Principles of Cultural Geography

Transcription

1 Introducing Cultural Geography Starting Points Science, Social Science, Geography What do we mean when we say something is a science? What do we mean when we say something is a social science? Just what is Geography? Science Sci"ence (?), n. [F., fr. L. scientia, fr. sciens, p.pr. of scire to know. Cf. Conscience, Conscious.] Science means knowledge but knowledge comes from many valid sources: Experience Experiment Faith Authority The Scientific Method For the past 400 years, the word science has meant knowledge acquired using a process we call the scientific method (this is a slightly misleading term there is no single method of doing science, but all truly scientific analyses have certain basic characteristics). Science should be: Rational based on reasoning, logic. Objective free from bias, prejudice. Systematic thorough, methodical, organized. Predictive testable ( repeatable ) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 13

2 But science should not be: Dogmatic science should be open to new ideas. Ideological science should not be based on beliefs or opinions. Trivial science should not be a pointless accumulation of facts. One Path to Science Note that this is not the only way to do science it is an effective and efficient way, but any process which meets the criteria we just talked about (that's rational, objective, systematic, predictive) can be considered "scientific." The Crucial Step: Testing If you don t make testable predictions it s not science! An Example: Science & Not-Science NOT SCIENCE Observation: Male alligators can t breed if temperatures get too high. o Hypothesis: Climate change killed the dinosaurs. o Problem: How do you prove it? How do you test it? What evidence would prove that it was climate, and not something else? Observation: Flowering plants dominate just as dinosaurs disappear from the fossil record. o Hypothesis: Chemicals found in flowering plants (psychotropics) killed the dinosaurs o Problem: How do you prove it? How can you tell if fossil dinosaurs were intoxicated? SCIENCE Observation: The rare element iridium is found at the boundary 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 13

3 between the era when dinosaurs dominate and when they disappear. o Hypothesis: Whatever caused the increase in iridium levels killed off the dinosaurs o This can be tested look for a source of iridium (meteor); look for meteor crater (Yucatan) o Today, this is the most commonly accepted theory but not everyone accepts it, and the search goes on and that s the way science is supposed to work! Note: More information on these examples can be found in Gould, S.J Sex, Drugs and the Extinction of Dinosaurs, in The Flamingo s Smile: Reflections in Natural History, pp NY: W.W. Norton. Is Science Always Right? NO! Science is done by people and people are only human! Sometimes people make mistakes! Sometimes people are reluctant to change! Sometimes people lie! Sometimes people don t want a scientific answer! Science & Social Science Science is a way of getting knowledge using the scientific method. A social science is a field of study that uses the scientific method to look at the social and cultural environment. Geography Is Geography a social science? Yes! and No! (and Sometimes!) Geography is a unique discipline Geography connects and overlaps other disciplines Geography emphasizes space BUT Geography isn t always easy to define! Realms of Geography 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 13

4 What is Geography? Geography is the study of where things are located on Earth s surface and the reasons for the location. (Rubenstein 2005, xiii) the scientific study of the location of people and activities across Earth, and the reasons for their distribution. (Rubenstein 2005, 3) What do Geographers Think About? Place location. Regions unique and distinctive areas. Space mapping regular patterns. Scale similarities at local, regional and global levels. Connections relationships among places. PLACE: Location What features make places unique & distinctive? Where are places located? Important Concepts: Place Names ( toponyms ) Site (physical location) Situation (relative location) Mathematical location (latitude and longitude) REGIONS: Regional Integration Culture: The body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people. Culture is made up of: What people care about (ideas, beliefs, values) What people take care of (food, clothing, shelter) Cultural Ecology: the relationships between culture and the environment. REGIONS: Cultural Ecology Different groups of people modify their environment in different ways, producing unique regions. BUT does the environment make people behave and develop in certain ways? Environmental determinism: culture is largely determined by the physical environment (this is pretty much discredited today). Possibilism: the environment imposes limits, but people can adapt and adjust their culture to their environment Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 13

5 SCALE: Local to Global Some things work differently, and have different effects, at different scales: Globalization of Economy: o At the global scale, we are increasingly interconnected and interdependent. o At the local scale, this has lead to increasing specialization places try to focus on their unique assets (if they have any!) Globalization of Culture: o At the global scale, we are becoming more culturally uniform fast food, hotels, cars, cell phones, are pretty much the same over much of the world. o At the local scale, some groups are fighting to retain their local culture sometimes violently. SPACE: Distribution How are things arranged? Where are they located? Important Concepts: DISTRIBUTION DENSITY CONCENTRATION PATTERN SPACE: Connections How are places and regions connected? How do they interact? Important Concepts: SPATIAL INTERACTION o Networks, transportation systems, distance decay o Cultural diversity DIFFUSION o Relocation Diffusion (physical relocation) o Expansion Diffusion (spreading through a population) Hierarchical (through a social or physical hierarchy) Contagious (from person to person) Stimulus (spread of an underlying idea) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 13

6 Types of Diffusion Relocation diffusion Physical movement, across space people migrate, taking their culture with them. Expansion diffusion Ideas spread through a population. o Hierarchical spreading through a hierarchy of people or places. o Contagious spreading through contact, like a disease, from person to person. o Stimulus spread of an underlying idea, even when the actual idea doesn t diffuse. Maps & Mapmaking All maps are made for a specific purpose. Although they re not always labeled, all maps have four characteristics: Scale the relationship between distance on the map and distance on the ground. Projection a way of showing the round earth on a flat map. Symbols arbitrary shapes, colors or patterns that make distributions or arrangements clear. Grid system a system of coordinates; a way of determining a place s location Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 13

7 Map Scale Scale can be expressed in three ways: Verbal One inch equals one mile. Fraction 1:63,360 Graphic Each has advantages and disadvantages. large & SMALL Scale is expressed as a fraction Stupid question & answer session: Question: Which is bigger: 1 / 10 or 1 / 100? (Answer: 1 / 10, of course!) But isn't "100" bigger than "10"?!? Sure but these are fractions. Since scale is expressed as a fraction, 1:25,000 is large scale and 1:250,000 is small scale. "Large Scale" means Large fraction Large detail Maps of small areas Small Scale Small fraction Less detail Maps of large areas Although this sounds weird, there are actually many examples of this in everyday life camera F-stops (F-2 is much larger than F-11), wire gauges (8 gauge is much larger than 24 gauge wire), etc. The Problem of Projection The Problem: You can t go from round to flat without something being distorted! Every flat map is distorted in some way but we can choose the kind of distortion. Shape Area Distance Direction 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 13

8 Projections: Examples Cylindrical (Mercator Projection) Azimuthal Equidistant Conic Source: Symbols A huge variety of symbols are used in maps. There are basically four kinds of symbols: Pictures: RSTVWYZ[] Dots: foffê Colors & patterns:!!!!! Lines ========== Symbols: Pictures Pictures either representative images or arbitrary shapes can be an effective way of showing where things are located on a map. Note how important the legend is. Without it, the symbols would be meaningless. Produced online, using the National Atlas of USA: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 13

9 Symbols: Dots Dots plain, colored, or varying in size are another effective way of showing distributions. Again, note how important the legend is. Source: Symbols: Color & Shading This is a shaded relief map a map in which elevation is indicated using colors. Like all map symbols, color is useful but if you don t know what the colors actually mean, a map like this can be very misleading! This map was produced using ICEMAPS2 online: Symbols: Colors & Lines There are many ways to show data on a map. Sometimes colors and shading patterns are effective. At other times, using various kinds of line symbols may be a better choice. Consider this map of San Diego county. Some of the information here (cities, bodies of water) is conveyed using colors, some (highways, areas of congestion) using colored lines. Source: Twelve Month Average Temperatures, Symbols: Isolines January-December 2006 Isolines (technically isopleths ) are lines that connect points on a map with equal values. The name of the isoline varies depending on what you re mapping: TEMPERATURE isotherms AIR PRESSURE isobars ELEVATION contour lines Adapted from: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 13

10 Grid Systems Cartesian coordinates (named for French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes ( )) are an example of a grid or coordinate system. Using the horizontal ( x ) axis and vertical ( y ) axis, we can specify the position of any object. Latitude & Longitude Using parallels of latitude we determine the angular distance (in degrees) north or south of the equator, from 0º to 90º North or South Using meridians of longitude we determine the angular distance (in degrees) east or west of the prime meridian, from 0º to 180º East or West Other Grids There are a number of other grid systems in use that you may encounter: UTM o Divides the world between 80º North and 80º S into 6º by 8º numbered rectangles Township & Range o Used in most of the US for land surveys o Divides land into 36 mi 2 townships Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 13

11 The All-Purpose Map All maps are made for a specific purpose to show something the map maker thinks is interesting or worthwhile. All-purpose or general use maps are also made for a specific purpose to be useful to the widest possible number of users. To do this, general purpose maps have to include a lot of information. To do that they use a lot of different symbols colors, lines, pictures, etc. For more information about the types of symbols used on USGS maps, see Source: But is this a map? No this is false-color infrared photograph taken from the Space Shuttle A photograph is not a map (but it can be used to make a map) the image is not projected, the scale may vary from top to bottom or side to side, there is no legend, etc. Source: Geographic Information Systems A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system for acquiring, analyzing, processing, and displaying spatial data that is, information such as location (where a particular point is located) and various characteristics (for example, elevation, vegetation, population, hydrology, slope, etc.). Using a GIS, we can analyze and display an enormous amount of information we can produce new and better maps. Using a GIS A GIS can be used for a wide range of applications urban planning, emergency response systems, resource management, etc. Using a GIS it is possible to Produce maps using whatever scales, projections, symbols or color schemes best display the information. Store, retrieve and analyze the data associated with various locations Model and analyze site characteristics Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 13

12 GIS Examples: Timber Harvest Forecast for Kachemac Bay: The following variables (layers) were used to produce this analysis: o land-cover classification o site harvest history o infestation by spruce bark beetles o proximity to existing roads o proximity to power lines o percent slope o slope aspect (orientation) o proximity to anadromous (salmon) streams o concentration of bear and moose o designated wetland areas o land use o land ownership The San Diego-Tijuana Interactive Atlas: The San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG) uses a GIS to produce an interactive online atlas. By specifying what data you want, what scale, what level of analysis, etc., you can produce a huge variety of different maps. Go to SANDAG's interactive atlas: The National Atlas Map Maker: Using an amazing amount of data from many different sources, you can create maps of the US using a huge number of different variables (everything from population density to distribution of threatened amphibians!): Mathematical Models A model is a representation of reality. Mathematical models try to represent reality using equations and algorithms to simulate and predict what will happen in the real world. Models can be combined with GIS to produce maps of what is happening, what may be happening, and what might happen. Mathematical Models: Example Climate model, showing possible future changes. Source: Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 12 of 13

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14 Population The World Today: Six and a half Billion People About 50% of the world s people are urban (living in or near cities). 90% of the world s people live north of the equator. 3 / 4 of the world s people live on 5% of the earth s surface 90% live on 20% of the earth s land. 80% live at less than 500 meters (1,640 feet) elevation. 2 / 3 live within 500 km (310 miles) of an ocean. Global Population: 4 (+1) 5 Major population clusters: East Asia o About 1.4 billion people o Nearly 25% of humanity o 20% of humanity in China alone (about 1 in every 5 people) o About 2 / 3 rural (mostly farming) South Asia o About 1.25 billion people o 20% of humanity o 15% of humanity in India alone (about 1 in every 6 people) o About ¾ rural (mostly farming) Southeast Asia o About ½ billion people (100 million on the island of Java alone) o 8% of humanity o Mostly rural Europe o About 2 / 3 billion people o 11% of humanity (more than 1 in every 10 people) o About ¾ urban 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 9

15 Eastern North America (just to give us some perspective) o About 120,000,000 (major eastern cities of US & Canada) o Just 2% of humanity (US & Canada combined are ~5% of world) o About 95% urban The Ecumene The ecumene is the inhabited area of the earth. Today, the only areas that aren t inhabited are those that are too hot, dry, cold or at high elevations. Source: Population Density Remember, density is a measure of how many per. The question is what are we interested in finding out? Different density measures give us different insights, such as: Level of development Type of economy Clues about population growth, health, status of women, etc. Different Density Measures: Examples ARITHMETIC DENSITY ( average density ) (total population)/(total land area) o US population = ~300,000,000 o US land area = 9,161,923 km 2 o (299,000,000)/(9,161,923) = ~32.6 PHYSIOLOGIC DENSITY ( farmland density ) (total population)/(total arable land area) o US population = ~300,000,000 o US arable land = ~1,650,000 km 2 o (300,000,000)/(1,650,000) = ~181.8 AGRICULTURAL DENSITY ( farmer density ) (total number of farmers)/(total arable land area) o US farmers = ~2,100,000 o US arable land = ~1,650,000 km 2 o (2,100,000)/(1,650,000) = ~1.27 (data on population, farmers and farmland from the CIA World Factbook : and the USDA Economic Research Service: ) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 9

16 Density: Comparison Table (from textbook) Density: Comparisons 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 9

17 Basic Population Measures: Birth, Death & Natural Increase Crude Birth Rate CBR = (births per year)/(total population) Crude Death Rate CDR = (deaths per year)/(total population) Rate of Natural Increase CBR CDR = NI Note: The CBR & CDR are usually expressed in per thousand, while NI is usually expressed in percent. Population Rates: Two Examples Mexico 2004 (July est., CIA World Factbook) Population: 104,959,594 Births: 2,250,334 Deaths: 496,459 o CBR = 2,250,334/104,959,594 = 21.44/1,000 o CDR = 496,459/104,959,594 = 4.73/1,000 o NI = = 16.71/1,000 = 1.67% US 2004 (July est., CIA World Factbook) Population: 293,027,571 Births: 4,190,294 Deaths: 2,443,850 o CBR = 4,190,294/293,027,571 = 14.13/1,000 o CDR = 2,443,850/293,027,571 = 8.34/1,000 o NI = = 5.8/1,000 = 0.58% Conclusion: Mexico's NI is about three times the US rate. Doubling Time: Interest Simple vs. Compound Interest Initial amount: $100 Interest: 10% Simple $ $10.00 = $ $ $10.00 = $ $ $10.00 = $ $ $10.00 = $ $ $10.00 = $ $ $10.00 = $ $ $10.00 = $ $ $10.00 = $ Compound $ $10.00 = $ $ $11.00 = $ $ $12.10 = $ $ $13.31 = $ $ $14.64 = $ $ $16.10 = $ $ $17.72 = $ $ $19.49 = $ Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 9

18 Conclusion: At 10% it takes less then 8 years for compound interest to double the initial amount. If we continued, we'd find that the amount tripled in 12 years, quadrupled in 15 years, etc. Doubling Times & Population Growth The rate of natural increase declined between 1950 and 2000 but the number of people added to the world s population each year has remained fairly steady for about 40 years. Why? Because global population increased from 2.5 billion to over 6 billion during this time period! Other Population Measures Total Fertility Rate (TFR) An estimate of how many children a woman will have during her childbearing years. Assumes women in the future will act exactly as women today do. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) Deaths of infants less than 1 year old, divided by total births per year. (total infant deaths)/(total births) = IMR Life Expectancy An estimate of the number of years a child born today can expect to live at current mortality levels. The Demographic Transition Q: Why do the US and Mexico have different rates of natural increase and different fertility rates? Why do these rates change? A: The Demographic Transition The demographic transition is a model of how birth and death rates change over time Birth and death rates change because of Changes in the economic system (from traditional to post-industrial) Changes in information about health and health care (sanitation, etc.) Changes in people s attitudes about family size 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 9

19 The Demographic Transition Model Population Pyramids One way of visualizing how a country is changing (and how it may change in the future) is by using a population pyramid, a kind of bar chart that shows the age and sex structure of the population. Source: US Population Pyramids: Note how the bulge of the Baby Boom shifts through decades Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 9

20 Sex Ratios: (number of males per hundred females) 10 Highest 10 Lowest 189 Qatar 83 Latvia 174 UAE 87 Ukraine 133 Bahrain 87 Cape Verde 124 Saudi Arabia 88 Russia 113 Oman 89 Belarus 112 China 89 Estonia 111 Guam 89 Lithuania 110 Brunei 92 Georgia 109 Samoa 92 Hungary 109 Kuwait 92 Moldova Data Source: (1999) What do the countries with the highest numbers of men to women have in common? Almost all are countries where there are enormous numbers of workers in male-dominated industries (oil, fishing). The only exception: China (see below). What do the countries with the lowest numbers of men to women have in common? Almost all were part of the former Soviet Union (or were dominated by the Soviet Union), and have experienced social, medical and economic disruption during the last 20 years. The only exception: Cape Verde, where a large percent of the male population has traditionally gone overseas, looking for work Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 9

21 Overpopulation? The only rational way to define overpopulation is to say that if the population is too great for the local environment to support it, a place is overpopulated. Any other definition is based on cultural values. Thomas Malthus BNG NTH JPN IND UK EGY USA CAN Mean Density (km2) Thomas Malthus ( ), British clergyman and economist. Published An Essay on the Principle of Population in Crucial insight: Population tends to grow faster than the food supply. Population growth can be stopped: FAMINE MORAL RESTRAINT Was Malthus right? For animal populations yes. For people not so far! Neomalthusians vs. cornucopians Reducing Natural Increase The rate of natural increase can only decline if either birth rates decline or death rates increase. Of the two, most normal people prefer the first but even this approach is controversial! Reducing birth rates: Economic development (as the economy changes from traditional to advanced, countries go through the Demographic Transition, and birth rates will fall) Contraception (in many but not all countries, women wish to limit family size). Source: , Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 9

22 The Epidemiologic Transition At different stages of development there are different processes that affect the death rate. Different countries have different levels of technological development and different health problems. Stage 1: Pestilence & famine ( Black Plague ) Stage 2: Receding pandemics ( Cholera ) Stage 3: Degenerative & human-caused diseases ( heart attack & cancer ) Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases ( cardiovascular disease & ontology ) Stage 5: Emergence & reemergence of infectious & parasitic diseases ( AIDS, SARS, TB, Ebola, etc.) (Stage 4) US cancer rates (Stage 2) Snow s 1854 Cholera map. Sources: ; China vs. India: Population Growth and Change By 2050 India will probably have a population of 1.6 billion, a large percentage of whom will be in (or entering) the child-bearing years. China will probably have a population of 1.4 billion, but with a much smaller percentage in (or entering) the childbearing years, and a much older population overall. Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 9

23 Migration Migration: Terms Mobility: all types of movement Circulation: short term, repetitive, or cyclical movements Migration: a permanent move to a new location Emigration: migration from Immigration: migration to o Net Migration: the difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants o Immigrants > Emigrants: net in-migration o Immigrants < Emigrants: net out-migration Ravenstein s 19 th Century Laws of Migration Most people migrate for economic reasons. Cultural & environmental factors may also be important, but not as important as economics Most migrants move a short distance, and stay within a country. Long-distance migrants go to major centers of economic activity (jobs). Most long-distance migrants are males. Most long-distance migrants are adults, not families with their children. Why Do People Migrate? People migrate because of push & pull factors PUSH FACTORS encourage them to leave their current location PULL FACTORS encourage them to come to a new location (usually a particular place) There are 3 basic kinds of push & pull factors ECONOMIC CULTURAL ENVIRONMENTAL 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 10

24 Push-Pull Factors Economic Jobs o Availability o Advancement Resources o Land (for agriculture, pasturage) o Natural resources (minerals, forests, fish) Government Policies (Homestead Act of 1862, etc.) Cultural Push-Pull factors Political Instability o War and civil war o Prejudice and persecution o Refugees Political Stability (a pull not a push!) Slavery o Please note that slavery is not just of historical interest. It is estimated that more than 20 million people today live in some form of slavery (bonded labor, forced labor, chattel slavery, etc.) (Source: ) Environmental Push-Pull Factors Health and Disease Water (flood, drought, or reliability) Amenities (attractive scenery, beaches, warm winters, etc.) Intervening Obstacles Migrants can t always go to the places they want there may be obstacles in their way. Intervening obstacles may be either Environmental Cultural In the past, obstacles were mostly physical; today, they are mostly cultural. Tijuana Border Fence Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 10

