. He eased censorship and tried to reform the military. A soldier's term of service was reduced from 25 years to 15, and brutal discipline was limited. Alexander also encouraged the growth of industry in Russia, which still relied almost entirely on agriculture. A movement to liberate women also swept the urban centers of Russia. Since they were denied education in Russia, hundreds of privileged young women left their homes and families to study abroad in the few universities that would accept them. Many came to support revolutionary goals. Reaction to Change Alexander's reforms failed to satisfy many Russians. Peasants had freedom but not land. Liberals wanted a constitution and an elected legislature. Radicals, who had adopted socialist ideas from the West, demanded even more revolutionary changes. The czar, meantime, moved away from reform and toward repression. Revolutionary Currents In the 1870s, some socialists carried the message of reform to the peasants. They went to live and work among the peasants, sometimes preaching rebellion. These educated young men and women had little success. The peasants scarcely understood them and sometimes turned them over to the police.

19 The failure of this Go to the People movement, combined with renewed government repression, sparked anger among radicals. Some turned to terrorism. A revolutionary group calling itself the People's Will assassinated officials and plotted to kill the czar. Their first attempts failed. Then, on a cold March day in 1881, terrorists hurled two bombs at Alexander's carriage. One struck down several guards. The second killed the leader known to some as the czar emancipator. Crackdown Alexander III responded to his father's assassination by reviving the harsh methods of Nicholas I. To wipe out liberals and revolutionaries, he increased the power of the secret police, restored strict censorship, and exiled critics to Siberia. He relied on his adviser and former tutor, Constantine Pobedonostsev (puh beh duh naws tsehv), who rejected all talk of democracy and constitutional government as the lies of hollow and flabby people. The czar also launched a program of Russification aimed at suppressing the cultures of non-russian peoples within the empire. Alexander insisted on one language, Russian, and one church, the Russian Orthodox Church. Poles, Ukrainians, Finns, Armenians, and many others suffered persecution. The Russification campaign also targeted Jews and Muslims in the empire. Persecution and Pogroms Russia had acquired a large Jewish population when it carved up Poland and expanded into Ukraine. Under Alexander III, persecution of Russian Jews increased. The czar limited the number of Jews who were allowed to study in universities and practice professions such as law and medicine. He revived old laws that forced Jews to live in certain restricted areas. Official persecution encouraged pogroms, or violent mob attacks on Jews. Gangs beat and killed Jews and looted and burned their homes and stores. The police did nothing to stop the violence. Faced with savage persecution, many Jews escaped from Russia. They became refugees, or people who flee their homeland to seek safety elsewhere. Large numbers of Russian Jews went to the United States. Though they often faced prejudice and great hardship there, they were safe from pogroms and official persecution. Jewish immigrants sent joyful news back to Russia: There is no czar in America! Building Russian Industry Under Alexander III and his son, Nicholas II, Russia finally entered the industrial age. In the 1890s, Count Serge Witte, finance minister to Nicholas, focused on economic development. Witte encouraged railroad building to connect iron and coal mines with factories and to transport goods across Russia. He secured foreign capital to invest in transportation systems and industry. Loans from France helped build the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Begun in the 1890s, it linked European Russia to the Pacific Ocean. The drive to industrialize increased political and social problems. Government officials and business leaders applauded and encouraged economic growth. Nobles and peasants opposed it, fearing the changes brought by the new ways. Industrialization also created new social ills as peasants flocked to cities to work in factories. Instead of a better life, they found long hours and low pay in dangerous conditions. In the slums around the factories, poverty, disease, and discontent multiplied. Russia's Long Iron Road Beginning in the 1890s, Russian workers laid more than 5,000 miles of track to build the Trans-Siberian Railroad, the longest railroad in the world at that time. Siberia's harsh landscape and climate challenged workers. Iron, stone, hardwoods, and food had to be shipped thousands of miles to the crews. In the chilling winters, many workers died from

