political Armies?\ The Military \ :V and Nation Building \,V in the Age of Democracy: Edited by KEES KOONINGS AND DIRK KRUIJT A
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1 political Armies?\ The Military \ :V and Nation Building \,V in the Age of Democracy: Edited by KEES KOONINGS AND DIRK KRUIJT A Zed Books LONDON a NEW YORK
2 Contents List of Tables and Boxes Acknowledgements About the Authors List of Abbreviations ix x xi xiii Introduction 1 KEES KOONINGS and DIRK KRUIJT 1 Military Politics and the Mission of Nation Building 9 KEES KOONINGS and DIRK KRUIJT Political Armies Today 9 Political Armies: a brief history 14 Political Armies in the Scholarly Debate 16 The Formation of Political Armies 19 The Consolidation of Prolonged Military Rule: similarities and variations 23 The Demise of Political Armies? 29 Scenarios for Political Armies in the Post-Cold War Era 31 Notes and References 32 2 From Military Reformists to Civilian Dictatorship: Peruvian Military Politics from the 1960s to the Present 35 DIRK KRUIJT and MARIA DEL PILAR TELLO Three Cycles of Civil Military Relations 35 The Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces ( ) 36 The Civilian Presidents and the Internal War ( ) 42 The Making of a New Alliance (1990-2) 45 The Mechanisms of Control under Fujimori I: control over the armed forces 48 The Mechanisms of Control under Fujimori II: control over the intelligence community 50
3 VI CONTENTS The Mechanisms of Control under Fujimori III: control over the justice system and the communications media 52 Postscript: the downfall of the Fujimori regime and the transition period 55 Notes and References 58 3 The Guatemalan Politico-Military Project: Whose Ship of State? 64 JENNIFER SCHIRMER A Brief History of the Guatemalan Military Political Ascendancy 65 Civilian Presidents and 'Co-Governance' 68 The Army's Timetable and Compliance 70 The Issue of Military Intelligence and Public Security 72 The Army's View of the After-Peace Crime Wave 76 Army Corruption 77 A Post-War Crisis of Identity 79 Conclusions 84 Notes and References 85 4 The Military and Politics in Brazil, CELSO CASTRO 21 Years in Power: a very brief overview 92 From the 1964 Coup to Institutional Act No From Institutional Act No. 5 to Geisel's Inauguration: the anos de chumbo 96 The 'Opening' of the Military Regime and the Difficult Return to the Barracks 97 The Military under Civilian Rule - the 'New Republic' (1985-) 100 Critical Moments 103 Conclusion 108 Notes and References A Political Army in Chile: Historical Assessment and Prospects for the New Democracy 111 FELIPE AGUERO The First One Hundred Years: state formation, professionalization and military intervention 112 From Insulation to Inter-Americanism, National Security and Military Coup 114 The Pinochet Regime: a military government with a foundational intent 119 Military Exit, Confined Transition and Civil-Military Dynamics 123 Confrontation, Appeasement and Catharsis in the New Democracy 125 Settlement, Engagement and Prospects for Civilian Democratic Control 130 Notes and References 132
4 CONTENTS Vll The Janus Face of the Indonesian Armed Forces 135 NICO SCHULTE NORDHOLT The Armed Forces' Ideological Position and 'Collective Memory' 136 The Armed Forces during Suharto's New Order 142 Rivalries, Conflicts, Regime Transition 146 The Dual Function and the Restructuring of Indonesian Society 152 Notes and References 157 The Military, Politics and Post-Cold War Dilemmas in Turkey 162 AYLIN GUNEY The Origins of the 'Guardianship' Role of the Turkish Military 162 From Guardianship to Decision Making: the three military interventions 164 Political Islam and the Military in Post-Cold War Turkey 166 The Military and the Kurdish Question 173 The Military and EU Membership 174 Concluding Remarks 175 Notes and References 175 Army, State and Nation in Algeria 179 LAHOUARI ADDI The Bipolar Nature of Power: a contradiction in motion 180 Houari Boumediene: a charismatic military leader 182 Political Legitimacy and Sovereign Power 184 The Ambiguity of Political Reform under Chadli Bendjedid 187 The Presidency of Abdelaziz Bouteflika 190 The Army