25 Migration: Distance International migration (usually) involves: Greater distances Greater cultural differences to deal with Greater separation from friends and family Internal migration (usually) involves: Shorter distances Fewer cultural differences to deal with Less separation from friends and family Because of these differences most migrants have historically been internal, not external. International Migration: Forced vs. Voluntary Voluntary: the migrant chooses to move. Forced: the person migrant has no choice. Traditionally, people who move for economic or environmental reasons are automatically considered to be voluntary migrants. The category of forced migrants is usually limited to two groups: slaves and refugees. Since most people move for economic reasons most migrants are considered to be voluntary. Refugees Who is a refugee? In the US [under the Immigration and Nationality Act, Section 101(a)(42)]: The term 'refugee' means: (A) any person who is outside any country of such person's nationality who is unable or unwilling to return to, and is unable or unwilling to avail himself or herself of the protection of, that country because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion, or (B) in such circumstances as the President may specify, any person who is persecuted or who has a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Note that the US is not obligated to accept all refugees, but has agreed not to return people who face persecution to their home country. However, under the 1996 Illegal Immigration and Immigrant Responsibility Act, foreign nationals who come to this country without proper documentation can be summarily expelled unless they expressly 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 10

26 state a fear of return (the shout rule ). In 2004 the US returned 3,100 Haitian and 1,500 Cuban asylum seekers it interdicted on the high seas while they were trying to reach Florida (for more information see Who Is Not a Refugee? The US will not admit people as refugees, if they: Have a communicable disease of public health significance. Have certain serious physical or mental disorders Are a drug abuser or addict, or have violated laws pertaining to controlled substances. Renounced US citizenship for tax purposes. Have committed a crime of moral turpitude, or been convicted of two or more criminal offenses, or been a prostitute within the past ten years. Have been granted immunity from prosecution. Intend to practice polygamy in the United States. Enter the US in violation of immigration laws, or assist another person to do so. Have been involved in international child abduction. Intend to enter the US to conduct illegal activities. Would have potentially serious adverse foreign policy consequences to the US. Are or have been a member of the communist or any other totalitarian party. Have engaged in any way in the persecution of others on the basis of race, nationality, religion, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group. Source: US Refugees: The ceiling on US refugee admissions is 70,000 per year Africa 20,000 25,000 20,000 20,000 East Asia 4,000 6,500 13,000 15,000 Eastern Europe 2,500 na na na The Former Soviet Union 14,000 na na na Europe &Central Asia na 13,500 9,500 15,000 Latin America & Caribbean 2,500 3,500 5,000 5,000 Near East & South Asia 7,000 2,000 2,500 5,000 Unallocated Reserve 20,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 Sources: ; ; ; ; Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 10

27 Global Refugees There are about 20,000,000 refugees or internally displaced persons worldwide, (estimates vary a lot). The top 10 sources of refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons in 2005 were: Afghanistan: 1,908,100 Sudan: 693,300 Burundi: 438,700 DR Congo: 4430,600 Somalia: 394,800 Vietnam: 358,200 Palestinians: 349,700 [or more than 4,300,000, depending on definitions] Iraq: 262,100 Azerbaijan: 233,700 Liberia: 231,100 Sources: ; ; ; Migrant Characteristics: Changes? In the 19 th Century E.G. Ravenstein noted that: Most long-distance migrants were male. Most long-distance migrants were single adults, not families with children. Are these characteristics still true? Today, in the US, most international immigrants are women, not men. Although most immigrants to the US are still single adults, increasing numbers of immigrants are children (17 years of age or less). Why do we see changes? Changes in the status of women, changes in the kinds of jobs available, changes in the transportation system. Global Migration Patterns Only 5% of the world s population are international migrants but that s still more than 300 million people! At the global scale, some regions tend to be a destination for migrants, and some tend to be sources of migrants Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 10

28 Net out-migration areas: Asia, Latin America and Africa Net in-migration areas: North America, Europe, Oceania US Immigration History About 10% of the US population today (~30 million people) are immigrants. Since 1820 more than 65 million people have immigrated to the US. Two main periods in US immigration: Colonial to Early 20th Century (mostly European immigrants) 1970's to Present (mostly Asian & Latin American immigrants) Three Waves of European Immigration: (90% Great Britain) 1870s-1880s (75% North & West Europe) 1890s-1924 (75% South & Eastern Europe) Why Three Waves? Different parts of Europe passed through the demographic transition at different times, shifting from Stage 2 (massive population growth and societal changes) to Stage 3 (moderate population growth). Wilbur Zelinsky s migration transition model points out that massive international migration occurs during Stage 2. We can chart the social and economic changes associated with the demographic transition that affected Europe in the 19 th Century by looking at the sources of US immigrants. Immigration Since the 1970s Most immigrants to the US today come from Less developed countries Asia o 1960s 40,000/year o 1990s 300,000/year o Primary sources today: China, Philippines, India, Vietnam Latin America o 1950s 60,000/year o 1960s 130,000/year o 1990s between 400,000 and nearly 2,000,000/year o Primary sources today: Mexico, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 10

29 Undocumented Immigration No one knows how many immigrants are in the US illegally without proper permits and documentation. Estimates range from three to more than thirty million! Best guess about 10 million people? Major sources of undocumented migrants Mexico Central America, Asia, Europe About half of all undocumented migrants enter illegally; the rest just overstay visas Recent legislation (post 9/11) intended to monitor visas Migrant Destinations in the US Recent migrants tend to locate in certain areas: ¼ in California ¼ in New York & New Jersey ¼ Florida, Texas and Illinois Source: ; see also Why here? Jobs Chain migration (friends and family link people communities form, such as Little Tokyo in Los Angeles, or Chinatown in San Francisco). Of course, ethnic communities can be created by force by making people live in ghettoes but we ll cover that topic later. Obstacles to Immigration In the past, the major obstacles to immigration were physical travel was difficult and dangerous, and usually involved long journeys over hazardous terrain. Today, travel technology has made it much faster and easier to travel long distances, and the major barriers to migration are mostly cultural: Getting permission to enter a new country. Attitudes toward migrants. Until 1924 immigration to the US was almost unlimited with a few exceptions, if you wanted to come, you could come. Today, the US (and all developed countries) put limits on the number of immigrants they are willing to take Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 10

30 US Immigration Laws: Highlights, Residence requirement (2 years) 1819 Reporting to Federal government; Sustenance rules for ship's passengers 1864 Secretary of State given control of immigration 1875 Entry of prostitutes & convicts prohibited 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act; Persons convicted of political offenses, lunatics, idiots, persons likely to become public charges also excluded; Head tax imposed of fifty cents per person 1888 Expulsion provisions adopted 1891 Bureau of Immigration established 1903 Polygamists and radicals added to exclusion list 1906 Knowledge of English required 1907 Head tax increased; People with physical or mental defects excluded; Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan 1917 Illiterates, persons of psychopathic inferiority, men entering for immoral purposes, alcoholics, stowaways and vagrants added to exclusion list 1921 Temporary annual quotas set by nationality 1924 Permanent quotas; Border Patrol established Source: see Immigration Legal History Intelligence Testing, World War I: Justification of the Quota System Since people from Eastern and Southern Europe were shown by objective testing to all be morons, immigration quotas were established limiting migration from those regions. Note that the immigration quotas established in 1924 placed no restrictions on migrants from Latin America or Africa. Immigration Today: Legal Limits Immediate relatives of citizens 322, , , , ,790 Other family-sponsored relatives 213, , , ,355 na Refugees & asylum seekers 112, ,371 44,927 61, ,962 Employment-related 90, ,968 82, , ,877 Other 59,842 11,436 87, , ,744 Total legal immigrants 798,378 1,063, , ,142 1,122,373 Notice that family-related migrants are usually the largest group. Also note that no more than 7% of all visas may be issued to people from any one country (this does not affect refugees or asylum seekers). Sources: ; ; ; ; Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 10

31 Temporary Migration for Work In Western Europe there are millions of guest workers mostly from the Middle East, Asia and North Africa, who have migrated temporarily for employment, but who are not considered permanent migrants. Today guest workers (and other foreign nationals) make up a significant percentage of the population of many European countries: Germany: 8.9% France: 5.6% Netherlands: 10.6% Despite your book s assurances, the legal and social status of guest workers is often fairly marginal and their status (and the status of their children) remains controversial. Data source: Economic Migrants vs. Refugees Economic migrants are not the same as refugees at least, not when it comes to the law. All countries who are signatories to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (including the US) have agreed to give refugees special status (and not to send them back where they came from). No country has an obligation to take in economic migrants. Examples: Cuba, Haiti, Vietnam. US Attitudes Toward Immigrants US attitudes toward immigrants have often been hostile (anti-irish, anti- Catholic, anti-jewish, anti-chinese, anti-mexican, etc.). Historically, a number of US politicians have used anti-immigrant slogans as part of their campaigns. Internal Migration People migrate within a particular country for pretty much the same reasons they migrate from one country to another mostly for economic reasons. Internal migration is usually easier than international migration. There are two main types of internal migration Interregional Intraregional 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 10

32 Interregional Migration: The US The US population has been spreading westward since Colonial times. Expansion beyond the Appalachians in late 18 th and early 19 th centuries, into the Plains in the 19 th century, and expanding settlement in the South in the 20 th century, have all shifted the mean center of population. Today, the mean center of 2000 US population is near the small town of Edgar Springs, Missouri. Source: Interregional Migration: Other Examples Brazil Encouraging migration from the coast to the interior. Indonesia Encouraging migration from Java to less populated islands. Russia (Soviet Union) Combination of forced and voluntary migration. India Limits migration into some States. Europe Most migrants moving from South to North, looking for better jobs. Intraregional Migration Intraregional migration migration within a single region is one of the most important kinds of migration (but tends to get ignored). Movement from cities to suburbs In % of the US population lived in suburbs Today about 75% of the US population lives in suburbs Counterurbanization Movement from urban to rural areas back to the land Small numbers, but possibly a significant trend Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 10

33 Folk and Popular Culture Folk & Popular Culture: Terms HABIT a repetitive act that a particular individual performs CUSTOM a repetitive act of a group, performed to the extend that it becomes characteristic of the group MATERIAL CULTURE a collection of social customs Folk vs. Popular Material culture falls into categories, mostly based on scale: FOLK CULTURE o Small, fairly homogenous groups o Today, mostly isolated in rural areas POPULAR CULTURE o Large, heterogeneous groups o Widespread, urban maybe even global culture Origins Every social custom develops in a particular place a hearth. Folk customs usually have anonymous origins they come from unknown places (sometimes more than one place), at unknown times. Popular customs are usually the product of developed countries, and their origins are often well known Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 8

34 Origins: Folk Customs Folk Music Every culture develops its own unique music. Folk Art In many cultures the distinction between art and everyday object is unclear decoration is just the way things are done. Folk Housing Must be made from locally available building materials. Distinctive forms there is no perfect house design. Folk Food People adapt their food preferences based on the environment BUT beliefs and values strongly influence diet. Folk Sports People everywhere enjoy recreation many places have developed unique forms of recreation and sports. Folk Beliefs How does the world work? How should we behave? Folk Music All known cultures have some form of music. Folk music is usually composed anonymously. Folk music is usually transmitted orally (not written down). The content and subject matter of folk music usually comes from everyday events in people s lives. For more information on traditional music from around the world, try these resources: Ethnomusicology, Folk Music, and World Music: Smithsonian Global Sound Library: Folk Art Usually, folk art pieces are traditional ; there is no known designer, no artist just craftspeople. Often the art is just included as part of a traditional way of making something not specifically made as art. Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 8

35 Folk Housing Folk housing has several fundamental characteristics: It must deal adequately with the physical environment (or else!). It must be designed in such a way that people without special equipment or training can build it. It must be constructed from locally available materials. Remember: there is no single perfect design. Folk Food Folk customs are always affected by what s available but also by culture. What is acceptable for some cultures may be unacceptable or even horrifying to others. Traditional half-timber cabin, Yankee Horse, Virginia Folk Sports Play is older than culture (Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens) As far we know, games are a fundamental part of every culture playing games is part of what it means to be human. Every culture develops its own unique forms of recreation. Folk Sports: Examples Cornish Hurling o At [the village of] St Columb the struggle is a physical battle between Town and Country with the shops in the town barricading their Gathering fly larvae at Mono Lake, California a tasty, high protein snack. Angolan children playing ware, a traditional game. Source: windows and doors for the start of the scrum at 4.30 p.m. The ball is thrown to the crowd from the market square the objective to carry it into either the town or country goals set some two miles apart or if this is not possible the ball may be carried over the Parish boundary. At 8.00 p.m. a winner returns to declare a win for 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 8

36 Town or Country. Belarusian Hul'nia o Players are divided into two teams or armies. Each army chooses a big one -- the strongest person. This person throws a wooden wheel or a heavy round stone towards another army. The other army is supposed to stop it as fast as possible and reverse its direction. The game is won when the line is crossed on one of the sides. Sources: ; Folk Belief How does the world work? How should you behave? What should you do when someone is born? Or marries? Or dies? How should you live your life? Every culture has had to come up with answers to questions like these -- answers that (more or less) work for that culture. Folk beliefs are usually transmitted orally. Folk Beliefs: Relocation Diffusion The Amish originally a Swiss Mennonite group have a distinctive culture and are now found in 17 US States. The Amish (and their beliefs) have spread by relocation diffusion which is just about the only way folk cultures and their beliefs can spread. Folk Masterpieces The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has officially designated 812 sites as World Heritage Sites, places deserving of consideration and preservation. Many of these are natural or historical places, but some are examples of folk culture. Since 1997 UNESCO has also designated 47 masterpieces of intangible cultural heritage, including traditional festivals and cultural practices. For more information see: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 8

37 Popular Music Unlike folk music, popular music is (usually) written or performed by known individuals who own it. This is true even for songs that many of us think are public : Happy Birthday to You belongs to Time Warner and won t be in the public domain until 2030! Popular music is (usually) produced as a kind of commodity it s for sale. Popular music tends to vary a lot more over time than from place to place (the music of the 1990s was very different from the music of the 1980s but you could hear it just about anywhere in the world). Modern popular music (as we think of it) began about 100 years ago: Performed in English music halls and in American vaudeville, and composed by professionals in places like Tin Pan Alley. Global-scale diffusion during the Second World Wars. Continued and increasing diffusion by mass media (recorded and broadcast). Popular Art As with popular music, popular art is usually created by known individuals as a commodity produced by professionals, and made to be sold. Innovation (and even shock value) is highly prized. Source: Pablo Picasso, Dora Maar, 1938 Popular Housing Housing in popular culture is usually designed and built by professionals not by the people who live in the houses. Popular housing is not limited to locally available building materials. Popular housing styles vary more over time than regionally for example, houses built in the 1950s tend to look alike, regardless of where they were built. Popular Food In popular culture modern transportation methods mean that a wide variety of different kinds of food are available year-round people are not limited to locally available crops. Food fads and food trends can change diets, so that what people prefer tends to vary more over time than over space. However, there are variations in food preferences and consumption Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 8

38 National Sports As with food, sports in popular culture are extremely widespread but there are regional variations in popularity. Source : Popular Beliefs Beliefs about the world and how people should live and behave are widely shared in popular culture. Widely shared concepts today: Democracy; free markets; individualism; rule of law; private property; family; work; education; etc. Popular beliefs are spread by media -- newspapers, magazines, radio and TELEVISION!!!! The Diffusion of TV Category 1: Countries where most households (more than 50%) own at least one TV set (US, Japan). Category 2: Countries where TVs are common, but not universal (25%- 49%) (Mexico, Thailand). Category 3: Countries where television exists, but is uncommon (5%- 24%); few individuals own sets (Mongolia, Laos). Category 4: Countries where television is rare or non-existent (less than 5%); virtually no TV sets (Bhutan, Chad). Data Source: World Bank Development and Data Statistics Table 5.11: The Internet In 1995 less than 10% of American adults were online; today more than 2 / 3 have online access. Worldwide, more than a billion people have internet access today but access is still very limited in less developed areas. Threats to Folk Cultures Why worry? Why should we care? When people turn away from traditional culture and customs, they may also turn away from a society s traditional values. The ways of living and behaving that work in popular culture may not work so well in other cultures Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 8

39 On the other hand traditional ways of living are not necessarily ideal either! Threats to Folk Culture Number 1: Loss of Traditional Values Changes in the Role of Women o In many cultures it is traditional for women to be subservient to men (this was true here until quite recently!) o In some cases, awareness of popular culture has meant that women can seek advancement, education, and new roles. o On the other hand, contact with popular culture almost always results in increased rates of prostitution and exploitation. o Women who try to change their roles or status may be subject to harassment and violence although that is hardly unique or unusual in many cultures. Number 2: Foreign Media Imperialism Media from just three countries the US, the UK and Japan dominate entertainment and news in much of the less developed world. What they show may be offensive to (or subversive of) traditional values. Western news media dominate international news. News media within most less developed countries is largely government controlled. News networks tend to represent Western values and ideas and may not present the points of view of less developed countries (or their governments). Western media are largely interested in disasters. Note that newspapers and radio stations are usually locally owned and operated not foreign owned or controlled. Number 3: Adoption & Commodification Popular culture is constantly looking for new, exciting things and ideas. Often, it takes them from folk cultures but things are usually altered as part of the process, and the original meaning is often lost. Number 4: The Environment Folk cultures are dependent on the local environment. Although they may modify it, if they survive, they must be in some sense in balance. Popular culture is much more likely to create pollution toxic chemicals, sewage, etc Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 8

40 Popular culture is far less dependent on local conditions. Food can be imported; air conditioning can keep things pleasant. So popular culture is far more likely to modify the natural environment sometimes in ways that may be disastrous for people trying to live a traditional life. Modifying the Environment: Examples o Increased Demand for Resources Popular culture needs access to large quantities of raw materials minerals, petroleum, lumber, agricultural land. Increased demand for these resources can severely impact the environment in ways that traditional cultures never would. o Golf Each golf course covers at least 200 acres and requires enormous quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water. About 200 new golf courses open every year in the US; thousands around the world. Image source: Number 5: Placelessness Popular culture is characterized by nearly universal styles of art, architecture, advertising, behavior, etc. When every place is indistinguishable from every other place then how can any place be special or unique? Why put any particular value on a place when it s just like everywhere else? Care to guess where this McDonald s is located? Source: Answer: This McDonald s is located near Athens, Georgia on the site of a former radioactive toxic waste dump! 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 8

41 Ethnicity Terms Ethnic: from the Greek ethnikos or national. Ethnicity: identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth. a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions. No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Person's Ethnicity Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits, including: Language (Quebec, Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans, Polish-Americans, etc.) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian hillbillies ) Race Defining Race Definitions from your textbook: o identity with a group of people who share a biological ancestor. o identity with a group of people descended from a common ancestor. These are not identical! The first is a modern biological definition; the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to the French race, the Arab race, etc.). For example: The English race are reputed morose. I do not know that they have sadder brows than their neighbors of northern climates. They are sad by comparison with the singing and dancing nations: not sadder, but slow and staid, as finding their joys at home. Ralph Waldo Emerson, English Traits (1856) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 14

42 Race vs. Ethnicity A person's race may or may not be the same as a person's ethnicity. In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused sometimes by law: Asian is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, etc. will all be classified as being of the same race ). African-American is recognized as a race, but it is not necessarily the same as black. There are many Blacks who trace their cultural heritage and their ethnic identity to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America. Hispanic (Latino) is considered an ethnicity, not a race. Hispanics may therefore be of any race. Race, Racism and Prejudice Racism: belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. Racist: a person who subscribes to the beliefs of racism. Prejudice: a preformed, unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people, based on stereotypes. Race: Reality? Research into genetic diseases has shown that race is not a very good predictor of who is and who isn t going to get various genetic diseases (e.g. cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs, etc.). Since the human genome has been sequenced, we now know that skin color, eye color, etc. aren t very good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is. For example, in America: African-American s West African genetic heritage varies from 20% to 100%. 30% of Americans who consider themselves white have less than 90% European ancestry. Data from Bamshad, MJ and Olson SE Does race exist? Scientific American 289: Hate Crimes Also known as bias motivated crimes. The Federal Government does not classify crimes as hate crimes. State and local law enforcement agencies collect (and classify data) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 14