20 Radicals sought supporters among the new industrial workers. At factory gates, socialists handed out pamphlets that preached the revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx. Among the revolutionaries of the 1890s was young Vladimir Ulyanov, whose older brother had been executed for plotting to kill Alexander III. Like many revolutionaries, Ulyanov used an alias, or false name Lenin. In 1917, Lenin would take power in a revolution that transformed Russia. Turning Point: Crisis and Revolution hypothermia. With no safety devices, some fell to their deaths onto frozen rivers. To lay tracks in some areas, workers had to dynamite permanently frozen soil. These explosions often proved fatal, as did epidemics of bubonic plague, anthrax, and cholera. Theme: Geography and History What geographic and climatic challenges did the railroad builders face in Siberia? War broke out between Russia and Japan in Nicholas II called on his people to fight for the Faith, the Czar, and the Fatherland. But despite their efforts, the Russians suffered one humiliating defeat after another. A Peaceful March News of the military disasters unleashed pent-up discontent created by years of oppression. Protesters poured into the streets. Workers went on strike with demands for shorter hours and better wages. Liberals called for a constitution and reforms to overhaul the inefficient, corrupt government. As the crisis deepened, a young Orthodox priest, Father George Gapon, organized a march for Sunday, January 22, Father Gapon felt certain that the Little Father, as many Russians called the czar, would help his people if only he understood their sufferings. The parade flowed through the icy streets of St. Petersburg toward the czar's lavish Winter Palace. Chanting prayers and singing hymns, workers carried holy icons and pictures of the czar. They also brought a petition for justice and freedom, which was addressed to Nicholas. Bloody Sunday Fearing the marchers, the czar had fled the palace and called in soldiers. As the people approached, they saw troops lined up across the square. Suddenly, gunfire rang out. Men and women ran and fell. More shots left hundreds dead or wounded in the snow. A woman stumbling away from the scene of the massacre moaned: The czar has deserted us! They shot away the orthodox faith. Indeed, the slaughter marked a turning point for Russians. Bloody Sunday killed the people's faith and trust in the czar. The Revolution of 1905 In the months that followed Bloody Sunday, discontent exploded across Russia. Strikes multiplied. In some cities, workers took over local government. In the countryside, peasants revolted and demanded land. Minority nationalities called for autonomy from Russia. Terrorists targeted officials, and some assassins were cheered as heroes by discontented Russians. At last, the clamor grew so great that Nicholas was forced to announce sweeping reforms. In the October Manifesto, he promised freedom of person, conscience, speech, assembly, and union. He agreed to summon a Peter Stolypin Violence surrounded Peter Stolypin, who was once described as a tall stiff man

21 Duma, or elected national legislature. No law, he declared, would go into effect without approval by the Duma. Results of the Revolution The manifesto won over moderates, leaving socialists isolated. These divisions helped the czar, who had no intention of letting strikers, revolutionaries, and rebellious peasants challenge him. In 1906, the first Duma met, but the czar quickly dissolved it when leaders criticized the government. Nicholas then appointed a new prime minister, Peter Stolypin (stuh lee pihn). Arrests, pogroms, and executions followed as the conservative Stolypin sought to restore order. Stolypin soon realized that Russia needed reform, not just repression. To regain peasant support, he introduced moderate land reforms. He strengthened the zemstvos and improved education. These reforms were too limited to meet the broad needs of most Russians, and dissatisfaction still simmered. Stolypin was assassinated in Several more Dumas met during this period, but new voting laws made sure they were conservative. By 1914, Russia was still an autocracy, simmering with unrest. with a dead white face and a dead white beard. As governor and later prime minister, he used harsh measures to silence opposition. On his orders, trials of terrorists were held within 24 hours of arrest; executions were held immediately upon conviction. More than 1,000 suspected terrorists were executed in less than a year. The noose used to hang them came to be known as Stolypin's necktie. Stolypin and his family were also the targets of violence. In 1907, his opponents bombed his house, killing many servants and severely injuring his children. Four years later, Stolypin himself was assassinated while attending the theater. Theme: Impact of the IndividualHow did Stolypin deal with terrorism?