as a Political Party 193 The Army as Embodiment of the Nation and Master of the State 198 Conclusion 199 Notes and References 202 Entrenched Militarism and the Future of Democracy in Nigeria 204 J'KAYODE FAYEMI Background to Military Involvement in Nigerian Politics 205 Transition to Militarism: military politics and the nation-building project 208 The Gowon Years ( ) 210 The Mohammed-Obasanjo Years (1975-9) 211 The Civilian Era ( ) 214 The Buhari-Idiagbon Regime (1984-5) 214 The Babangida Years ( ) 215 The Abacha and Abubakar Years (1993-9) 217 Impact of Transition Politics on Military Professionalism 220 Role Expansion and the Security and Intelligence Services 222 Farewell to Political Armies or Transition to Neo-Militarism? 225 Constitutional Dimensions of Civil Military Relations and the Future of Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria 227 Notes and References 233
5 Vlii CONTENTS 10 Radical Soldiers, New Model Armies and the Nation-State in Ethiopia and Eritrea 238 ROBIN LUCKHAM Introduction 238 Military Modernization and the Contradictions of the Imperial State 241 The Revolution of 1974 and the Contradictions of Garrison Socialism 243 National Liberation Struggle and its Political-Military Legacies: the EPLF and the TPLF/EPRDF 249 New Model Armies and the Reconstruction of the State in Ethiopia and Eritrea 253 Eritrea: the problems of professionalizing a political army 255 Ethiopia: military professionalism and ethnic federalism 257 Epilogue and Conclusion: the Eritrea-Ethiopia war 264 Notes and References Army Politics as a Historical Legacy: the experience of Burma 270 AAARTIN SMITH Background to Military Politics 271 Civil War and the Emergence of Ne Win 275 The Burmese Way to Socialism 278 TheEraoftheSLORC-SPDC 282 An Outlook to the Future 289 Notes and References Serbia and the Politics of the Yugoslav Armies: communism, federalism and democracy 297 JAMES GOW Democratic Control of the Military 298 The Role and the Character of the JNA in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 300 Serbianization: Milosevic and the military 302 General Perisic and the Persistence of Ambiguities within the Army 305 Serbian Ghosts of the JNA: the Army of Yugoslavia and the Krajina and Bosnian Serb Forces 307 Parallel Armies and Milosevic's Final Bid for Control 308 Milosevic's Downfall and the Military 310 Conclusion 311 Notes and References The Military in Politics: old wine in new bottles? An attempt at stocktaking 313 EMANUEL DE KADT Military Interests and Civilian Domains 313 Types of Military Regime and Their Main Characteristics 314 Historical Reasons for the Political Role of the Military 316 More Recent Sources of the Political Role of Armies 319 Civilian Military Interplay 324
6 CONTENTS ix The Military in the Democratic Era 326 Notes and References 330 Epilogue: political armies between continuity and demise 333 KEES KOONINGS and DIRK KRUIJT The Configuration of Political Armies 333 Political Armies after the End of the Cold War 340 Political Armies in the Age of Democracy: elements of a reform agenda 344 Notes and References 346 Bibliography 348 Index 375 List of Tables and Boxes Tables Table 6.1 The armed forces in Indonesia 158 Table 9.1 A profile of Nigeria's governments since independence 236 Boxes Box 1.1 Box 1.2 Box 1.3 Box 2.1 Box 2.2 Box 4.1 Box 7.1 Box 10.1 Box 11.1 Box Box General Pervez Musharraf's televised address to the nation on 13 October General Ibiapiana Lima, President of Brazil's Military Club: 'Are we reliving 1963?' 11 Kemal Ataturk drafts the situation of the Ottoman Empire in September Portrait of an intelligence chief: Vladimiro Montesinos 51 Portrait of a civilian dictator 54 General Gleuber Viera on the communist revolt of The Turkish military and the National Security Council in the 1982 constitution 165 The chief of staff, Tsadkan Gebre Tensae, spells out his vision for the new Ethiopian armed forces 261 General Ne Win and General Aung Sang on the Burmese armed forces 275 Ex-General Tin Oo on the Burmese armed forces 282 General Than Shwe on the Burmese armed forces 286
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