43 Standards vary from State to State and even from town to town so national statistics are questionable. Nevertheless, the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year. In the year 2004, there were more then 7,600 reported hate crimes in the US. The largest number (over 4,000) were motivated by race. Hate crime data source: Race 4,321 3,642 3,844 4,042 3,919 Religion 1,390 1,426 1,343 1,374 1,227 Sexual Orientation 1,260 1,244 1,239 1,197 1,017 Ethnicity 754 1,102 1, Disability Totals 7,750 7,459 7,485 7,642 7,160 US Ethnicities: Regional Concentrations General pattern African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest & Plains At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution: African-Americans o African-Americans are about ¼ of the population in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina, and about 1 / 3 of the population in Mississippi. o African-Americans are less than 1% of the population in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Idaho, Montana, North and South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 14

44 Hispanics (Latinos) o Hispanics are about 1 / 5 (or more) of the population in California, New Mexico and Texas. o Hispanics are less than 1% of the population in Maine, Vermont, North and South Dakota, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas. Asians o Asians are about 5% (or more) of the population in Alaska, California, Washington, Nevada, Minnesota, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Maryland and Virginia. o Asians are less than 1% of the population in 29 States. Native Americans ( Indians and Alaska Natives) o Native Americans are 10% or more of the population in Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Montana and South Dakota. o Native Americans are less than 1% of the population in 27 States. Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons we'll be getting to soon). In some States the urban concentration can be extreme: Detroit is 82% African-American; the rest of Michigan is 6% African American. Chicago is 39% African-American; the rest of Illinois is 7% African- American. New York City is 24% Latino; the rest of New York is 4% Latino. Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americans: o Gary, IN 84.0% o Detroit, MI 81.6% o Birmingham, AL 73.5% o Jackson, MS 70.6% o New Orleans, LA 67.3% o Baltimore, MD 64.3% o Atlanta, GA 61.4% 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 14

45 Ethnic Neighborhoods In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groups. The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over time. In the 19 th and early 20 th Centuries, cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic neighborhoods made up of European immigrants. Today many of these have changed composition, to being predominant made up of people from Latin America, Asia, or African- Americans. Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migration. Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices ( redlining and blockbusting see below). Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African- Americans in the US: Forced migration from Africa (17 th to 19 th centuries). o During the era of the African slave trade, million Africans were sold into slavery. o During the 17 th, 18 th and 19 th centuries, between one-half and one million Africans were brought to the British Colonies and the US. o The Triangle Trade Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19 th and 20 th centuries). o After the Civil War slavery ended but most former slaves had no education or training. o Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land, paying in crops). o Nevertheless, a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern cities. o Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldn't just settle anywhere they wanted in Northern cities. o Two practices, redlining and blockbusting, created urban ghettos. Redlining: drawing lines on a map to identify areas [where banks, realtors, insurance agents, etc.] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]. (see Chapter 13) Blockbusting: real estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses a low prices, preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 14

46 neighborhood and cause property values to decline. The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettos. Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20 th century). o Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s; racial separation was legally ended. o Courts ordered the integration of schools. Many whites refused; rather than integrate, they fled to the suburbs. o Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor). African- Americans who can afford to have also tended to migrate out of the cities, and into the suburbs. African-Americans: Legal Status in The US, Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. US Constitution Article I [Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect Persons of color, in the judgment of Congress, were not included in the word citizens, and they are described as another and different class of persons Scott vs. Sanford, 1857 on the 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free Emancipation Proclamation 1862 Every civil officer shall, and every person may, arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman, free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer Mississippi Black Code, c separate but equal However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be, we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United States. Plessy vs. Ferguson 1896 We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Brown vs. Board of Education Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 14

47 Race in South Africa History of South Africa Originally occupied by Khoikhoi ( Hottentot ) peoples. Dutch arrived 1652, established Cape Town. Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18 th and early 19 th centuries. British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806; purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for 6 million. In 1822 English became the official language; in 1833 slavery was abolished. In protest, in ,000 Boers made the voortrek inland, eventually establishing the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886; British miners were denied civil rights and taxed heavily; Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War ( ). In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empire. In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of apartheid (separation or apartness by race). Race and Apartheid Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African races : White (13% of the population). Black (76% of the population). Asian (3% of the population descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan). Coloured (9% of the population people of mixed race). Under apartheid races were kept legally separate where you lived, worked, went to school, shopped, owned land, who you could marry, etc. was determined by race. South African Homelands Because of its racial policies, many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa during the 1970s and 1980s. In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20 th century, South Africa devised a plan: Since other countries objected to South Africa's disenfranchising ¾ of its citizens make them citizens of somewhere else! 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 14

48 Homelands o Ten homelands were established: Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Gazankulu, KaNgwane, KwaNdebele, KwaZulu, Lebowa, Qwaqwa, Transkei, and Venda. o One black group would be dominant in each region, and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten, based on tribal affiliation. o The homelands were supposed to be independent, but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa. o Four homelands Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda were declared independent between 1976 and 1981, but no other country recognized them. Dismantling of Apartheid In 1991, in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola, the South African government began to dismantle apartheid. The African National Congress Party, after being banned for 30 years, was made legalized, and its leader, Nelson Mandela, was released from prison after 27½ years. In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africa's first black President. Truth & Reconciliation Established in 1995, the Truth & Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses. The TRC concluded that all sides black and white were guilty of crimes. However, The state, was the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South Africa Racism constituted the motivating core of the South African political order This created a climate in which gross atrocities were seen as legitimate. In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22,000 identified victims of victims of Apartheid. Map source: There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries, including Argentina, Chile, El Salvador, Fiji, Sierra Leone and East Timor. Sources: ; ; Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 14

49 Ethnicity and Nationalism National: from a Latin word, nasci, to have been born (recall that the Greek ethnikos originally meant national ). Nationality: identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country. a group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural tradition. Nationalism: loyalty and devotion to a nationality. Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all others Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate. In the US, nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct; you can be of any ethnicity and still be an American. In other countries the situation can be very different. Nations, Nation-States and Nationalism For over a century, the idea of self-determination the idea that groups of people have a right to choose their own governments without outside interference has been among the most important political principles. Nation-States independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) have been an ideal for many nationalists. States encourage nationalism: o Symbols (flags, songs, public events) o Nationalism can be an important centripetal force a force encouraging unification. Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts for example, creating unity by using stereotypes and new enemies. Creating New Nationalities In the 18 th and 19 th centuries, competing European Empires encouraged the development of national identity in each other's territories. In the 20 th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became independent there were now dozens of new nations, new nationalities. Problems Overlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 14

50 Different ethnicities competed to become dominant in the newlycreated countries. Examples: o South Asia India and Pakistan Kashmir Sri Lanka o Africa Ethiopia and Eritrea Somalia Nigeria o Near East Israel Lebanon Map sources: ; ; Who are the Palestinians? Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves Palestinians : People living in the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem. Israeli citizens who are Muslim, rather than Jewish. People who left Israel after the war. People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 war, Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselves to be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the 1948 or 1967 wars) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 14

51 Lebanon: Nationalities, Ethnicities, and Conflict Lebanon, smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less than four million, has 17 officially recognized ethnicities. However, no census has been taken since 1932, so there are no accurate population figures for the different groups. Current estimates: 55% Muslim (66% Sunni, 34% Shi'ite). 38% Christian (60% Maronite, 5% Greek Orthodox, also Greek Catholic, Armenian, Syrian Orthodox, etc.) 7% Druze There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1% of the population). In the 1943 Lebanon's Constitution required each group be represented in Parliament based on its population in the 1932 census: Chamber of Deputies o 30 Maronites o 11 Greek Orthodox o 6 Greek Catholics o 4 Armenian Christians o 3 Other Christians o 20 Sunni o 19 Shi'ites o 6 Druze By agreement, the Executive Branch was also represented on the basis of ethnicity: o President Maronite Christian o Premier Sunni Muslim o Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies Shi'ite Muslim o Foreign Minister Greek Orthodox Christian Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932, by the 1970s they were hopelessly incorrect. Palestinian refugees took control of Southern Lebanon, civil war broke out between Christians and Muslims in 1975, Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978, and the government collapsed. Today Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially divided equally between Muslims and Christians. Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000, but cross-border violence continues Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 14

52 Since 2000 the Lebanese Parliament has had 128 seats and has been apportioned equally between Christians and Muslims: Christian Seats Muslim Seats Maronite 34 Sunni 27 Greek Orthodox 14 Shi'a 27 Greek Catholic 8 Druze 8 Armenian Orthodox 5 Alawite 2 Armenian Catholic 1 Protestant 1 Other Christians 1 Totals On February 14, 2005, the Lebanese Prime Minister was assassinated; the Cabinet resigned, and Syria has withdrawn from Lebanon. In June 2005 elections were held. In July 2006 a month of cross-border violence with Israel resulted in nearly a thousand dead (mostly Lebanese), and about 1¼ million refugees (about one million Lebanese, about 250,000 Israelis). Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing Forced migration has occurred throughout history people of a certain ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic group's armies. In the 1990s a new term was coined, ethnic cleansing, to describe what some groups in Europe were doing to each other. Ethnic cleansing: o a process in which a more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogenous region. o Ethnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicity, so that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitants. Balkanization At the end of the 19 th century political leaders were deeply worried about something called Balkanization : The process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities. Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace, because conflicts between ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war. Balkanization certainly helped to cause World War I Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 12 of 14

53 To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future, a multiethnic state was created in the Balkans Yugoslavia. Ethnic Cleansing Example: Yugoslavia After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up. The Balkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups) into a new multi-ethnic nation. Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormous: Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria, Greece, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania). Four official languages (Croatian, Serbian, Macedonian, Slovene). Three major religions (Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Islam). Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene, Cyrillic for Macedonian and Serbian). Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicity; Bosnia & Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities. Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20 th century, but with the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s, politicians in several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gain power. All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to become independent countries. Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide and because of the concept of self-determination Serbs and Croats both used ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territory. Genocide Beyond removing an ethnic group, there is genocide : Destroying a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. In the 20 th century there have been several spectacular examples of genocide and attempted genocide: : between 600,000 and 1½ million Armenians were killed or forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to deny that this was an act of genocide). 1930s-1945: six million Jews, as well as hundreds of thousands of Slavs, Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 13 of 14

54 : three million Cambodians were killed by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. 1994: 500,000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutus : An estimated 300,000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by state supported militias (see ). A 60 day cease-fire was agreed in January 2007 and immediately violated. Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948, whether committed during wartime or peacetime. All signatories to the Convention on Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide are obligated to enforce the treaty, and punish individuals responsible for acts of genocide. Critics have pointed out that while there are procedures in place to punish genocide, there is no real international mechanism today for preventing it. For more information on genocide see: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: The Eight Stages of Genocide: Prevent Genocide International: The Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 14 of 14

55 The Geography of Language Language Origins The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson ( ) classified theories of language origin into five groups: Bow-Wow o People imitate sounds from their environment Pooh-Pooh o People make instinctive sounds related to emotions, body functions, pain Ding-Dong o People make oral gestures Yo-He-Ho o People work together and produce rhythmic sounds La-La o People make sounds associated with love, play and singing Language is Language is universal No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language. o There are, of course, many languages that do not have a written form. o There are occasional physically normal individuals, wolf children, who have no language at all. Language is fundamental Language is crucial for social interaction, and to express complex emotions and ideas. Language lets us deal with and even try to control the world around us: o Naming o Faith, magic and the supernatural Language is fundamental to who we are our identity Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 20

56 Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents). How many languages are there? Not an easy question to answer. Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs. Latin) Revivals (Hebrew from living to dead to living again) New Discoveries (Amazon, Papua New Guinea, Africa, etc.) Languages and Dialects (see below hard to define!) o Maybe 4,000 Languages are spoken today? Or more? Or less? How many language families are there? Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary, phonology and grammar. Lots of disputes about what is and what isn t significant and lots of variation in the numbers. o Maybe as many as 100 families? Or? Language families have Branches a collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families. Example: Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches: o Germanic (ex. German, Danish, English) o Romance (ex. Italian, French, Romanian) o Balto-Slavic (ex. Lithuanian, Russian, Polish) o Indo-Iranian (ex. Farsi, Kurdish) o Greek (ex. Greek!) o Albanian (ex. Albanian!) o Armenian (ex. Armenian!) o Celtic (ex. Irish, Breton, Welsh) Groups a collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary For example, both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch, but English is in the West Germanic Group, while Danish is in the North Germanic Group Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 20

57 Indo-European: mutual comprehension? Consider all of the following: English: Our Father, who art in heaven Dutch: Onze Vader, die in de hemelen zijt Spanish: Padre nuestro, qe estás en los cielos Polish: Ojcze nasz, którys jest w niebiesiech Greek: Patera mas, poù eïsai stoùs ouranoùs Albanian: Ati ynë që je në quiell Kurdish: Yä bäwk-ï ëma, ka la äsmän-ä-y Romany: Dáde amaré, kaj isién k o devlé Sanskrit: Bho asmäkham svargastha pitah Notice the similarities (for example: pitah, patera, padre ; or father, vader, dáde ) and differences. Language Families Source: Major language families (families with more than 100,000,000 speakers) Indo-European (ex. English, Russian, Farsi, Hindi) o About 3 billion speakers; originally Europe-Asia, now worldwide Sino-Tibetan (ex. Chinese, Tibetan) o About 1.5 billion speakers; mostly in China and surrounding areas. Afro-Asiatic (also called Hamitic-Semitic ) (ex. Arabic, Hebrew) o Almost ½ billion speakers; mostly in North Africa & Southwest Asia. Austronesian (also called Malayo-Polynesian ) (ex. Hawaiian, Malagasy) o More than ¼ billion speakers; Pacific Ocean to Madagascar. Dravidian (ex. Tamil, Malayalam) o About ¼ billion speakers; Southern India Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 20

58 Niger-Congo (ex. Yoruba, Swahili) o About 200,000,000 speakers; Sub-Saharan Africa. Altaic (ex. Turkish, Mongol) o About 200,000,000 speakers; Turkey to Mongolia. Japanese (ex. Japanese!) o About 125,000,000 speakers; Japan (of course!) Some interesting minor language families Austro-Asiatic o Major language: Vietnamese o About 60,000,000 speakers. Korean o Major language: Korean o About 50,000,000 speakers. Tai (your book considers this to be part of Sino-Tibetan) o Major language: Thai o About 50,000,000 speakers. Nilo-Saharan o Major language: Masai o About 30,000,000 speakers. Amerindian (not really a family, just a regional collection) o Major languages: Quechua, Navajo o About 25,000,000 speakers (mostly in South America). Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family) o Major languages: Finnish, Hungarian Caucasian o Major language: Georgian o About 6,000,000 speakers. Indo-Pacific (or Papuan not a family, just a regional collection. There are about 800 languages spoken on the island of New Guinea!) o Major language: Motu? o About 3,000,000 speakers. Khoisan (the click languages) o Major language: Khoikhoi o About 50,000 speakers. Australian Aborigine (not a family, just a regional collection) o Major language: Arunta o About 50,000 speakers. Isolates (languages which aren t related to anything else, such as Basque) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 20

59 Language families: origins and relationships? Origin of Indo-European: two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now Turkey). The movement of languages Throughout history, most languages have spread by relocation diffusion. A few languages including Chinese, Latin, French and English have also spread by expansion diffusion. Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural. The world s top ten languages Note the astonishing rise of English! Why? Mostly because of English's status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 20

60 Origins of English Development Nothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c. 2,000 BCE) (the Celts provided some loan words, but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language). Old English ( Anglo-Saxon ): o Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes, Angles, Saxons) from Northern Germany, beginning 449 CE. o Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c. 700 CE. Middle English: o Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch). o The Great Vowel Shift ( CE); spelling frozen. Modern English: CE English vocabulary enlarged, grammar simplified, codified. Old, Middle & Early Modern English Old English Fæder ure þuþe eart on heofonum si þin nama gehalgod tobecume þin rice gewurþe þin willa on eorðan swa on heofonum urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us to dæg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele soþlice. Middle English Oure fadir þat art in heuenes halwid be þi name; þi kyngdom come to be. Be þi wille don in herþe as it is dounin heuene. Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred. And foryeue to us oure dettis þat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris þat is to men þat han synned in us. And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl. Early Modern English Our father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. Source ( ): The pleasures and perils of English Pleasures Most widely spoken language, global dominance of media, internet. No gender, number or case changes; easy formation of plurals. Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs). Huge, flexible vocabulary Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 20

61 Perils Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations ( put up, get down ) Irregular plurals (ox and oxen; foot and feet, etc.) Spelling (25% irregular, 27 graphemes vs. 40 phonemes) Bizarre written forms: o Though the rough cough and hiccough plough me through, I ought to cross the lough. No rules for pronunciation and stress o Polish vs. polish; dove vs. dove; to, too, two; there, their, they re Improving written English? Other proposed systems: Cut Spelng, New Follick, Checked Clipped Spelling, Sound Spell, Spell Right, NuSpel, EnglSpel, Alt Spell, Inglish, AnJel, etc. And if these look funny remember, American spelling was simplified over a hundred years ago! o tire vs. tyre o jail vs. gaol o curb vs. kerb o program vs. programme Language, dialect, accent Standard Language: Accepted norms of syntax, vocabulary and pronunciation. Dialect: A recognizable speech variant. Accent: A distinctive way of speaking typical of a group or a region. Accents can be distinctive in terms of o Pronunciation o Tone o Inflection o Word choice 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 20

62 Drawing dialect boundaries: isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline in this case, they are word-usage boundaries. Ideally, researchers go out, ask people what words they use for common things, put dots on the map, draw lines around the dots, and define boundaries between different dialects. That s the ideal. It s usually much messier. Can you guess what these different colored dots represent? Give up? These are all local words for dragonfly! Dialects of English In England, there are still at least three main dialect groups: NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN In the US Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. Today, US dialects are most pronounced in the East, and there are at least three main groups (and perhaps five): o NORTHERN o MIDLAND o SOUTHERN (some break this down further, into Upland, Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects) To hear a selection of American dialects, see: The Speech Accent Archive: The International Dialects of English Archive: Ebonics Also known as Black English Vernacular & African-American Vernacular English The Concept Students and teachers need to understand each other. Some African-American children s English is so different from standard English they cannot be understood by their teachers. Schools often treat such children as sloppy, wrong or stupid. Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already have, and treat that language as distinct and worthy, not wrong. The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) African people possess and utilize a language described as Ebonics studies have demonstrated that African Language Systems are 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 20

63 genetically-based and not a dialect of English (December 18, 1996) The Controversy ends African-American students as a part of their culture and history as African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as Ebonics these studies have demonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages (January 15, 1997) Official English? No, but The English Language Empowerment Act (1996) (1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic backgrounds. (3) Throughout the history of the United States, the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language. (4) In order to preserve unity in diversity, and to prevent division along linguistic lines, the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people. (9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government. Excerpts from HR 123, July 30, 1996 (Available ) English Language Unity Act of The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds, and continues to benefit from this rich diversity. 2. Throughout the history of the United States, the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language. 3. Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States, and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States, subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States. Excerpts from HR 997, February 27, 2003 (Available: ) National Language Act of English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States. The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 20

64 role of English... no person has a right, entitlement, or claim to services, or... materials in any language other than English. This... does not apply to the use of a language other than English o (1) for religious purposes; o (2) for training in foreign languages for international communication; o (3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages. This... does not prevent the Government... from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age. BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS... [are] repealed. Excerpts from HR 769, January 31, 2007 (Available ) Official English laws in the US As of 2007, 27 (?) US States have some kind of official English law. The impact and scope of the laws vary from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois: The official language of the State of Illinois is English ), to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English. Two States Hawaii and New Mexico have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish, respectively). A few States have taken the opposite position. Oregon, for example, says that the use of diverse languages in business, government and private affairs is welcomed, encouraged, and protected in Oregon. The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Spanish 28,101,052 Chinese 2,022,143 French 1,643,838 German 1,382,613 Tagalog 1,224,241 Vietnamese 1,009,627 Italian 1,008,370 Korean 894,063 Russian 706,242 Polish 667,414 Arabic 614,582 Portuguese 564,630 Japanese 477,997 French Creole 453,368 Greek 365,436 Hindi 317,057 Persian 312,085 Urdu 262,900 Gujarathi 235,988 Armenian 202,708 Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today 178,014. Source: file c2kbr-20.pdf 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 20

