THE WORLD IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

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1 Fourth Edition THE WORLD IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY From Empires to Nations \ \ DANJEL R. BROWER University of Calif&nia-Davis PRENTICE HALL, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

2 Contents Maps, vi Preface, vii Twentieth-Century Global Time Chart, xii PART I: THE AGE OF EMPIRES CHAPTER 1 Empires in Conflict: The World in the Early Twentieth Century 1 ANCIENT EMPIRES 2 The Fall of the Chinese Empire 3 SPOTLIGHT: The Empress Dowager of China 5 The Decline of the Ottoman Empire 6 EMPIRES OF THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 7 HIGHLIGHT: The New Imperialism 9 The New Empires of Great Britain and France 11 Empires for the United States and Russia 15 EMPIRES AND NATIONS 18 The 1900 World's Fair 19 Nation-States 20 Human Rights and the Liberal State 22 Socialism 24 Industrial Society 25 EMPIRES AT WAR: THE FIRST WORLD WAR 26 The European Balance of Power 26 The World War 28 The United States in World War 33 Allied Victory 35 SUMMARY 37 RECOMMENDED READING 38 CHAPTER 2 Empires in the Postwar World, COMMUNIST DICTATORSHIP AND THE SOVIET UNION 41 Lenin and the Bolshevik Party 42 SPOTLIGHT: Vladimir Lenin 42 Revolution and Civil War 43 The Soviet Union and the World 48 PEACEMAKING IN EUROPE 50 The Paris Peace Treaties 51 The Revised Peace Settlement 55 THE VICTORIOUS EMPIRES IN THE NON-WESTERN WORLD 58 The Allies in the Middle East 59 HIGHLIGHT: Islam and Modernity 61 Independent Egypt 63 Postwar Colonial Empires in Africa 64 New Empires in East Asia 65 THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY 68 Economic Recovery from War 69 The International Economy in the 1920s 70 The Global Depression 72 SUMMARY 74 RECOMMENDED READING 75 CHAPTER 3 Nationalism and Nation- States in Asia: Turkey, India, China, THE MAKING OF THE NATION-STATE OF TURKEY 77 The Fall of the Ottoman Empire 77 The Turkish Nation-State 79 BRITISH INDIA AND INDIAN NATIONALISM 81 Hinduism and Islam in India 81 British Rule in India 82 Indian Nationalism 84 SPOTLIGHT: Mohandas Gandhi 87 iii

3 iv Contents Nehru and Indian Self-Rule 88 The Muslim League and the Idea of Pakistan 90 HIGHLIGHT: Colonialism and Nationalism 91 CHINA UNDER THE NATIONALIST PARTY 94 The Rise of the Nationalist Party 94 Mao Zedong and Chinese Communism 97 Nationalist China versus the Chinese Communists 98 War against Japan 100 SUMMARY 102 RECOMMENDED READING 102 CHAPTER 4 The Despotic Empires: Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, the Japanese Empire, FASCISM AND THE NAZI REVOLUTION 104 The Weakness of Western Democracies 104 Italian Fascism and Militant Nationalism 106 Nazism and the Collapse of German Democracy 108 The Nazi Dictatorship 110 SPOTLIGHT: Adolf Hitler 111 The Nazi State and Foreign Expansion 114 STALIN'S SOVIET UNION 117 Stalin and Communist Dictatorship 118 The Stalin Revolution 119 Terrorist Despotism 123 The Soviet Empire in Asia and Europe 126 HIGHLIGHT: Communism and Joseph Stalin 127 THE RISE OF THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 130 Japanese Democracy 130 Depression and Militarism 132 Japanese Imperialism 134 SUMMARY 137 RECOMMENDED READING 137 CHAPTER 5 The Second World War, THE EMPIRES OF GERMANY AND JAPAN 140 U.S. Neutrality 140 HIGHLIGHT: War, Peace, and Internationalism 143 The German-Soviet War 145 The German Empire 147 The Japanese Empire 149 THE FORMATION OF THE GRAND ALLIANCE 150 The United States in the Grand Alliance 151 The Soviet Union and the Alliance 152 Allied Cooperation 154 ALLIED VICTORY 157 European Liberation and the United States 157 SPOTLiGHT:JohnMaynardKeynes 158 Soviet Triumph in Eastern Europe 159 U.S. Victory in East Asia 162 SUMMARY 165 RECOMMENDED READING 166 PART II: THE ERA OF NATIONS CHAPTER 6 The Beginning of the Cold War, THE COLLAPSE OF THE GRAND ALLIANCE Conflict in Germany 168 Reconstruction in Western Lands 171 The New Soviet Empire 172 The U.S. Policy of Containment 174 HIGHLIGHT: Containment and Anti-Communism 176 THE COLD WAR IN THE WEST 179 Soviet Satellites and Divided Germany 179 Western European Recovery 182 Containment and Military Alliances 182 SPOTLIGHT: Eleni Gatzoyiannis 184 Stalin's Empire 186 THE COLD WAR IN ASIA 187 New Conflicts in East Asia 188 Communist Victory in China 190 The Korean War 192 SUMMARY 195 RECOMMENDED READING 196 CHAPTER 7 The Resurgence of East Asia 197 JAPAN, THE INDUSTRIAL GIANT 198 The Reconstruction of Japan 198 Independent Japan and the West 202 The Japanese Economic Miracle 203 COMMUNIST CHINA 205 Mao Zedong and the Communist Dictatorship 205 Maoist China and the Soviet Union 208 The Great Leap Forward 210 The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution 213 The Turn toward Riches 215 HIGHLIGHT: Revolution and Command Economies 217