65 The urge to understand Mixing languages: Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins, creoles, Franglais, Spanglish, etc.). Lingua franca: A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin, English, etc.). Multilingualism: Knowing and using more than one language. Artificial language: A constructed language which is supposed to be logical, practical and easy to learn (Esperanto, etc.). Translation and interpretation: Translation: Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another. Interpretation: A less literal translation, emphasizing overall meaning. Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other. Examples: SPANGLISH o Dolores dice: Need advice? Escríbeme. (on the home page for the online magazine Latina) o Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija. (overheard in the Western US) o Haz clic aquí. (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites) o Llamenos para delivery. (seen on advertising signs in Peru) o Tips para marketing. (advertisement in Mexico) JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH) o BRANDO NEW! (brochure rack in Shiga) o NOTICE: We have touched at point in under the boxes heads, for keeping qualities. It's very excuse. (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore) o Welcome to Mother Nature! In here, everyone are heroes. Let's play YOUR drama. (advertisement for a camping mattress). o Let's play bowling. Breaking down the pins and get hot communication. Sources: ; ; Pidgins and creoles Pidgin: A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to talk for trading or other reasons. Limited vocabulary 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 20

66 Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions, expressions Usually short useful lifespan Nobody s native language Creole: A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages; a pidgin which has become a native language. Lingua franca A lingua franca (either from language of the Franks or from free language ) is any widely-used language used for commerce, diplomacy, science and technology. Lingua francas are often second languages, and may be a mixture of several languages. Historically, a number of languages have served as lingua franca: Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean) Swahili (Eastern Africa) French (international diplomacy) English (worldwide today in science, commerce, politics, literature) Multilingualism Most of the world s population is at least somewhat multilingual that is, most people have at least some knowledge of more than one language. Some nations are officially multilingual, such as: Paraguay (Spanish, Guarani) Switzerland (German, French, Italian, Romansch) South Africa (Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu) India (Hindi, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Sanskrit; also English and Hindustani) Artificial languages English For of the things that humanity possesses in common, nothing is so truly universal and international as science. Esperanto Char el la komunaj posedajhoj de la homaro, neniu estas tiel vere ghenerale kaj internacia kiel la sciencio. Latino Sine Flexione Nam, de commune possesiones de genere humano, nihil es tam generale et internationale quam scientia Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 12 of 20

67 Specialized and restricted languages Occupational languages (professional jargon, etc.) Hidden and secret languages (criminal codes, cryptography, etc.) Slang Primary use of slang is to mark identity (and exclude others). Other reasons (after Eric Partridge ( )): Fun; Demonstrate ingenuity; Shock value; Escape clichés; Reduce seriousness. Cursing and swearing Primary use: to express frustration and emotion (often meant to shock). Usually refer to sex, excretion and the supernatural. Frequency varies among languages o Arabic and Turkish are famous for range and imagination. o Swearing is almost absent from Japanese, Inuit (Eskimo). Euphemism Literally good speech substitute terms for things we don t (or can t, or don t want to) talk about openly. In general, euphemisms are used to refer the same things we use when we curse things too awful or too important to talk about directly. Occupational Language: SEASPEAK Some of the rules of SEASPEAK (used by the Merchant Marine): Standard phrases; avoid alternatives. Fixed syntax: o The word reason is the only connective allowed. o Days of the week never used, dates always in fixed format: Day 04 Month 02. o Compass bearings given in 3-digit form: one-one-nine degrees. Special marker words indicate message type and responses: o Question is always followed by Answer. o Instruction is always followed by Instruction-received. A sample SEASPEAK conversation (from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language): o Singapore Port Operations. This is Western Sky. Information: My ETA position: East Johore pilot station is time: one-three-fourfive UTC. Over. o Western Sky. This is Singapore Port Operations. Mistake. Time is: one-four-three-zero UTC now. Over. o Singapore Port Operations. This is Western Sky. Correction. My ETA is one-five-four-five UTC. Over Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 13 of 20

68 Boontling: an American secret language A century ago Boonville, in Anderson Valley, California, was an isolated rural community. To pass the time (and have some fun) locals began to use a variety of terms. Boontling has more than a thousand unique words and phrases (65% are obscene or nonch harpins ). Sample Vocabulary Apple Head (girlfriend) Belhoon (dollar) Charlie Ball (embarrass) Heelch (a large quantity) Trashmover (storm) Bahl (good) Bucky (a nickel) Dinkelhonk (cow) Bahl Hornin (good drinking) Weech (child) Gorm (eat) Walter Levy (telephone) Sample conversation Charlie went to the hob. I shied the hob, harped Bob. Was a fister, harped Charlie. The highman of the highheelers brought in thribs deputies and shut er down. Not bahl, harped Bob. See? It s as easy as a slow lope n a beeson tree! [Translation: It s as easy as a pleasant ride on horseback at a comfortable pace on one of the excellent saddles that used to be made by the Beeson brothers. ] p34(h [ LEET SPEECH ] 1337 (0r "31337") 5p34(h pr08481y d (k 70 teh r 34r1y !7 d3v310p3d 45 4 k!nd 0f "!n 9r0up" 514n9 4m0n9 h4(k3r5 4nd 94m3r5 [Translation: LEET (or ELITE ) SPEECH probably dates back to the 1980s or early 1990s. It developed as a kind of in group slang among hackers and gamers.] (0mm0n phr4535 [Common phrases] J00" (0r "Wh3re aer j00?") [Where are you?] "wh4+'s j00r name" [What s your name?] "1 4t3 j00r r4m3n n00d135" [I ate your ramen noodles] "j00 sux0rz!" (0r "j00 i5 t3h sux0rz") [You suck!] "PH34R MEH!!!" [Fear Me!] "ph33r teh 1337 h4x0r5" [fear the elite hackers] "n00b" (0r "noob" 0r "nubcake" 0r "nubcaek") [newbie] Sources: see also the 1337 Converter from Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 14 of 20

69 Cursing and swearing: some classic examples [thou art] a knave, a rascal, an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave; a lily-livered, action-taking knave; a whoreson, glass-gazing, super-serviceable finical rogue; a one-trunk inheriting slave; one that wouldst be a bawd in way of good service, and art nothing but the composition of a knave, beggar, coward, pandar, and the son and heir of a mongrel bitch; one whom I will beat into clamorous whining if thou deniest the least syllable of thy addition. (William Shakespeare (c. 1608) King Lear (Act 2, scene 2)) prattling gabblers, lickorous gluttons, freckled bittors, mangy rascals, shite-a-bed scoundrels, drunken roysters, sly druggels, lubberly louts, cozening foxes, ruffian rogues, paltry customers, sycophant-varlets, drawlatch hoydens, fouting milksops, jeering companions, staring clowns, forlorn snakes, ninny lobcocks, idle lusks, scoffing braggarts, noddy meacocks, blockish grutnols, doddipol-joltheads, jobbernol goosecaps, foolish loggerheads, flutch calf-lollies, grouthead gnatsnappers, lob-dotterels, gaping changelings, codshead loobies, woodcock slangams, ninny-hammer flycatchers, noddypeak simpletons, turdy gut, shitten shepherds, and other suchlike defamatory epithets (Francois Rabelais (Urquhart & Motteux translation, c. 1653), Gargantua and Pantagruel (Book 1, chapter 25)) Euphemism The use of euphemisms is ancient the ancient Greeks referred to the Furies, their spirits of vengeance, as the kindly ones, Germanic peoples referred to fearsome bears as brown ones, or grandfathers, Eric the Red called the land he discovered (which is about 2 / 3 glacier-covered) Greenland. There are two basic categories of euphemism: Positive euphemisms: make the euphemized subject seem bigger or more important (such as titles like chief senior personal assistant instead of clerk. ). Negative euphemisms: make the euphemized subject seem less important or dangerous (such as the facility experienced a transient superprompt critical power excursion instead of the nuclear reactor started to melt down. ) There are several different forms of euphemism including: Foreign language ( schmuck, merde, triage, lingerie ) Abbreviations ( TB, SOB, BS, CYA, or even the f-word ) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 15 of 20

70 Abstraction (fuzzy terms like the situation or unfortunate event ) Indirection ( bite the dust instead of died, clean up instead of destroy evidence, separate but equal instead of racist ) Understatement ( collateral damage, friendly fire, ethnic cleansing, final solution, ) Lengthy ( post traumatic stress disorder instead of shell shock ) (much of the above after Hugh Rawson s A Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doubletalk, New York: Crown 1981). Preserving language diversity Languages can die. Today, in the face of the global dominance of English and other world languages, some people are trying to preserve and even revive languages. Maintaining survivors: Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic, Irish Gaelic, Welsh (Cymru), Breton. Bringing back the dead: Hebrew, Manx. Why bother? Because language is about more than just communicating facts. Language is about identity, history, continuity language is a fundamental part of who you are. Language and the physical environment: Landforms Some languages have developed extensive vocabularies that let them easily and concisely describe certain kinds of terrain. Selected Spanish words for hills and mountains o Peña (needle-like peak) o Candelas (collection of peñas) o Cejita (low escarpment) o Cordillera (rope; mass of mountains) o Mesa (table; flat-topped eminence) Selected English words for rivers and streams o Branch (stream that flows into another stream) o Creek (small stream) o Fork (confluence of streams) o Prong (small fork) o Slough (swamp, river inlet) Language and the physical environment: Colors! Some languages have words for colors that can t be concisely described in English and English has words for colors that can t be easily described in other languages Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 16 of 20

71 Latin o Originally had no words for gray or brown (borrowed from Germanic). Navaho o Same words can mean blue or green. o Two words for black (as in darkness or as in black colored object). Japanese o The word awo can mean green, blue or pale depending on context. Welsh o The word gwyrdd means some (but not all) shades of green. o The word glas means some (but not all) shades of green, blue and gray. o The word llwyd means some (but not all) shades of gray and brown. Papuan o Some languages in the highlands of New Guinea have only two color words, black and white (or perhaps dark and light). Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain. Example: Cajun, a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country. Example: Abaza, Avar, Bats, Chechen, and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas. Language and culture: toponyms Toponyms (or places names) tell us about history and the movements peoples and cultures. All inhabited places have names (lots of uninhabited ones do, too). Toponyms often have a structure: generic + specific (Cape Town, Oklahoma City, etc.). Types of toponyms: Commemorative (explorers; famous people; other places). Natural features (Colorado, Florida, Long Beach). Special Sites (military; religious; historical). Other: o Animals & Plants (Chicken AK, Redwood City CA) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 17 of 20

72 o Inherited (Minnetonka MN, Mojave CA). o Humor (Truth or Consequences NM, Canyon Sin Nombre CA). o Miscellaneous and uncertain (Oregon, Rhode Island) Language and culture: change and stability Change: technology and new ways of living Changes in technology require a new vocabulary Changes in ways of living require a new vocabulary Stability: institutions Education (all educated people are taught proper language) Law (legal terms are very slow to change, and affect language) Religion (religious terms are even slower to change) Financial Advantage (better language skills = better paid) Status (different social groups speak differently) Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c. 10,000 years ago. The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in Pakistan. It has been dated to 5,500 years ago. It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained, but the Harappan language died out about 4,000 years ago (See: ). Some believe that symbols found on 8,600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing (See: ). The earliest sample of New World writing, dated to about 900 BCE, was discovered in 2006 (See: ). Ways of writing Pictograms (also called Logograms ) Earliest system of writing Begin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory) o Example: Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs Ideograms Abstract or conventional meanings, often combining two or more pictograms No longer have a clear pictorial link Almost always impure (or logophonetic ) with clues to pronunciation o Examples: Late Egyptian hieroglyphs, Chinese? Cuneiform tablet, c BCE. Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 18 of 20

73 Syllabaries Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant + vowel) o Examples: Japanese Katakana, Cherokee Alphabets A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all sounds All alphabets appear to be descendants of the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only, vowels understood in context Syllabary: Cherokee This syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c ), the great Cherokee leader. Its 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets, but usage is entirely different! Alphabets As far as we can tell, all of the world s alphabets (including Cyrillic, Hebrew, Arabic, and Roman) are derived from the Phoenician alphabet. Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 19 of 20

74 Fonts Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction. Some languages, such as English, are written left-to-right. (Arabic as such) right-to-left written are Some Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 20 of 20

75 The Geography of Religion Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural; 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance; 3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices; 4) a cause, principle, or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith. Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary A set of beliefs and practices, a social system, through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe, through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature, life, and death. Jordan & Rowntree Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet. Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern. Paul Tillich Why Study Religion? Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and with their environment. Religion has several geographic aspects: Religion is fundamental to many cultures. Some religions vary in their distributions: some are widespread; others are very limited in distribution. Religions are important in the organization of space. Most religions require active participation or loyalty; adopting one religion usually means giving up all others. Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 18

76 Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture: Housing and architecture Occupations and economics Laws, customs and politics Relations between men and women Birth and death Land and landscape Food and drink o Recall the maps of Dry and Wet Counties vs. Baptist & Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class. o See the maps of international wine and pork production below. Data source: FAOSTAT data, updated 2004 ( ) Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships. For example, if you were going to come up with a transportation taxonomy, it might look something like this: MOTOR VEHICLE > AUTOMOBILE > 4-DOOR SEDAN > HONDA > ACURA Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic system: RELIGION (ex. Christianity ) o BRANCH (ex. Protestant ) DENOMINATION (ex. Lutheran ) o CONGREGATION (ex. 1 st Lutheran Church of Chula Vista ) Congregation is roughly equivalent to parish, ward, coven, etc. Denomination is roughly equivalent to sect but sect has other connotations including cult Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 18

77 Cults? Cult is a loaded term and difficult to define. Cult can mean great devotion, or even membership in a well-known religious fellowship the cult of Mary, for example. But cult can also mean something more disturbing. The FBI has an interest in cults (for obvious reasons) and has come up with several characteristics to watch for. Cults And The FBI The US Federal Bureau of Investigation doesn t care what a cult believes they look for cultic relationships in which a person induces others to become dependent on him or her for almost all major life decisions, and inculcates a belief that he or she has some special talent, gift or knowledge (see for the full text of the FBI s Project Megiddo report). Cult Characteristics Cults usually have: Self-appointed leaders. Unique and exclusive religions. Leaders who focus members love, devotion and allegiance onto themselves. Not all cults are dangerous. Warning signs: Sequestered groups (kept away from contact with other people). Leaders with a history of violence or psychological problems. Changes in the leader s personality. Inner-circle membership characteristics (dangerous or psychotic people, sudden changes in the inner circle, etc.) Language of implied violence. o Active and passive cults o There is an enormous difference between God will punish the wicked and God s chosen people will punish the wicked. Classifying Religions We can classify religions based on several different geographic criteria: What is the focus of worship or devotion? o Monotheism vs. Polytheism (and Animism) Who may become a member? o Universalizing vs. Ethnic (and Tribal) Where is the religion distributed? o Local vs. Widespread 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 18

78 Monotheism vs. Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God. In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods. In animism there may or may not be gods as such; the whole world is animated. Universalizing vs. Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members generally speaking, anybody in the whole universe can potentially become a member. Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups. Generally speaking, they don t particularly want new members (and sometimes they forbid it no outsiders allowed). Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable but it s usually assumed that out of the world s population of 6 billion there are about: 2 billion Christians. 1¼ billion Muslims. 1 billion Hindus. 1 / 3 billion Buddhists. ½ billion members of other religions. Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs. Or, to put it another way, out of all the world s people, roughly: 1 / 3 are Christians. 1 / 5 are Muslims. 1 / 6 are Hindus. 1 / 6 have no religion. 1 / 12 are some other religion. 1 / 20 are Buddhists. Data source: Hearths Religions, like other elements of culture, develop in hearths centers from which they may diffuse. We can identify three major religious hearths: The Middle East Hearth (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism, Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 18

79 The Middle East Hearth Judaism Judaism is an ethnic, monotheistic religion. There are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today; the largest concentrations are in the United States and Israel. Two of the world s largest religions, Christianity and Islam, can be said to have been developed from Judaism. Judaism: Origins and Development o Based on internal evidence, the earliest records have been dated to c. 4,000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent o Patriarchal period Abraham, Isaac, Jacob o 3,300 years ago Moses, exodus from Egypt o 3,000 years ago united Jewish kingdom o Disunity kingdoms of Israel and Judah o 721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria; population exiled o 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon; population exiled o 522 BCE Judah s population returns from exile o 444 BCE Torah (written law) discovered o 198 BCE Syrian occupation; Helenization; Maccabees revolt; independent kingdom o 63 BCE Rome arrives; kingdom becomes part of the Empire o 70 CE Revolt against Rome; defeat; temple destroyed o 130 CE Second revolt and defeat; Diaspora o For the next 1,800 years, Jews in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods of tolerance and persecution. o 19th Century, founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism o 1948 CE founding of Israel Basic Beliefs of Judaism o God is the creator of all that exists; He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the universe. o The Jews are God's chosen people. o God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophets. o God monitors people s activities; He rewards good deeds and punishes evil. o Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of God. o The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish life; The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Law Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 18

80 o The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel. There will be a general resurrection of the dead at that time. The Jerusalem Temple, destroyed in 70 CE, will be rebuilt. Christianity Christianity is a universal, monotheistic religion. There are roughly two billion Christians around the world; it is the dominant faith in the Americas, Europe, and Australia, and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa. Christianity: Origins and Development o Roots in Judaism: the historical Jesus ; Jerusalem-based until 70 CE. Paul and the Roman Empire Paul encourages non-jews to become Christians. Christianity spreads through the Empire periodic persecution. o The Emperor Constantine ( CE) Converts; Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became Roman Empire s official religion). Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE Nicene Creed (see below); moves capital of the Empire to Constantinople 330 CE. The Nicene Creed (c. 325 CE) o Eastern & Western Christianity 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each other Crusaders sack Constantinople. o Protestantism: 1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 theses questioning Catholic practices. Printing press, rise of nationalism assist protest movement CE Council of Trent begins counter-reformation. o Modern Period Rise of science, the Enlightenment, Rationalism. 20th Century Movements: Evangelic movement ( Fundamentalism ) Ecumenical movement. The Three Main Branches of Christianity o Roman Catholic About 50% of all Christians; over one billion people. Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe, Latin 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 18

81 America, parts of Africa and Southeast Asia. o Protestantism About 24% of all Christians. Dominant Northern Europe, North America, Australia, parts of Africa. o Eastern Orthodox About 11% of all Christians. Dominant in Southeastern Europe, Russia, and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church, Ethiopian Church, Armenian Church, etc.). Basic Beliefs of Christianity o Keep in mind, there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian. o Some areas of general agreement: Belief in God. Belief in Jesus, virgin birth, Jesus sacrifice, possibility of universal salvation. Importance of baptism. Importance of the church (community of believers). Belief in prayer. Islam Islam is a universal, monotheistic religion. There are roughly 1¼ billion Muslims; Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia; it is also very important in Southeast Asia, parts of South and East Asia, and in Africa, and is growing in the Americas. Origins and Development o Mohammed (c CE) (peace be upon him) Orphaned at age 6, adopted by his Uncle, began working on camel caravans when he was 9. Traveled throughout Middle East, worked his way up, eventually married caravan owner, Khadija (c. 605 CE). At age 40 (c. 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel, began to preach, make conversions. 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated) By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia; conquers Mecca Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 18

82 o Mohammed dies 632 CE; rapid expansion of Islam: 632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa, Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China Some Basic Beliefs of Islam o There is a single, indivisible God who is just, omnipotent and merciful. o Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born; the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the world, and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus). o The Koran (Qur'an) is the word of God, dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed. It is the final, universal message for all people. All people are considered children of Adam, and all children are born pure. o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell. No individual can atone for another's sins. o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed: There is no God but God, and Mohammed is His Prophet. Daily prayer: Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca. Charity: Muslims are obligated to give to charity. Fasting: During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating, drinking and all other sensual pleasures during daylight hours. Pilgrimage: If at all possible, every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime. Branches of Islam o SUNNI (from a word meaning orthodox ) About 83% of all Muslims. Most widespread branch. o SHI ITE (from a word meaning sectarian or partisan of Ali ) About 17% of all Muslims. Mostly concentrated in and near Iran. Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession; belief in 12 heavenly Imams; the final Imam, the Mahdi never died, and will someday return Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 18

83 o Other groups: Sufis; Ahmadis; Nation of Islam (Black Muslims) Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism o Universal (at least originally now ethnic?), monotheistic. o Originated in Persia, about 2,500 years ago. o About 200,000 members today, mostly in India and Iran. Yazeedi o Ethnic, monotheistic. o Complicated syncretism of Christian, Muslim, and other traditions focus on worship of angels (especially the peacock angel, also known as Lucifer ). o About 60,000 members, mostly in Iraq, Syria and Turkey. Druze o Ethnic (absolutely no converts allowed), monotheistic. o Originated c CE as a reform of Islam. o About one million members, mostly in Syria and Lebanon. Baha i o Universal, monotheistic. o Originated 19 th Century, teachings of Baha'u'llah. o About six million worldwide, nearly half in India. The Northern India Hearth Hinduism Hinduism is an ethnic, polytheistic religion. There are about one billion Hindus, 97% located in India, with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the world. Hinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia, but has retreated. Origins and Development o Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1,500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs, but recent archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6,000 BCE. o Earliest religious texts: 1,500 BCE the Vedas 800 BCE the Upanishads 300 BCE the Mahabharata o Beliefs Focus mostly on actions, not beliefs; strong emphasis on ritual. No central authority, only a few universal beliefs or rituals: 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 18

84 Honor Brahmins (priests); protect cows. Avoid eating meat; marry within one s caste. Reincarnation. o Classical period (c. 2, BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra, Agni, Varuna, etc.). o Post-Classical (c. 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approaches: The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods Brahma, Shiva, or Vishnu). The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools, varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic). Caste o Caste may have begun about 3,500 years ago; it may be much older. Some think it may have begun as a kind of apartheid, based on ethnicity (conquerors vs. conquered). o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty). Every individual is born into a particular social group. o Every aspect of life social, occupation, marriage, birth, death, etc. may be determined by your caste. o Four main castes (with thousands of subcastes) Brahmin (priests, administrators) Kshatriya (warriors, rulers) Vaishya (traders, merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers, laborers) o Outside of the castes: outcastes (also known as Dalits), the religiously unclean. o The caste system became illegal in 1949 but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas. For that reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism). This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year. Buddhism Buddhism is a universal, polytheistic religion. There are at least 1 / 3 of a billion Buddhists; Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia, and there are Buddhists around the world. Buddhism is part of the cultural fabric of most of Asia. Origins and Development o Siddharta Gautama (c BCE?) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 18

85 Born a vaishya, lived until 29 without awareness of the world. Became aware of death and suffering, and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment. After six years of meditation, prayer and mortification, sat quietly and became enlightened ( buddha = enlightened one). Understood the four noble truths : Life is full of suffering. Desire causes suffering. Ending desire ends suffering. To end desire, follow the noble eight-fold path (right views, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration). If one follows these instructions, one can achieve enlightenment. If one is enlightened one escapes reincarnation & achieves nirvana. The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching. Developments o After Buddha s death there were disagreements about his teachings; councils failed to unify beliefs. o Two main branches: THERAVADA ( teachings of the elders ) Mostly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Southeast Asia. Conservative, very close to Buddha s teachings. Individuals work out salvation ; little interest in gods. Strong focus on monasticism, meditation. MAHAYANA ( the greater vessel ) Dominant in China, Korea, Japan. New teachings may also be valid. The Buddha was a divine being. There can be other Buddhas, human or divine. People can become bodhisattvas, save others, postpone nirvana. Numerous sects (Pure Land, Zen, etc.) Other Religions from the North India Hearth Jainism o Founded by Mahavira ( BCE) o Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) o Emphasizes ahimsa, non-injury to living things 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 18

86 Sikhism o Founded by Nanak ( CE) o Syncretism, blending elements of Islam and Hinduism The East Asia Hearth Confucianism Confucianism is not precisely a religion it s more of an ethical system. Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian, since Confucius s teachings are fundamental to the culture of the region. East Asian faiths are not exclusive; a person can be Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, and Shinto simultaneously. Origins and Development o Kung Fu-Tse ( Confucius, born Kung Ch iu) BCE Confucius was a philosopher and a teacher; at the age of 50 he became a government official. He retired after five years, and spent the rest of his life teaching. Basic concepts: The importance of Li ( correct behavior ) The five basic relationships o Father to son (kindness; filial piety) o Elder brother to younger brother (gentility; humility) o Husband to wife (righteousness; obedience) o Elder to junior (consideration; deference) o Ruler to subject (benevolence; loyalty) o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education, administration, civil service. Remained in charge until 1905 CE. Taoism Taoism, like Confucianism, is more of an ethical system than a religion although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics, mythology, etc. As with Confucianism, virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist, since those beliefs are part of the culture. Origins and Development o Lao-tzu ( BCE) [possibly mythical] Philosopher, court librarian in Henan, at the end of his life he despaired of people, went into exile; but before leaving he was 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 12 of 18

87 persuaded to write down his philosophy the Tao-te Ching ( the way and its power ). For several hundred years, Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors. With the coming of Buddhism to China (c. 100 CE), begins to merge and blend. Development of numerous sects from esoteric philosophy to magical; interests in alchemy and immortality. Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949, but repression eased by the 1990s. Beliefs of Taoism o Society and its rules aren t important; people should follow the way (tao). o The tao cannot be controlled or understood. o To be in harmony with the tao, do nothing do nothing unnatural, don t strive, don t be clever. o Life is a fundamental good. o Like Confucianism, recommends a kind of idealized feudalism everyone has a place, everyone stays in their place. o Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation) One: The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name Two: the sage goes about doing nothing creating, yet not possessing working, yet not taking credit work is done, then forgotten therefore it lasts forever Three: the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire, then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done, then all will be well Twenty: give up learning, and put an end to your troubles Shinto Shinto (or kami no michi, the way of the gods ) is the traditional ethnic, polytheistic religion of Japan. It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are; virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities, but only about 3% consider Shinto their sole or primary faith Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 13 of 18

88 As with other East Asian religions, Shinto is not exclusive one can be a Buddhist, Confucianist, Taoist and Shinto simultaneously. Origins and Development o Until c. 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, Shinto had no name; it was the beliefs of the Japanese. o By c. 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism; Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto shrines, and Shinto almost disappeared. o Beginning in the 18 th Century, Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism; Shinto became the State religion under the Emperor Meiji. The Emperor was considered divine, and the Japanese superior to all other people. o After Japan s defeat in the Second World War, State Shinto ended, the Emperor renounced divinity. o Today there are 13 major Shinto sects, and many smaller movements. The World s Religions: Other Faiths Animistic faiths Tribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas, Africa, Australia, Asia. Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand. Voudon (voodoo) Syncretism, blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity. Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas), and parts of West Africa. Modern pagans Revived or re-created faiths, based (mostly) on pre-christian belief systems. Found mostly in highly educated, urban, largely secular areas. The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered non-religious. ATHEISTS: Do not believe in any gods whatsoever. AGNOSTICS: God or gods may exist, but the evidence is uncertain. SECULAR: Only means not related to religion or indifferent to religion ; it is not a belief system (except in the sense that a secularist would believe that there are things outside of religion something some religious people would deny) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 14 of 18

89 Cosmogony Cosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe. The importance of creation stories varies it is often extremely important in universal religions. Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins, but also with what happens next what should we do with the universe? Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change. Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to change it has to be accepted as it is. The Calendar Calendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local, usually agricultural cycles. Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion. The basic problem of the calendar: the solar year and the lunar year don t match. Cultures deal with this, either by: Ignoring the lunar year (Christian except for Easter). Ignoring the solar year (Muslim). Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish). The Organization Of Space Religions are a part of culture, and culture must deal with the world with issues of space and place, including: HOLY PLACES AND PILGRIMAGE PLACE NAMES SACRED SPACES o THE PLACES OF THE DEAD o RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES o ADMINISTRATION OF SPACE Holy Places and Pilgrimage Many religions both ethnic and universal have declared certain locations holy (divine, worthy of reverence). In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the religion (or with some other important figure). In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features mountains, rivers, etc. Pilgrimage a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes is important in many religions, both ethnic and universal Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 15 of 18

90 The Hajj The hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth; more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note: the Hindu Kumbh Mela pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger, at over 10 million people, but only happens once every 12 years.] Ihram (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean; they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj; men wear a simple white outfit, women wear "modest" clothing and cover their heads). Tawaf (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Ka bah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca). Sa y (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah). Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer). Wuquf (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of Arafat, where they spend time standing or sitting in prayer; some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah). Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing). Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars that symbolize Satan). "'Id al-adha" ("Feast of the Sacrifice"; to commemorate Abraham's rejection of Satan, pilgrims sacrifice a sheep; men shave their heads, women cut off a lock of hair. Pilgrims may return to normal clothing). Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the tawaf and the sa y, and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again). Pilgrims make a final tawaf ; the pilgrimage is officially ended. Information from: Welcoming God s Guests, by Samia El-Moslimany. Saudi Aramco World (53:3):8-29 Place Names In many parts of the world, places are named for saints, holy people, miraculous events, or for other sacred places. This shouldn t come as a surprise to anybody living in San Diego County, which contains communities named San Carlos, San Marcos and San Ysidro, as well as natural features like the San Luis Rey River, San Miguel Mountain, San Onofre Beach, San Pasqual Valley, and the San Vicente Reservoir! 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 16 of 18

91 Places Of Worship Sacred structures anchor religions; most major religions have distinctive places of worship. The function of such structures varies: Christian churches are often considered sacred sanctified by God and are usually places for the community to come together. Mosques are places for the community to come together, but are not always considered sacred spaces. Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred, but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together. Image source (mosque): Places Of The Dead Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern, and the proper disposal of the dead is always of great importance. There are several different methods that are widely used: BURIAL (favored by most Christians, Muslims, Jews and by the Chinese) BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists) EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists, Zoroastrians and some Buddhists) Religious Settlements Most settlements are established for economic reasons but not all are. Types of religious settlements: MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes). UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life). Cemetery and Church, Ferndale CA Mosque in Samarkand Monastery at Harhorin, Mongolia Garden at New Harmony IN Sources: ; Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 17 of 18

92 Administration Of Space Hierarchical religions, such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism, have a well-defined geographic structure. Territory is organized into local, regional and larger units in a hierarchy. Autonomous religions, such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists, as well as most ethnic religions, are basically selfgoverning -- loosely organized, with little or no hierarchy. For examples of religious hierarchies see: Roman Catholic Dioceses of the US: Atlas of LDS (Mormon) Overview Map of North America Temples and Missions: Religion And Conflict Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons: Conflicts between traditional religious values and new, outside ideas. o Hinduism, caste and ideas of equality. Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs, values or communities. o Communist states and religious communities. Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion. o Northern Ireland. Conflicts between different religions. o Christians vs. Muslims (the Crusades CE). o Hindus vs. Muslims (Kashmir) o Jews vs. Muslims (Palestine). For information of religious conflicts around the world see: The US Commission on International Religious Freedom: Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Religious Conflicts articles and sections on washingtonpost.com: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 18 of 18

93 Political Geography States & states States States are political units that have: o Defined territories; o A permanent population; o Are fully independent and sovereign. states States are political units that are: o Part of a federal government; o Have limited independence (or sovereignty). The term country is roughly equivalent to state. Nations & Nation-States Nations Nations are communities or groups of people: o Common culture; o Sense of unity, shared beliefs and customs; o Usually have a strong attachment to a place. Nation-States A State occupied by a single nation: o Considered ideal; o No perfect examples, but some (e.g. Japan, Norway, Lesotho) come fairly close. Can nation-states be created? Maybe! Variations on Nation & State Multinational State A state whose population is made up of two or more nations. Examples: Cyprus, Russia 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 15

94 Part-Nation State A state whose population is only a portion of a nation. Examples: Egypt, Syria Stateless Nation A nation that has no state or sovereignty, or is divided among several states. Examples: Basques, Kurds, Gypsies The Rise of States Nations have existed from time immemorial. States, in some sense at least, have existed for thousands of years. City-States in Mesopotamia and Greece. Early political empires (Agade, Egypt, Chin, Rome, etc.) The modern concept of the nation-state only dates back to Europe in the 17 th -19 th centuries. As recently as 1950 there were only about 50 internationally recognized independent countries; now there are nearly 200 (and more may be coming). The World is Almost All States There is only one large piece of land anywhere on earth that is not controlled by a state Antarctica. At least until 2041, all territorial claims (including overlapping claims) here have been suspended but they have not been abandoned. Source: Colonies A colony is a territory that is legally joined to a sovereign state, and is not completely independent. The sovereign state may control the colony completely, or may just control some aspects (defense, foreign affairs). During the last 500 years, colonies were planted by European countries over much of the world. Why did Europe establish colonies? GOD! GOLD! GLORY! 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 15

95 The largest colonial powers were England, France and Spain. Colonial policies varied from integration to pure exploitation. There are very few colonies today mostly islands. The Colonial World, 1914 The Colonial World Today Most of the following aren t exactly colonies : they re overseas dependencies, or subnational entities, or in free association, or special administrative regions ; in some cases exactly who or what is sovereign isn t clear. Nevertheless, the following list does make it clear that there are a lot of these little things, whatever you want to call them, out there: Akrotiri (UK) American Samoa (US) Anguilla (UK) Aruba (NETHERLANDS) Ashmore and Cartier Islands (AUSTRALIA) Baker Island (US) Bassas da India (FRANCE) Bermuda (UK) Bouvet Island (NORWAY) British Indian Ocean Territory (UK) British Virgin Islands (UK) Cayman Islands (UK) Christmas Island (AUSTRALIA) Clipperton Island (FRANCE) Cocos (Keeling) Islands (AUSTRALIA) Cook Islands (NEW ZEALAND) Coral Sea Islands (AUSTRALIA) Dhekelia (UK) Europa Island (FRANCE) Falkland Islands (UK) Faroe Islands (DENMARK) French Polynesia (FRANCE) French Southern and Antarctic Lands (FRANCE) Gibraltar (UK) Glorioso Islands (FRANCE) Greenland (DENMARK) Guam (US) Guernsey Island (UK) Heard & McDonald Islands (AUSTRALIA) Howland Island (US) Isle of Man (UK) Jan Mayen (NORWAY) Jarvis Island (US) Jersey Island (UK) Johnston Atoll (US) Juan de Nova Island (FRANCE) Kingman Reef (US) Mayotte (FRANCE) Midway Islands (US) Montserrat (UK) Navassa Island (US) Netherlands Antilles (NETHERLANDS) New Caledonia (FRANCE) Niue (NEW ZEALAND) Norfolk Island (AUSTRALIA) Palmyra Atoll (US) Pitcairn Islands (UK) Saint Helena (UK) Saint Pierre & Miquelon Islands (FRANCE) South Georgia & South Sandwich Islands (UK) Svalbard (NORWAY) Tokelau (NEW ZEALAND) Tromelin Island (FRANCE) Turks & Caicos Islands (UK) Virgin Islands (US) Wake Island (US) Wallis and Futuna (FRANCE) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 15

96 Other areas of the world that also have issues of partial or disputed sovereignty: Antarctica (as described above, all seven countries claiming territory have placed claims in suspension) Hong Kong (Chinese special administrative region, autonomous entity that exists pursuant to international agreement and maintains its own government) Kosovo (UN protectorate) Liancourt Rocks (claimed by South Korea and Japan) Macau (Chinese special administrative region, autonomous entity that exists pursuant to international agreement and maintains its own government) Northern Mariana Islands (Commonwealth of the US) Paracel Islands (claimed by China, Taiwan and Vietnam) Puerto Rico (Commonwealth of the US) Spratly Islands (claimed by China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines and Brunei) Western Sahara (Controlled by Morocco, but claims are not universally recognized) Sources: ; Physical Characteristics of States Size States vary enormously in size, from enormous to microstates: o Vatican City 109 acres (44 hectares, or about.17 mi 2 ) o The Russian Federation 6,592,850 mi 2 (17,075,400 km 2 ) Shape States have five basic shapes o COMPACT (ideal theoretically very efficient) o PRORUPT (projecting extension established to either prevent other states from contact, or to access resources) o ELONGATED (long, narrow shape may cause isolation for a portion of the country) o FRAGMENTED (discontinuous territory usually islands today) o PERFORATED (one state completely surrounds another an enclave) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 15

97 Shapes of States Landlocked States Landlocked states have no direct access to the sea so their access to international trade is severely limited. Landlocked states have to depend on the cooperation of their neighbors Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 15

98 Boundaries Until modern times, most countries were divided from each other by frontiers zones where no state has complete political control. Boundaries may be either physical or cultural. PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES o Physical boundaries should be easily distinguished, permanent, and ideally hard to cross. o Examples: Mountains, deserts, bodies of water. CULTURAL BOUNDARIES o Cultural boundaries also ought to be easily distinguished, and permanent but that is not always possible. o Examples: Geometric, religious, linguistic. The best boundaries are those everyone agrees on regardless of how they are drawn. Physical Boundaries Problems With Physical Boundaries Unless they are truly impassable and with modern technology, nothing really is physical boundaries only work well if everyone agrees on them. Defining boundaries is often contentious. Water boundaries have special problems: Rivers shift courses Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 15

99 Oceans lack obvious boundaries and nations claim large areas for security and economic reasons for example, the US claims an enormous amount of the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic Oceans under the Convention on the Law of the Sea: o In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living... The exclusive economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles Convention on the Law of the Sea, Part V Source ( ): Cultural Boundaries GEOMETRIC ( Mathematical ) Arbitrary lines drawn on the map, without regard to physical or other cultural factors. Usually drawn before an area has a significant population. RELIGIOUS & LINGUISTIC ( Cultural ) Boundaries drawn on the basis of cultural characteristics. No country on earth has perfect cultural boundaries because no country is a perfect nation-state. Other Kinds of Boundaries? Relict Former boundaries, which may no longer have much or any legal standing, but are still visible in the landscape. Examples: Wales-England; Spain-Britain (the 42º boundary now the California-Oregon boundary). Buffer and satellite states Independent states used by major powers to reduce mutual conflict ( satellite states are dominated by a major power but are technically independent). Examples: Eastern Europe during the Cold War; Mongolia; Nepal Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 15

100 Internal Organization of States States may be organized in two ways: Unitary States: o Strong central government; o Local governments have little or no power or responsibilities (except to implement central government policies); o May be democratic, but often totalitarian, one-party; o Theoretically, small, homogenous states, but many states today are unitary. Federal States: o Contractual arrangement divides power between central and local governments allocation of residual powers ; how are those things that aren t spelled out in the contract going to be decided? Who s in charge? o Federal States may be weak or strong o Theoretically large, multinational states, but an increasing number of states today are federal. It can be hard to tell the difference between a strong federal state and weak unitary state! Constitutional Limits on Federal Power The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution Constitutional Limits on State Power No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emits Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Control of the Congress. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay. Article 1, Section 10, U.S. Constitution 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 15

101 Electoral Geography In democracies (unitary or federal), there are many steps and many questions that have to be answered in determining how a state will be run: Who votes? (Historical expansion of suffrage) Who can be elected? (Eligibility citizenship, party membership, poll tax, etc.) Who wins? o Majority (or plurality) vs. run-off o Proportional vs. winner-take-all How are electoral district boundaries drawn? The Gerrymander...the deliberate manipulation of political district boundaries to achieve a particular electoral outcome. This is from an 1812 article protesting the creation of an odd-shaped legislative district in Massachusetts by Governor Elbridge Gerry. Image source: Racial Gerrymandering Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 15