4 Contents v WAR IN INDOCHINA 219 The French War and the Partition of Vietnam 220 SPOTLIGHT: Ho Chi Minh 223 North and South Vietnam 224 U.S. Intervention in Vietnam 226 The U.S. Indochina War 227 SUMMARY 230 RECOMMENDED READING 231 CHAPTER 8 New Nations in South Asia 232 THE ISLAND REPUBLICS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 233 Philippine Independence 233 Sukarno and Indonesia 235 The Cold War and Nonalignment 238 Orderly Singapore 239 HIGHLIGHT: New Nations and Ethnic Conflict 240 LIBERATION AND PARTITION FOR INDIA 243 The End of the British Empire in India 243 The Partition of India 245 Independence and War 246 THE DIVERGENT PATHS OF INDEPENDENT INDIA AND PAKISTAN 248 Nehru and the New India 248 Social Reform and Socialism 249 Secular Democracy and Ethnic Diversity 251 War and Peace in South Asia 253 Islam in Pakistan 255 SPOTLIGHT: Salman Rushdie 256 SUMMARY 258 RECOMMENDED READING 259 CHAPTER 9 Africa and Latin America in the Third World 260 AFRICA'S STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 261 African Nationalism 263 Political Independence for Africa 265 The End of White Rule in South Africa 266 SPOTLIGHT: Nelson Mendela 268 African State Building 270 Economic Decay 273 LATIN AMERICA IN THE COLD WAR 274 Plans for Economic Development 275 Populism in Argentina and Brazil 277 The United States and Central America 278 Castro's Revolution 280 Cuba and the Missile Crisis 282 HIGHLIGHT: The Third World 284 DEMOCRACY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN LATIN AMERICA 287 Pressures for Reform 287 Latin America between Dictators and Democracy 288 Cuba, Central America, and the United States 291 SUMMARY 293 RECOMMENDED READING 294 CHAPTER 10 Nationalism and War in the Middle East 295 DECOLONIZATION AND WAR IN THE MIDDLE EAST 296 The Conflict over Palestine,296 SPOTLIGHT: Golda Meir 302 Political Revolution in Egypt 304 NATIONALISM AND THE GREAT POWERS IN THE MIDDLE EAST 306 Nasser and the New Egypt 306 Suez and the 1956 War 308 Egypt and Pan-Arab Nationalism 309 Petroleum and the Middle East 312 WAR, PEACE, AND ISLAM 313 The Six-Day War 313 Egypt, Palestine, and Peace with Israel 315 The Oil Wars of Iraq 319 Iran and the Islamic Republic 321 HIGHLIGHT: Social Change and Women's Rights 324 SUMMARY 329 RECOMMENDED READING 330 CHAPTER 11 The West and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, EUROPEAN NATIONS AND EUROPEAN UNION 333 Reconstruction and Reform 333 Economic Union in Western Europe 340 THE SOVIET UNION AND THE COLD WAR 342 The Soviet Empire 342 The Cold War and the Arms Race 345 HIGHLIGHT: The Cold War in Outer Space 349 The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the End of the Cold War 355 SPOTLIGHT: Mikhail Gorbachev 358 SUMMARY 361 RECOMMENDED READING 362

5 vi Contents CHAPTER 12 Local Wars, Global Economy: The World in the Late Twentieth Century 363 THE GLOBAL ECONOMY 364 Centers of the Global Economy -365 The New Industrial Revolution 367 HIGHLIGHT: The Global Environment 372 Global Factories, Global Banks 376 LOCAL WARS AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS 378 Quasi-States and Regional Peacekeeping 379 SPOTLIGHT: Flora Mukampore 385 Peacekeeping and the United Nations 387 SUMMARY 391 RECOMMENDED READING 391 Index, 393 Maps World of Western Dominance, Partition of Africa, Europe at War, The New Russia: Borders of the U.S.S.R., Europe and the Middle East after the First World War 54 China in Revolution and War with Japan, The Second World War in Europe and Asia 141 War in Vietnam 221 Contemporary Africa 262 Contemporary Central and South America 276 The Middle East and Inner Asia in Israel and its Neighbors 301 Europe Major International Petroleum Movements, The Ethnic Composition of Bosnia- Herzegovina 380

Twentieth-century world history

Duiker, William J Twentieth-century world history Documents Maps xi Preface xii x Literature and the Arts: The Culture of Modernity 22 Conclusion 23 Chapter Notes 24 The Industrial Revolution in Great