102 But Are All Funny-Looking Districts Gerrymanders? [U]nconstitutional discrimination occurs only when the electoral system is arranged in a manner that will consistently degrade a voter's or a group of voters' influence on the political process as a whole...[s]uch a finding of unconstitutionality must be supported by evidence of continued frustration of the will of a majority of voters of a fair chance to influence the political process. (U.S. Supreme Court, Davis v. Bandemer 1986) Gerrymanders are illegal but just because an electoral district is peculiar looking even if it s drawn in order to give one group or political party an advantage it isn t necessarily illegal. To see examples of odd-looking districts that are not considered Gerrymanders: The 2004 Presidential Vote Data source: To see maps of the 2004 Presidential election that give a different view of the process, go to: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 15

103 International Cooperation States frequently find it both possible and profitable to cooperate. There are two basic scales of interstate cooperation: Regional Global There are three basic kinds of interstate cooperation: Political Military Economic Please note: political, military and economic associations are not new for example, the Delian League (478 BCE), the Hanseatic League (13 th Century), the Rome-Berlin Axis (1936). Regional Alliances Military NATO and the Warsaw Pact in Europe after World War II. The Allies and the Central Powers in Europe during World War I. Political Often based on propinquity (e.g. the Organization of American States, the Organization of African Unity), or on shared historical or cultural connections (e.g. the British Commonwealth of Nations, the Arab League). Economic The European Common Market (which became the European Union), the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA). Global Alliances Until modern times the idea of global alliances was ridiculous. However, by the 18 th century, interstate wars became global the Seven Years War ( ) between Britain and France was fought on almost every continent, and European countries were in an almost constant state of conflict on a global scale because of colonialism. After the disaster of the First World War ( ), the League of Nations was formed in 1920 to try and prevent conflicts from becoming wars. At its height, the League had 63 member nations but never included the United States, and was ultimately ineffective. After the Second World War ( ) the League of Nations was replaced with the United Nations, which today has 192 member states (and over a thousand affiliated non-governmental organizations [NGOs] such as the International Red Cross, etc.). Vatican City and Taiwan are the only two well-known states that are not part of the UN today Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 15

104 The UN Charter WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, AND FOR THESE ENDS to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations. Geopolitics Geopolitics is a branch of political geography that looks at the strategic relationships of land and sea and national concerns. During the 20 th century a number of political philosophers considered how geography and politics come together. One of the most influential concepts was developed by the British geographer Halford J. MacKinder: the heartland. Based on European history, MacKinder concluded that whoever controlled the Eurasian heartland would rule the world. One of the MacKinder s students, Nicholas Spykman looked at the same history and came to the exact opposite conclusion: The Eurasian heartland is semi-arid and powerless it was control of the Eurasian rimland that was key to world power. Does this matter? Directly no but ideas affect politics (Nazi lebensraum, domino theory in Southeast Asia, etc.) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 12 of 15

105 Heartland & Rimland Terrorism Terrorism is the systematic use of violence by a group in order to intimidate a population or coerce a government into granting its demands. Terrorist acts differ from political assassinations in that they are mostly directed at ordinary people, not at political leaders or military targets. Historically, the use of the term terrorist has been applied to groups outside of any government (or at least not controlled by a government). Calling someone terrorist is often controversial; one faction s terrorist can be another s freedom fighter. Individual Terrorists: Foreign Terrorist Organizations Individual terrorists usually work in groups. As of October 11, 2004 the US Department of State had designated 42 groups as Foreign Terrorists. According to the 2001 USA Patriot Act, to be legally designated a Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO): It must be a foreign organization. It must engage in terrorist activity, or terrorism, or retain the capability and intent to engage in terrorist activity or terrorism. The organization's terrorist activity or terrorism must threaten the security of U.S. nationals or the national security (national defense, foreign relations, or the economic interests) of the United States Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 13 of 15

106 US designated FTOs (as of October 2005): 1. Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) (International) 2. Abu Sayyaf Group (Philippines) 3. Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade (Palestine) 4. Ansar al-islam (Iraq, Kurdistan) 5. Armed Islamic Group (GIA) (Algeria) 6. Asbat al-ansar 7. Aum Shinrikyo (Japan) 8. Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) (Spain, France) 9. Communist Party of the Philippines/New People's Army (CPP/NPA) (Philippines) 10. Continuity Irish Republican Army (Northern Ireland) 11. Gama'a al-islamiyya (Translates: Islamic Group) (Egypt) 12. HAMAS (Islamic Resistance Movement) (Palestine) 13. Harakat ul-mujahidin (HUM) (Kashmir) 14. Hizballah (Translates: Party of God) (Lebanon) 15. Islamic Jihad Group 16. Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) (Uzbekistan) 17. Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) (Translates: Army of Mohammed) (Kashmir) 18. Jemaah Islamiya organization (JI) (South East Asia) 19. al-jihad (Egyptian Islamic Jihad) (Egypt) 20. Kahane Chai (Kach) (Israel) 21. Kongra-Gel (KGK, formerly Kurdistan Workers' Party, PKK, KADEK) (Kurdistan) 22. Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LT) (Army of the Righteous) (Kashmir) 23. Lashkar i Jhangvi (Pakistan) 24. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) (Sri Lanka) 25. Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) (Libya) 26. Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) (Morocco) 27. Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK) (Iran) 28. National Liberation Army (ELN) (Colombia) 29. Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) (Palestine) 30. Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) (Palestine) 31. Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) (Palestine) 32. Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command (PFLP-GC) (Palestine) 33. al-qa ida (Global) 34. Real IRA (Northern Ireland) 35. Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) (Colombia) 36. Revolutionary Nuclei (formerly ELA) (Greece) 37. Revolutionary Organization 17 November (Greece) 38. Revolutionary People's Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C) (Turkey) 39. Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC) (Algeria) 40. Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso, SL) (Peru) 41. Tanzim Qa'idat al-jihad fi Bilad al-rafidayn (QJBR) (al-qaida in Iraq) (formerly Jama'at al- Tawhid wa'al-jihad, JTJ, al-zarqawi Network) (Iraq) 42. United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) (Colombia) Data source: Individual Terrorists: US Domestic Terrorists The FBI has 3 categories of domestic terrorist organizations in the US: Right-wing extremist groups (mostly religious, racist, antigovernment groups). Left-wing and Puerto Rican extremist groups (anarchist, socialist, communist groups; Puerto Rican separatists) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 14 of 15

107 Special interest extremists (focused on specific issues: Animal Liberation Front (ALF), Earth Liberation Front (ELF), etc.) Note that FBI investigations of domestic terrorist groups or individuals are not predicated upon social or political beliefs; rather, FBI investigations are based upon information regarding planned or actual criminal activity. At present the US does not publish a formal list of domestic terrorist groups (although the Department of Homeland Security is reportedly preparing a draft for future release). However, The Southern Poverty Law Center's Intelligence Project counted 803 active hate groups in the United States in The top three States: Florida, Texas and California. Data sources: ; Domestic Terrorist Organizations & Hate Groups: A Short Selection 1. American Front 2. American Christian Nationalists 3. Animal Liberation Front (ALF) 4. Arizona Patriots (AP) 5. Armed Forces of National Liberation 6. Army of God 7. Aryan Nations (AN) 8. Aryan Resistance Army (ARA) 9. Black Panthers 10. Black Revolutionary Assault Team 11. Coalition to Save the Preserves (CSP) 12. Covenant Sword and Arm of the Lord (CSA) 13. Earth Liberation Front (ELF) 14. Evan Mecham Eco-Terrorist International Conspiracy (EMETIC) 15. Fourth Reich Skinheads 16. Hammerskin Nation 17. Jewish Defense League (JDL) 18. Ku Klux Klan (KKK) 19. May 19 Communist Order 20. Montana Freemen 21. National Association for the Advancement of White People 22. Oklahoma Constitutional Militia 23. Omega The Order 25. Puerto Rican Armed Resistance 26. Revolutionary Force Seven 27. Sheriff's Posse Comitatus 28. Weather Underground Organization 29. White Aryan Resistance 30. World Church of the Creator Data sources: ; ; ; ; But I HATE Politics! Politics is not a picture on a wall or a television sitcom you can decide you don't much care for. Is the person who prescribes your eyeglasses qualified to do so? How deep will you be buried when you die? What textbooks are your children learning from at school? What will happen if you become seriously ill? Is the meat you're eating tainted? Will you be able to afford to go to college or to send your kids? Would you like a vacation? Expect to retire before you die? Can you find a job? Drive a car? Afford insurance? Is your credit card company or your banker or your broker ripping you off? It's all politics, Bubba. You don't get to opt out for lack of interest. What Difference Does it Make? Molly Ivins October 29 th, 2002 ( ) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 15 of 15

108 Agriculture Agriculture: Terms Agriculture is the deliberate modification of the Earth s surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain. Cultivate means to care for. Any cultivated plant is called a crop. The Pre-Agricultural World Human beings or something very like human beings have been around for several million years. But we ve only been practicing agriculture for something like 10,000-20,000 years. Before agriculture there was what we call hunting and gathering. Hunters & Gatherers About 0.005% of humanity today (maybe 250,000 people) live an exclusively hunter-gatherer lifestyle (lots of other people hunt or gather occasionally, but it s not their main way of life). Based on what we know about them, and on archaeological evidence, we can make some statements about what most people did before agriculture: Mostly small groups (less than 50 people); low population density. Gathering is usually much more important than hunting (usually 60% to 80% of the food). In most (not all) societies men hunt and fish, and women gather. Acquiring food usually takes no more than 10% of people s time. Politics are informal, consensus based; little social stratification; beliefs are animistic. Limited material culture; no permanent settlements. Strong ties to land, but nomadic and mobile Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 11

109 Origins of Agriculture We can never know where agriculture began it began in prehistory, and it probably began in more than one place. However, historians, archaeologists, agronomists, geographers and other scholars have worked for over a century trying to determine just where the processes that lead to agriculture and to civilization began. What is domestication? Some of the changes that take place when plants are domesticated: Gigantism (bigger seeds or fruits) Loss of speed dispersal mechanisms Loss of bitter or toxic substances Changes in floral structures or pollination schemes Changes in flowering cycle Diversity of form Loss of mechanisms to protect against predators For more information on domestication see: Origins of Agriculture Carl Sauer s theory: Not in response to hunger. Not among nomads. Not in grasslands or river valleys. In places of high environmental diversity. In places of high plant diversity. Beginning with vegetative reproduction (root crops), not grains. Sauer's conclusion: Southeast Asia 14,000-35,000 years ago More conventional theory: As a consequence of gathering seeds, gatherers noted which plants produced best, and began (perhaps accidentally) to care for them. Agriculture began with crops like grains, lentils and possibly dates. Agriculture began in the river valleys the Tigris & Euphrates, the Nile, the Indus, the Huang He, and the high valleys of Mexico & Peru. More conventional conclusion: Near East 10,000-20,000 years ago 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 11

110 First Vegetative Planting According to Sauer, the earliest vegetative agriculture appeared in Southeast Asia, and probably involved root vegetables like taro and yams, and perhaps tree crops like bananas. Vegetative agriculture then diffused throughout Asia and eventually to the Near East and Europe. Other, perhaps independent inventions took place in Africa (oil palm, yam) and South America Primary Hearths (manioc, arrowroot). First Seed-Based Agriculture Seed-based agriculture began in at least three places according to Sauer: Western India Northern China Ethiopia It diffused quickly from India to the Near East, then to Europe. Primary Hearths Seed-based agriculture also developed independently in Mexico and Northern Peru. Contrasting Theories Your book doesn t mention them, but at least two other people should be included here: Nikolai I. Vavilov ( ) o Looked for centers of diversity, which he believed were also centers of domestication. o Collected more than 250,000 seed samples; identified eight agricultural hearths: Southeast Asia; China; India; Turkey-Iran; Mediterranean; Ethiopia; Mexico/Central America; Andes/Brazil/Paraguay Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 11

111 Jack R. Harlan ( ) o Agronomist and geneticist; actually met Vavilov at a meeting in Washington in o Defined Three centers : the Near East, Northern China, and Meso America. Three non-centers : S.E. Asia, S. America, and Africa Subsistence vs. Commercial Agriculture Subsistence and commercial agriculture differ in five ways: PURPOSE (consumption vs. off-farm sales). PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS (majority vs. minority of population). MACHINERY (mostly hand vs. mostly mechanized). FARM SIZE (small vs. large). FARMS AND OTHER INDUSTRIES (mostly isolated vs. highly integrated into regional or global economies). Subsistence Agriculture: Shifting Cultivation Also known as slash and burn. Most common today in tropical areas (adaptation to poor soils). Small-scale, no machines. Temporary short occupation, long fallow period. Crops vary from region to region. Only 5% of the world s population practice shifting cultivation. Farmers clear land and burn the debris. Poor soils can only support crops for two-three years. Image source: Subsistence Agriculture: Pastoral Nomadism Based on herding domesticated animals. Adapted to dry climates where other types of agriculture are basically impossible. Mostly in North Africa, Near East and Central Asia. Image source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 11

112 Choice of animals varies dromedary camels, sheep and goats in North Africa and Arabia, bactrian camels and horses in Central Asia, etc. Nomads do not just wander around they usually have precise migration patterns, and a strong sense of territory. Some nomads practice transhumance: seasonal migration up and down mountains. Subsistence Agriculture: Intensive, Wet Rice Dominant Practiced in areas of high population density East, South and Southeast Asia. Extremely small farms, worked by hand (few or no machines), strongly focused on rice. Rice is unique: it can grow in water (well, in flooded fields), unlike other grains. Where climates are favorable, farmers can double crop raise more than one crop per field per year. Wet rice ( paddy or sawah grown) cultivation is complex: Rice seed is planted in a nursery, and raised until ready to be transplanted. Fields are prepared and plowed. Fields are flooded. Individual seedlings are planted, individually, in the flooded field. Each plant is cared for individually until harvest, by hand, with special knives. Image source: Subsistence Agriculture: Intensive, Wet Rice Not Dominant This is a very ancient form of agriculture think of places like Medieval Europe, or rural Latin America, as well as more arid parts of South and East Asia. Widely practiced in areas where climate doesn t support wet rice. Similar in many ways to areas where wet rice dominates, but emphasizes different crops (wheat, barley, corn, etc.). In these areas farmers practice crop rotation to increase yields Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 11

113 European Crop Rotation Commercial Agriculture: Mixed Crop & Livestock Farming Integration of livestock (sheep, cattle, goats, chickens etc.) and crop farming. Most crops raised are fed to animals. Most land is devoted to crops. Most money is generated from animals and animal products. Crop rotation is common. Advantages: Livestock supply manure to fertilize the crops. Workload can be more evenly distributed throughout the year. Less seasonal variation in income. Image source: Commercial Agriculture: Dairy Farming Dairy products (butter, cheese, etc.) are extremely valuable. Mostly produced in Western Europe, North America, Russia, Australia and New Zealand. Because milk is extremely perishable, dairy operations traditionally located near markets in the milkshed. Today, transportation makes it possible for milk producers to locate hundreds of miles from markets. However, the further from markets, the less likely dairy operations are to produce fluid milk. Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 11

114 Grain Farming Grains are grasses wheat, corn, oats, barley, rice, etc. Globally, the most important crop grown is wheat more wheat is exchanged in international commerce than any other grain (much of the world s rice doesn t enter the international marketplace it s consumed within the producing countries). Wheat is usually produced in areas where it is too dry for mixed farming. The US is the largest grain producing region on earth. Winter wheat region (wheat planted in fall, dormant through winter, grows and is harvested in late spring or summer). Spring wheat region (wheat planted in spring, harvested in late summer). Other wheat regions (Eastern Washington). Other major producers include Canada, Argentina, Australia, France and the UK. Large scale production only became possible in the 19 th century, with the development of mechanized agriculture. Source: Livestock Ranching Ranching is, in some ways, the commercial version of pastoral nomadism. Ranching is a type of commercial agriculture adapted to areas which are too dry for other forms of agriculture. Ranching is not as profitable per acre as farming if irrigation makes farming possible, ranching usually ends. Cattle ranching in the US: Begins with Columbus's second voyage. Cattle ranching small scale on the East Coast in the 16 th, 17 th, and 18 th centuries. In the 19 th century, rapidly expanding cities became a major market for beef. In the Western US, arid areas that couldn't be used for anything else could be used to produce beef cattle the problem was getting the beef to market Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 11

115 The solution long-distance cattle drives, from rural areas to the nearest railroad. By the end of the 19 th century, cattle drives were basically over. o End of open range. o Expansion of railroads. o Changes in cattle breeding. Cattle ranching changed to mostly fixed location ranching. Some cattle are still raised on ranches, but most on shifting pastures. Many cattle now shipped to feed lots for fattening near their market. Ranching is also practiced in other developed countries: Spain and Portugal. Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay. Australia. Image sources: ; Mediterranean Agriculture Adapted to the Mediterranean climate region places with warm dry summers, and mild wet winters (this is a very odd pattern most places get plenty of precipitation in summer). Most crops are grown for human consumption not animal feed. Primary source of the world's olives, grapes, etc. Wheat and other grains also grown in traditional Mediterranean areas (but mostly for local consumption). Animals and animal products of less importance traditionally. Image source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 11

116 Truck Farming Truck farming has nothing to do with trucks or trucking! The word truck comes from an old English word meaning to carry or to exchange. Specialty fruit and vegetable farming very similar to market gardening. Fresh fruits and vegetables perishable produce. Farmers tend to specialize in a few profitable crops. Traditionally grown near markets. With modern transportation areas like California's Central and Imperial Valleys, Arizona's Gila River Valley, parts of Texas, Florida, Georgia, etc. have become truck farming areas for the whole country. Image source: Plantation Agriculture Plantations today are almost always in the tropics, less developed countries. Outside, often absentee owners. Local labor may be imported to an otherwise uninhabited area. Crops grown almost exclusively for sale in distant markets mostly in developed countries. Specialization in one or two crops (for example, bananas, tea, coffee, oil palm, teak, sugar, rubber, tobacco, etc.). Sources: ; Agriculture and the Environment Agriculture is severely constrained by Climate Terrain Soil Yes, it's possible to grown tomatoes in Iceland but it's expensive, and takes sophisticated technology. Agriculture can have a strong even devastating impact on the natural environment: 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 11

117 Slash-and-burn agriculture (if poorly done, can ruin forest lands for years) Overgrazing (can cause soil loss, erosion) Desertification (agriculture practiced on marginal lands can degrade land, expanding arid areas) Irrigation o Salinization o Waterlogging Salinization, San Joaquin Valley Map source: Salinization image source: Agriculture and Economics: Subsistence Agriculture Population growth: A rising population means that subsistence farmers must produce more food. According to Esther Boserup (as discussed in your book), this means that they will use newer, more intensive forms of agriculture to increase yield. Great idea except that it's not possible in all areas, due to environmental factors. International trade: The idea of talking about subsistence and trade seems contradictory but many subsistence farmers do produce cash crops. The most popular (and most profitable): drugs. Coca cultivation, Peru Map source: Agriculture and Economics: Commercial Agriculture Market Orientation: The Von Thünen Model In 1826 Johann Heinrich von Thünen noticed something identical physical characteristics (climate, soil) didn't necessarily mean identical crops. The crops farmers chose to plant were determined by o Crop value o Cost of transportation 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 11

118 Von Thünen's model did not take into account any actual site factors rivers, roads, etc. but the model can be modified to deal with them. The model is still useful it helps explain why farmers choose the crops they do, where it makes sense to produce low-value bulky commodities, and where it doesn't, etc. Overproduction Commercial farmers suffer from low incomes because they produce too much. In developed countries, modern crop varieties, machines, chemicals, etc. have increased yields enormously and the greater the supply, the lower the price. Most governments in the developed world have instituted farm policies to either protect domestic producers or limit production. Off-farm migration In many areas of the developed world, it has become difficult to get people to stay in farming regions. This leads to greater dependence on migratory labor, absentee ownership, and consolidation of farms and farming. Loss of crop diversity Replacement of genetically diverse local varieties with hybrid (commercially produced) seed. Loss of unique disease, climate and pest resistance. Loss of genetic resources. Image Sources: (selected maize varieties from Chiapas); (potatoes); (apples) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 11

119 Industry Origins of Industry In the modern world, industry means the manufacturing of goods in a factory. Industrial activities certainly existed before the modern world as cottage industry: Small scale. Home based (often family based). Cottage industry still exists but it is of relatively little economic importance since the industrial revolution. The Industrial Revolution Revolution is a misleading term it was a process, not a single event. The revolution happened because of a coming together of many social, economic, political and technological changes. The revolution begins in Great Britain around 1750 why here? Why then? Changes in agriculture (new crops, new agricultural practices, new machines). Changes in technology (especially the steam engine James Watt's improved model of 1769). Changes in culture (the end of the guilds, the rise of capitalism, the English nonconformists). Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution Diffusion by industry: Another piece of the technological revolution -- James Hargreaves spinning jenny, invented in Image source: handbook/england.htm Iron and steel (more iron means more transportation, which means more use for iron, which means more need for mining, which means more need for transportation, better engineering, etc.) Textiles (new machines meant more cloth, which meant more need for 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 5

120 dyes and bleaches, which meant more and better chemistry, which lead to new ways to preserve food). Ceramics (new methods meant cheaper, better ceramics, which meant individual plates and bowls, which improved sanitation, which also lead to the development of ceramic sewer pipes, toilets, etc.) Diffusion from the United Kingdom: Western Europe The United States Eastern Europe East Asia And now the rest of the world? Industrial Regions of the World North America New England Middle Atlantic Mohawk Valley Pittsburgh-Lake Erie Western Great Lakes St. Lawrence-Ontario Western Europe Rhine-Ruhr Mid-Rhine UK Northern Italy Eastern Europe Moscow St. Petersburg Eastern Ukraine Volga River Ural Mountains Kuznetsk Silesia Irkutsk East Asia Vladivostok Japan South Korea Taiwan Yangtze Valley Shenyang Beijing-Tientsin Guangzhou-Hong Kong And now the rest of the world? Industrial Location In a primary economic activity like agriculture, fishing, forestry, or mining there isn't much location choice you go where the soil is good, where the gold is, etc Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 5

121 But industry manufacturing, construction, any operation that modifies a product and adds value can try to choose the best possible location based on rational economic factors. Situation factors: Inputs: o If an industry's inputs are heavy, bulky, or fragile, then it may make sense to locate near where those inputs come from. o Examples: copper, steel, canned tomatoes o Because what goes into the factory is heavier or bulkier than what comes out, these are often called weight-reducing or bulk-reducing industries. Outputs: o If an industry's outputs are heavy, bulky, or fragile, then it may make sense to locate near the market. o Examples: beer, glass, concrete o Because what comes out of the factory is heavier or bulkier than what goes in, these are often called weight-gaining or bulk-gaining industries. Other industries may also locate near markets: Single-market manufacturing Perishables Transportation Factors Different methods of transportation have different characteristics. Depending on what is being manufactured, the cost and method of transportation may also have an impact on industrial location decisions. Methods of transportation: Ship (ocean, lake, river, etc.) o Very low cost. o Very slow. o Best suited to long distance bulk (or non-perishable) commodities. Rail o Low cost (usually). o Slow to moderate speed (usually). o Suitable for long or medium distances. Trucking o High cost (per ton). o Moderate to high speed. o Suitable for long, medium or short distance. o Extremely flexible anywhere with a road! 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 5

122 Air o Very high cost. o Very high speed. o Suitable for medium or long distance. Pipeline o Very low cost. o Only suitable for bulk liquids. Break-of-bulk points A break-of-bulk point is place where you transfer goods from one kind of transport to another. Every time you go from one transportation method to another from rail to truck, for example it takes time and costs money. Site Factors Site describes the physical (or fixed ) characteristics of a location. Different industries have different needs, and different sites are best suited to different industries. Site factors include the availability and cost of: Land (some industries need large areas for manufacturing or production ex. airplane manufacturing) Power (some industries need large amounts of electricity or fuel ex. aluminum) Labor (unskilled or skilled, depending on the industry ex. unskilled: electronics assembly; skilled: research and development) Capital (money to start or expand a business) It is never possible to find a perfect location so compromises have to be made. Some industries today are footloose they can locate essentially anywhere. Problems of Modern Industry Stagnant demand: The best markets for manufactured goods are in the developed world but the population of the developed world isn't growing. Demand for many consumer goods is stagnant because markets are saturated for many goods there is a limit to how much or how many consumers are willing to buy. The Decline of Shoddy increased global competition means that shoddy goods get replaced but goods that don't break don't need to be replaced, so demand stays relatively low Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 5

123 Improved technology has increased demand for some products, but decreased demand for others (ex. memory chips vs. steel). Increased capacity at the global scale means increased competition manufacturing is no longer concentrated in just a few countries all the developed (and many developing) countries now have advanced manufacturing capabilities. Industrial Problems in More Developed Countries Impact of trading blocs: Examples of blocs: The North American Free Trade Agreement; The European Union, etc. Trade within blocs is increased but trade outside is decreased. Competition between blocs rather than country-by-country. Industrial Problems in Less Developed Countries Distance from markets (remember the core and periphery model). Peripheral economies (remember, ¾ of all international investment is between more developed countries). Lack of infrastructure. Dominance by transnational corporations Dependence on more developed countries (for supplies and markets). Concentration on low-skilled (and low paid) labor. The race-to-the-bottom Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 5

124 Services Services: Terms According to your book "A service is any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who provide it." This is a definition it's fairly easy to poke holes in charitable services don't charge, so are they still services? The dictionary has a better definition: service \ 's r-v s \ n. [ME, fr. OF, fr. L. servitium condition of a slave, body of slaves, fr. servus slave] 4b. useful labor that does not produce a tangible commodity. Traditionally, economists have divided economic activities into three categories: PRIMARY those economic activities that harvest or extract directly from the natural environment (agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining). SECONDARY those economic activities that involve manufacturing, construction, or adding value to the products of the primary industries. TERTIARY the service sector. Most people in the developed world work in the service sector of the economy in the US, about 80% of all jobs are in the service sector. We can break the service sector down further into three categories: CONSUMER services provided mostly to individual consumers. BUSINESS services provided mostly to facilitate other businesses. PUBLIC services provided for all citizens and businesses. Although your book acts at times as if these were neat water-tight compartments, they aren't as your book notes in a thundering understatement when it admits that "the distinction among services is not absolute." 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 8

125 Consumer Services Consumer services are provided to individuals. About 45% of all US jobs today are in consumer services. There are two main categories of consumer services: RETAIL essentially, sales [about 25% of all US jobs] o Please note: Your book, in a bizarre fit of insanity, has categorized wholesaling as a form of retail service. This is so weird it almost defies comment. PERSONAL services for well-being and personal improvement, including health care and education [about 20% of all US jobs]. Business Services Business services are provided to other businesses. About 20% of all US jobs today are in business services. There are two main categories of business services: PRODUCER services provided to assist other businesses, including banks, insurance companies, law real estate, etc. o Please note: This again is bizarre. Don't individuals need insurance, financial services, legal help? Are all insurance, banking and other companies neatly divided between their business and their consumer halves? As noted above don't necessarily take your book's categorizations as being particularly apt although the overall percentages are probably reasonable. TRANSPORTATION including transportation, utilities, and communications. o Please note: Bizarreness yet again! Individuals drive, use power, need communications, too! Public Services Public services are provided to everyone individuals and businesses. They include security and protective services (and administrative services, too). About 15% of all US jobs today are in the public sector (mostly at the State and local levels). So Add It Up! Consumer: 45% Business: 20% Public: 15% 80% of all US jobs are in the service sector Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 8

126 Origins of Services Obviously, people have always provided other people with services. However, from a very early period, services have tended to cluster in communities. Early services: Burial and religion. Housing. Food storage. Cottage industry. Education and entertainment Trade. Defense. Rural Settlements Today Most people in the world today especially in Asia, as well as parts of Africa, South America, and even Europe and the US still live in rural settlements (although a majority more than half of the world s population will live in cities very soon!) There are two basic types of rural settlement: CLUSTERED (also known as a village or hamlet) o In clustered settlements everyone lives in a relatively small area. o Farmland is usually located within about two hour's journey from the village. o Farmland may be individually or collectively owned. o Clustered rural settlements may be circular or linear, depending on local culture and conditions. DISPERSED o The dispersed pattern of settlement is uncommon except in the US, Canada, Australia, the UK, and other developed countries. o This pattern is only possible where there is little reason to fear attack or isolation. o Enhanced efficiency living on the farm means no travel time, greater farm size, easier use and affordability of machinery. o In some countries (the US, Australia) this pattern was strongly encouraged by various laws (for example, the US Homestead Act of 1862) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 8

127 Distribution of Services At least in developed countries, consumer services and business services do not have the same distributions. Business services tend to concentrate very heavily in major cities (as we will discuss, below). Consumer services tend to show a pattern based on the size of settlements. Central Place Theory In the 1930s the German geographer Walter Christaller devised a way of describing how towns of different sizes were arranged and how the services they supply is also arranged. This is called central place theory. A central place is a market center. Central places (ideally) should be located centrally to maximize accessibility from the surrounding region. Central places compete against each other to market goods and services. Surrounding every central place is a market area (or hinterland) the area from which customers come to the central place. Most people want to get their services from the nearest possible location so most customers travel the minimum possible distance. Ideally, we could use circles to show these relationships, but since you can't cover a plane with circles evenly (there would be gaps and overlaps), we use a hierarchy of interconnected hexagons Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 8

128 Assumptions of Central Place Theory We assume we are dealing with a flat, featureless plain no mountains, rivers, deserts, etc. Labor is assumed to be available in all locations, and the population is evenly spread across the landscape. Transportation is possible in all directions there are no major rivers or roads to distort the pattern. People will always travel the minimum distance necessary to get the goods and services they want. The size of the market area is determined by two factors: the range and the threshold for each service offered in the central place. Range and Threshold The range is the maximum distance people are willing to travel. The range varies with the kind of good or service: Everyday goods and services (groceries, dry cleaning, etc.) have short ranges people are not usually willing to travel very far for them. Special goods and services (sporting events, concerts, etc.) have long ranges people are willing to travel long distances for them. The threshold is the minimum number of people (customers) needed to support a good or service. Threshold also varies with the kind of good or service: Businesses selling common, inexpensive items (groceries, fast food, etc.) need large numbers of customers who spend relatively small amounts of money. Businesses selling expensive, uncommon items (antiques, etc.) need small numbers of customers who spend large amounts of money. Businesses spend a great deal of time and money engaged in market area analysis (discussed in your book) when they select the best location for a business. Hierarchy of Settlements Central places are market areas. Central places compete against each other. Small settlements offer a small number and a small variety of services. Large settlements offer a large number and a large variety of services. According to central place theory, settlements will arrange themselves in a nested hierarchy small market areas within larger market areas, within still larger market areas. Obviously, the real world is more complicated than central place theory but central place theory does give us some insights into the ways that services and settlements tend to be arranged Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 8

129 Rank-Size vs. Primate Cities Rank-Size Rule In some countries we can see a regular pattern of settlement size. In these countries (including the US), the second largest city is about ½ the size of the largest, the fourth largest city is about ¼ the size of the largest, the tenth largest is about 1 / 10 the largest, etc. Primate City Rule In some countries we see that one city is dominant in terms of population, economics, politics and culture. A primate city is defined as a settlement with more than twice as many people as the next largest city in the country. Primate cities are often found in less developed countries (for example, Lagos in Nigeria, or Buenos Aires in Argentina) but are also found in some developed countries (for example Paris or London). Countries that follow the rank-size rule tend to be less centralized, and have goods and services more widely distributed than those that follow the primate city rule. Distribution of Business Services Business services tend to cluster in a relatively small number of cities. Today, we can distinguish among the world's cities on the basis of the kinds and number of business services which are available: WORLD CITIES o World cities are outstanding centers for business services. o The major stock exchanges, gold markets, and the headquarters of many of the world's largest corporations are located here. o The most important world cities: New York, London and Tokyo. COMMAND AND CONTROL CENTERS o Outside the world cities are regional centers, which are also major financial and business centers. SPECIALIZED PRODUCER-SERVICE CENTERS o At the third level of the hierarchy are cities that provide a narrower range of services, specializing in activities such as research and development, government or education. DEPENDENT CENTERS o At the lowest level of our hierarchy are cities which are essentially dependent for their economic health on the decisions that are made by those above them in the hierarchy. o Dependent centers provide less skilled jobs, and specialize in certain areas, including: 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 8

130 Resort, retirement and residential centers Manufacturing centers Industrial and military centers Mining and industrial centers Note that the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group has a slightly different interpretation of world cities ; it has four alpha world cities : London, New York, Tokyo and Paris (see ) Base and Non-Base There are two categories of economic activity we can use to understand how settlements function: the basic and the non-basic industries. The difference? Think in terms of survival. Question: What are the things you need to survive? Answer: Air, food, water, shelter. These are things you can't provide for yourself. They are basic to your survival and they come from outside. Basic industries Basic industries supplies goods and services to people from outside the settlement they "export" and bring in money from outside. Basic industries are essential to a settlement's survival. Non-basic industries Think in terms of quality of life. o Question: What are the things you need to have a decent life? o Answer: Friends, family, entertainment, culture. o These are things you and your friends and family can provide for yourselves locally you don't have to get them from outside. Non-basic industries provide goods and services to people who already live in the settlement. Non-basic industries are essential to a settlement's well-being (but not for it s survival). Cities can be classified based on the percentage of people who work in the basic and non-basic industries. Cities of similar sizes tend to have similar ratios of basic and non-basic workers but the larger the city, the larger the percentage of nonbasic Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 8

131 The Central Business District The central business district (CBD or downtown ) is the usually the best known and most distinctive area of a city. Historically, services tend to cluster in the CBD. Characteristics of the CBD: Compact area. High land costs. Intensive land use. Services in the CBD: Consumer services: o High threshold services (people have to travel a relatively long distance). o High range services (expensive or unusual services). o Downtown worker services. Business services: o Producer services (financial, legal, and other services cluster in the CBD for greater efficiency). Public services (government, charitable) Activities Excluded from the CBD Manufacturing. Though important at one time, land costs and improved transportation have meant that manufacturing except in certain cases has moved out of the CBD to outlying (suburban and even rural) areas. Residential. High land costs mean that few people actually can afford to live in the CBD. Rents are simply unaffordable for most. Suburbanization of Businesses Many businesses have moved out of the CBD into the suburbs. Reasons for moving to peripheral locations include land costs and accessibility. Types of businesses that have moved to the suburbs: Manufacturing (industrial parks, factories requiring large amounts of land). Producer services (in locations with easy access). Retailing think malls! The Mall of America: The West Edmonton Mall: The largest mall in the world (when it s finished) will probably be the Mall of Arabia in Dubai: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 8

132 Resource Issues People & The Environment Like all living things, people interact with their environment. Unlike other living things, we have the ability to radically alter our environment We can choose how we will affect the natural world constructively or destructively. Resources A resource is a substance in the environment that is useful to people, is economically and technologically feasible to access, and is socially acceptable to use. There are two basic categories of resources: renewable and nonrenewable. Renewable resources like fertile soil, trees, fish can be used without being used up they can renew themselves in a reasonable period of time. Non-renewable resources like oil and minerals can be exhausted. Once they are used, they re gone. The Tragedy of the Commons control and management of common resources (like fish in the oceans or the planet s atmosphere things that are important to everybody but belong to nobody) is difficult. There are three possible approaches to their management: Legal (regulation, bureaucracy) Moral (public pressure, shame) Structural (privatization of public resources) No solution is perfect; all can help, but there are no easy solutions Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 15

133 Energy: Fossil Fuels In the late 1800s coal became more important than wood in the MDCs. Oil became the most important source of power in the 20 th Century. Fossil fuels have two important characteristics: The supply is finite. Source: The supply is unevenly distributed. Reserves vs. Production: COAL Total Proven reserves: 909,064 million tonnes [metric tons] Major Proven Reserves: o US (25%) o Russia (17%) o China (13%) Annual global production: 2,732 million tonnes (oil equivalent) Major Consumers (million tonnes): o China (34%) o US (20%) o India (7%) o Russia (4%) o South Africa 94.5 (3%) OIL Total proven reserves: 1,188.6 barrels [1 barrel=42 gallons] Major Proven Reserves: o Saudi Arabia (22%) o Iran (11%) o Iraq (10%) o United Arab Emirates (9%) o Kuwait (8%) Daily global production: 80,260 thousand barrels Major Consumers: o US (24.9%) o China (8.2%) o Japan (6.4%) o Germany (3.3%) o India (3.2%) o South Korea (2.8%) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 15

134 GAS Total proven reserves: trillion cubic meters Major Proven Reserves: o Russia (27%) o Iran (15%) o Qatar (14%) o Saudi Arabia (4%) o United Arab Emirates (3%) o US (3%) Total annual global production: 2.69 billion cubic meters Major Producers/Consumers: o Russia (22%) o US (21%) o Canada (7%) o UK (4%) o Algeria (3%) o Indonesia (3%) Proven vs. Potential Reserves Proven reserves can be measured with reasonable accuracy we can be fairly confident about how much is available, and that it can be recovered economically. Potential reserves have not been discovered. So how do we know they exist? We don t but based on what we know about geology, technology, we can make a very good guess about their existence. Data from the BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June See Source: Problems with Fossil Fuels Coal: Air pollution, mine safety, subsidence & erosion, transportation. Oil: Air pollution, spills, dependence on foreign sources, transportation. Natural Gas: Air pollution, storage & safety, transportation Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 15

135 Alternative Sources of Energy Non-Renewable Alternative fossil fuels (oil shale, tar sand, frozen methane) Nuclear power (fission-based) Renewable (or inexhaustible) Solar o Passive (heat-absorbing walls, south-facing windows, etc.) o Active Heat conversion Photovoltaic Other Renewable Energy Sources Wind & waves Hydroelectric & geothermal Biomass Nuclear Fusion? Others? Problems With Alternative Fossil Fuels Alternative fossil fuels have all the inherent problems of more conventional fossil fuels (pollution, safety, etc.). They also have two major problems: They are not economical to extract at current prices. We aren t sure how to extract or process them yet. Problems with Nuclear Power Worldwide, nuclear power produces about 6% of the world s electricity (the amount varies 75% of the electricity in Lithuania and France comes from nuclear power). Nuclear power usage also varies in the US 18 states have no nuclear power, but it supplies more than half the electricity in New Hampshire and Vermont. Problems with nuclear power Accidents Waste and waste storage Bomb material (nuclear and dirty bombs) Non-renewable limited fuel supply High cost Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 15

136 Radioactive Waste Radioactive waste may be either Low-level (650,000 yd 3 /year in the US) High-level (more than 30,000 tons in the US) Radioactive waste may be dangerous for literally thousands of years. There is, at present, no permanent waste disposal facility in the US however, if Department of Energy reports continue to be favorable, a permanent repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada may start receiving waste by Source: Problems with Renewable Energy Sources Solar, wind and wave power are dispersed you need large areas and lots of machines to harness them which raises costs. Hydroelectric and geothermal power can only be done in a limited number of places, and have serious environmental impacts. Biomass energy can cause pollution, and may cause a loss of food producing lands (if you re growing corn for methanol, you re not growing food to feed people). Nuclear fusion sounds great but it doesn t work yet. Mineral Resources Minerals are essential for an industrial society. Unfortunately, the earth s crust is fairly miserly when it comes to the metals and other minerals metallic and non-metallic that we need. Remember that minerals are non-renewable once mined, they re gone. Ferrous minerals include iron and all the various alloy metals (chromium, manganese, etc.) that are used in steel making. Nonferrous metals are all metals that aren t involved in iron and steel production, like aluminum (and precious metals like gold and silver). Principal US States for production of selected nonmetallic minerals. Note that some nonmetallic minerals (crushed stone, Portland cement, lime, sand and gravel, etc.) are produced just about everywhere Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 15

137 Pollution When more waste is added than a resource can accommodate, we have pollution. Not all pollution is caused by people; however, until we can control volcanoes, we are going to worry about the things we are responsible for: Air pollution Water pollution Land pollution (waste disposal) When it comes to managing pollution there are two types of sources: point and non-point. Point is far easier to control. Air Pollution We can talk about air pollution in terms of three scales: global, regional and local Global air pollution problems Global warming Ozone damage Regional air pollution problems Acid deposition Local air pollution problems Smog Global Air Pollution: People and Climate Change There is no question that earth s climate has changed over time There is also no question that people have been adding large quantities of certain gases and particles to atmosphere for the past 250 years. The question is: Does what we do seriously affect the earth s climate? Some Factors Affecting Climate Change Atmospheric aerosols (soot, etc.) Cloud changes Land cover changes Variations in the sun s output Volcanic aerosols (volcanic ash) Greenhouse Gasses (CO 2, CH 4, CFCs, etc.) o There are a lot of gases that are good at holding in the heat: H 2 O (Water vapor) CO 2 (Carbon dioxide) CH 4 (Methane) CFCs (Yes, the same Chlorofluorocarbons that are damaging global ozone which we ll talk about soon) o These are all gasses that we have been putting into the atmosphere Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 15

138 Our Contribution o Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased nearly 30%, methane concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations have risen by about 15%. US Environmental Protection Agency ( o The observed patterns of [climate] change over the past 50 years cannot be explained by natural processes alone. US Climate Change Science Program ( But Isn t There Controversy? Not all the evidence points to global warming. Some of the evidence that does indicate warming doesn t make it clear if the causes are human or natural. There are contradictory news story almost every day. All we can do is take the best evidence we can get, listen to the most reliable sources, and try to make the most prudent decisions. The Current Consensus Most (not all) climate researchers believe that there is evidence for global warming at the global scale. This figure above shows how much air temperatures near the Earth s surface changed relative to the global mean temperature from 1951 to Source: Warming around the world is widespread but isn t every-where. The largest warming is in Northern Canada, Alaska and Siberia, as indicated by the deeper red colors. The lower 48 United States have become warmer recently, but only enough to make the temperatures comparable to what they were in the 1930s. Predictions According to the 2001 UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report: o CO 2 and other greenhouse gas buildups will continue. o Global average temperature will rise C by o Land areas, especially in Northern areas, will warm more rapidly than the global average. o In Northern mid- and high latitudes, there will be more 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 15

139 precipitation; in low latitudes, results will vary; variations in all areas will be greater. o Higher maximum and minimum temperatures. o Snow and ice cover will decrease; some glaciers will melt; but the Antarctic ice sheet may grow. o Sea level will rise 9-88 cm ( in). o Climate changes will persist for centuries. Global Air Pollution: Ozone Ozone is not just oxygen! Ozone is more chemically active than oxygen. Ozone is a pale blue gas. Ozone has a distinctive smell. Ozone is an extremely poisonous, corrosive gas (and has been used as a disinfectant, in water purification, and as a bleach) that damages and kills vegetation. Ozone has the ability to absorb/block ultraviolet light. In the stratosphere, ozone is vital to our planet s survival. In the upper atmosphere, ozone is produced by a natural process and forms a layer that protects us from ultraviolet radiation. At ground level, ozone is a dangerous pollutant (part of photochemical smog which will be discussed below). Sources: ; The Problem: CFCs and Friends A variety of human-created chemicals, including solvents, packaging materials, industrial cleaners, and fire extinguishers, contain chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or related chemicals (HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, etc.). When CFCs interact with ozone in the stratosphere, the results aren t pretty. Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 15

140 Cold Clouds During winter stratospheric winds form a vortex around the South Pole. Within the vortex the atmosphere over the pole is effectively isolated, temperatures are extremely cold (-80ºC), and unusual polar stratospheric clouds form. Chlorine from CFCs is stored on the clouds during the long polar night, and then released to attack ozone when The 2005 ozone hole. the sun returns in spring. This produces the famous ozone hole causing dangerously high levels of ultraviolet light at the surface in Australia, New Zealand, and southern Argentina and Chile. Image source: Regional Air Pollution: Acid Precipitation Burning is basically a process of oxidation. Because all organic compounds contain (among other things) nitrogen and sulfur, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur are released into the atmosphere whenever we burn anything organic (wood, oil, etc.). These combine with atmospheric moisture to produce sulfuric and nitric acids and can precipitate as acid rain or snow. Acid precipitation affects some areas of the world far more than others an effect of wind currents. The kinds of damage that can be done by acid rain vary from minor to disastrous. Marble building ornaments, Philadelphia, showing effects of acid rain Sources: ; Local Air Pollution: Smog There are really two basic kinds of smog Sulfurous (uncommon today) Photochemical Photochemical smog is produced by the action of sunlight on atmospheric chemicals mostly oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 15

141 (volatile organic compounds). One of the most dangerous compounds in photochemical smog is ozone. US Pollutants & Pollution Sources (percentages) Data source: US Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2000 Temperature Inversion Normally, air temperature declines with altitude. In a temperature inversion, cold air at the surface is trapped beneath a layer of warm air. Since cold air doesn t rise, the air at the surface becomes stagnant. Any pollutants released into the surface air are trapped. Temperature Inversion: The Donora Valley o In October 1948, a temperature inversion in the town of Donora, PA trapped pollutants from nearby steel and zinc smelters. o After 5 days, almost 6,000 people were severely ill. Twenty died. o In 1950 President Harry Truman convened the first national air pollution conference, citing Donora as an example of the need. o The kind of smog that caused the Donora Valley disaster is sometimes called a sulfurous smog (even though other chemicals, including fluorine, were involved). Sources: ; Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 15

142 Water Pollution There are six types of water pollutants: Biodegradable wastes (sewage) Plant nutrients (fertilizers, phosphates) Heat (thermal pollution mostly from industrial cooling) Sediments (dirt, gravel, etc. mostly from construction) Hazardous and toxic chemicals (biocides) Radioactive wastes There are three main sources of water pollution: Water-using industries (mostly point source) Municipal/sewage (point and non-point) Agriculture (mostly non-point) Industrial Water Pollution About half the water used daily in the US is used by industry. Industrial activities routinely discharge a variety of chemicals (and heat) into our waters. Industrial pollutants include PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls used in electrical equipment) Radioactive waste Petrochemicals o In 2000 the Bureau of Transportation Statistics recorded 8,354 oil spills totaling 1,431,370 gallons. o In 2001 the US Coast Guard recorded 7,559 oil spills totaling 854,520 gallons, and 105 chemical spills totaling 271,429 gallons. o The largest oil spill in history was in 1991 during the First Gulf War. No one knows how much oil was spilled; estimates range from 24 to 290 million gallons (in comparison, the Exxon Valdez spill in 1989 was about 11 million gallons). Thermal pollution (water used for cooling in industry even if it isn t polluted in any other way) can t be returned to streams or lakes or the ocean without cooling; if it is, the local communities of plants and animals may be destroyed. Mining & Water Pollution Rainwater reacts with mine waste to produce a variety of toxic pollutants. Mine waste is a significant problem in many parts of the US Kentucky, Tennessee and West Virginia (strip mining for coal) Utah, Nevada, New Mexico (gold, silver, lead, copper, and uranium mining) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 15

143 Cyanide heap-leach mining presents special problems in California and other Western States. Source: Municipal Water Pollution Cities and towns produce an enormous variety of water pollutants Cyanide sump pond Street runoff Salts, fertilizers, heavy metals, biocides Sewage o There are three kinds of sewage treatment: Primary (settling & skimming) Secondary (aerobic decomposition) Tertiary (chemical & biological purification) o About 72% of the US population is served by some kind of wastewater treatment facility which of course means that about 28% percent of the US population live in areas with no wastewater treatment. Agricultural Water Pollution Agriculture is the leading source of non-point pollution in the US There are 3 main types of agricultural pollution FERTILIZERS BIOCIDES (herbicides and pesticides) ANIMAL WASTE Biological Oxygen Demand When too great a quantity of plant nutrients get into the water, they can set off a series of steps that result in the biological death of a water body. Steps to oxygen depletion (also called eutrophication): Excess nutrients Algal bloom and death Bacterial decomposition Oxygen depletion Land Pollution We could talk about a number of land pollution problems loss of farmland; soil erosion; salinization, etc. We are going to focus on one aspect of land pollution: solid waste disposal. Solid Waste refers to trash and garbage not sewage! Americans throw away more trash per person than any other people on earth about 1,600 pounds per person, per year Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 12 of 15

144 Methods of Waste Disposal Dumps Dumps are pretty much self-explanatory solid waste is just dumped. In most of the United States, dumps are now obsolete and illegal but they are still common in many parts of the world. Dumps are notorious for their stench, disease, and for attracting vermin. Source: Sanitary Landfills The most common way to dispose of solid waste in the developed world today is in a sanitary landfill. Although a definite improvement on the old-fashioned dump, landfills have some serious problems. Source: Problems with Sanitary Landfills o Leachate liquid (from rain or other sources) reacts with solid waste to produce a toxic brew that contaminates groundwater. o Capacity since the 1970s the number of landfills in the US has declined by 80%. o NIMBY not-in-my-back-yard Incineration Incinerators can be designed to burn solid waste. In theory this turns a problem into an opportunity: o Waste can be burned to generate electricity. o The volume of waste can be reduced drastically (by about 75%). Source: Problems With Incineration o Air Pollution the fumes produced by burning solid waste are highly toxic. o Ash although the volume of trash is reduced by 75%, the remaining ash is extremely toxic and highly concentrated, and must be disposed of probably in a landfill Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 13 of 15

145 Reducing Pollution There are two ways to reduce pollution: Reduce the amount of waste discharged; or Increase the capacity of the environment to accept the pollutants. Reducing Pollution: Reducing Discharge There are two effective strategies for reducing waste discharge: Change inputs o By changing the components the chemicals and other materials that go into a product, pollution can be reduced substantially. o Examples: replacing tetraethyl lead in gasoline with other chemicals; replacing CFC based solvents in electronics manufacturing. Reduce demand o By replacing or eliminating polluting products, pollution can also be reduced. o Examples: effective public transportation would reduce auto use, reducing gasoline use. Reducing Pollution: Recycling Products can be recycled in two ways: Recycling in the same production system o When an aluminum can is recycled to produce another aluminum can, not only is pollution reduced directly, but the need for mining and manufacturing aluminum from ore is reduced as well. Recycling in a different production process o It s true that not everything can be reused plastic soda bottles are not usually made into more soda bottles. Instead, the bottles are used to make other plastic items brooms, pails, etc. o But this also reduces waste, and reduces the need for making plastics directly from petroleum. Curbside Recycling Programs As of 1997, there were almost 9,000 curbside recycling programs in the US, serving about 51% of the population. The greatest number is in the Northeast, where more than 80% of the population has access to a curbside recycling program Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 14 of 15

146 Increasing Capacity There are two strategies we can use to increase the ability of the environment to deal with our waste: We can use resources more efficiently o For example, by waiting until the environment can deal with pollutants not discharging during low tide, or during a temperature inversion. We can transform the waste, and then discharge it into a different part of the environment. o For example, by scrubbing pollutants out of a power plant s smoke stack and then placing the concentrated pollutant into a landfill. Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variety of species either at the global or local scale. New species are constantly being identified, and we estimate that there are millions of undiscovered species still out there. Threats to Biodiversity Species die that is natural and inevitable. But in the last few centuries, the rate of species extinction has increased enormously. The Passenger pigeon. Once billions flew over North America. The last died in Image source: Habitat destruction, especially in the tropics, is a very great concern. Tropical forests cover only 7% of the earth s land, but are home more than 50% of all species of plants and animals! Global biodiversity hotspots. Note that most though certainly not all are located in tropical forest regions. Image source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 15 of 15

147 Development Development: Terms The process of improving the material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology. There are nearly 200 countries in the world today. Every country lies at some point along the development continuum. We can rank countries in terms of their development. Many countries cluster at either the high or the low end of the continuum, so we can divide countries into groups: MORE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (also called MDCs, Relatively Developed Countries, and Developed Countries ) LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (also called LDCs, and Developing Countries ) Loaded Terms? Any discussion of development tends to get into issues of pride and resentment after all, when describe one place as developed and another as less developed well, what are we really saying? Less developed isn t usually meant as a compliment! More Developed Developed Modern? Developing Less Developed Backward? Measuring Development How do you measure material conditions? How do you come up with a measure that works to describe conditions in nearly 200 countries? For many years the basic measure used to compare the development was economic gross domestic product (total value of a country s goods and services). But material conditions for the country as a whole aren t very well described by GDP alone Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 12

148 So, starting in 1990, building on the work of Indian economists Partha Dasgupta and Amartya Sen, the Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq worked with United Nations to devise a better measure: the human development index. The HDI The United Nations creates the human development index (HDI) using a combination of measures: One economic indicator of development. Two social indicators of development. One demographic indicator of development. A single value an index number is then computed, and every one of the nearly 200 countries in the world can be compared in terms of their overall development. Remember to create this kind of number the data that is used to create the index must be available for all (or nearly all) countries, and it must be comparable. Possible Economic Measures of Development Gross Domestic Product Total value of goods and services produced in a country. Sector of Employment Jobs fall into three categories: o Primary (agriculture, fishing) o Secondary (manufacturing) o Tertiary (services). Workers in the secondary and tertiary sectors earn more than those in the primary sector; high numbers in the primary sector means producing and getting food is a major difficulty for many people. Productivity Value of products, compared to the amount of labor necessary to produce them. Availability of Raw Materials A country s access to raw materials is measure of development potential but not a very certain one! Availability of Consumer Goods After necessities are taken care of, luxuries drive an economy more consumer goods means more manufacturing and a higher level of development Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 12

149 Possible Social Measures of Development Education & Literacy In general, the higher the quantity of education and literacy, the higher the level of development. Measures of education: o Average number of years attended. o Student/teacher ratio. o Literacy rate (percent of the population that can read and write). Education measures can also be analyzed for differences between male and female levels of education. Health and Welfare Measuring healthiness is tricky, so surrogate measures are used, such as: o Ratio of people to hospitals, doctors and/or nurses. o Diet (total calories available per person per day). Possible Demographic Measures of Development There are many demographic differences between MDCs and LDCs. Possible choices include: Life Expectancy at birth (the average number of years a newborn can expect to live at current mortality levels). Infant Mortality Rate Rate of Natural Increase Crude Birth Rate Note that the Crude Death Rate is not a good indicator of development: Better medical technology in LDCs means that a low death rate may not indicate high development. MDCs tend to have more elderly populations so a high death rate does not necessarily indicate low development. Computing the HDI The variables the UN currently uses: ECONOMIC: Gross Domestic Product per capita (this is calculated in terms of purchasing power parity [PPP], in US dollars). SOCIAL: Education (calculated based on adult literacy and on total school enrollment). DEMOGRAPHIC: Life expectancy at birth. The actual formula used is: HDI= ( 1 / 3 * economic)+( 1 / 3 * social)+( 1 / 3 * demographic) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 12

150 The 2006 HDI Figures Source: Is There Anything Better? The HDI is certainly a better measure of material conditions then GDP, but it may not measure everything we are interested in. There are many, many other possible ways of looking at development. A sample of other possible measures could include: Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) o Proposed in the 1970s. o Uses three variables: Life expectancy Infant mortality Literacy o The PQLI has not been widely used; the problem is that these three variables are tightly correlated. o The PQLI has been replaced with better measures, including the Human Poverty Index (HPI) Human Poverty Index (HPI) 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 12

151 o Calculated by the UN Development Programme (along with the HDI). o The HPI is calculated using four variables: Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40. The adult illiteracy rate. The unweighted average of o the percentage of the population without sustainable access to an improved water source; o the percentage of underweight children. o Two different HPIs are calculated, one for developing and one for developed countries. The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) o Calculated by the UN Development Programme (along with the HDI). o Focuses on women s opportunities in three areas: Political participation and decision-making power (women s and men s percentage shares of parliamentary [congressional] seats). Economic participation and decision-making power: Women s and men s percentage shares of positions as legislators, senior officials and managers; Women s and men s percentage shares of professional and technical positions. Power over economic resources (women s and men s estimated earned income). o Computing the GEM is complicated, but the results make comparisons among countries and regions fairly simple Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 12

152 2005 The Capability Poverty Measure (CPM) o Devised by the UN Development Programme in o Focuses on the lack of basic (or even minimal) resources. o Computed using three variables: Percent of births unattended by trained health personnel Percent of underweight children under five Female illiteracy rate o Not widely used, but female (or relative) literacy rates are often used to compare countries and regions. [For more information see: ] Women's' Status Index (WSI) o Devised in the mid-1980s by the UN Development Programme. o Used eight different variables: Maternal mortality rate Percent of women using contraceptives Female adult literacy rate Gross primary school female enrollment Gross secondary school female enrollment Female/male wage ratio in agricultural jobs Female/male wage ratio in nonagricultural jobs Female labor force participation o Complicated, and since several variables are closely correlated, not used today. And there is even the hedonometer o Proposed as a sort of thought exercise instead of comparing material well being, comparing happiness. o Uses six variables: Understanding and controlling one's environment Social support from family and friends 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 12

153 Satisfaction of sex and parental drives Physical well-being Esthetic and sensory satisfaction Satisfaction of exploratory drives (learning) o An interesting concept but hard to get data! For more information: ; ; ; The More Developed Countries Anglo-America (the highest regional HDI) Relatively low cultural diversity Enormous natural resources World's leading consumer market Leading producer of entertainment, high-tech Most important food exporter Western Europe Cultural unity History of war, competition, empires Recent steps toward unification Major manufacturer, financial center Regional development differences (North-South) Importer of food, energy, raw materials Eastern Europe The Undeveloping region? Communist legacy Lack of consumer goods, housing Massive economic & political restructuring 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 12

154 Japan Few natural resources Highly educated, highly motivated population Government-private partnerships Recent economic stagnation, but still major market & manufacturer South Pacific Australia & New Zealand Small population, low cultural diversity Abundant natural resources Peripheral to world markets, but increasing ties to Asia The Less Developed Countries Latin America Moderate cultural unity Abundant natural resources Surprisingly urban, educated Income distribution problems East Asia China Communist legacy Massive economic (but not political) restructuring Abundant natural resources Largely agricultural population Rapidly expanding market Southeast Asia Half a century of revolution, war, and civil war Tropical climate Rapidly growing population Largely rural population Uneven regional development Middle East Largely desert & semi-desert Oil - but unevenly distributed Cultural tensions - modernization vs. tradition Warfare, ethnic conflict South Asia India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan Monsoon climate 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 8 of 12

155 Expanding industrial base Largely rural, agricultural population Large population High population growth Sub-Saharan Africa (HDI.46 the lowest regional HDI) Many areas with abundant resources Colonial legacy War Low population density World's highest rate of natural increase World's highest percentage in poverty World's highest percentage ill, malnourished, illiterate Development: Why? How? Why develop? Is it just some kind of cultural imperialism? Well it has been, sometimes but not necessarily. Economic, social and demographic measures indicate that people in MDCs are wealthier, better educated, and better off. How to Develop? Two basic approaches: Self-sufficiency International Trade The Self-sufficiency Model Emphasis on balanced growth, spreading investment evenly, in all regions, in all economic sectors. Necessary to insulate domestic industries from outside competitors, through use of: o Quotas (limits on numbers of imports) o Tariffs (taxes on imports, increasing their costs, and making local goods more attractive to buyers) o Import Substitution (substituting locally made products for imports) Problems with self-sufficiency: o Inefficiency o Bureaucracy The self-sufficiency model was popular in Asia and Africa during much of the 20th century, but has been mostly replaced today by the international trade model Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 9 of 12

156 The International Trade Model Each country should invest in its distinctive or unique assets. Concentrate on developing distinctive local industries, exports, services. This model has been very successful for some countries. However, there are problems with this approach: Uneven resource distribution. What do you do if the only resources you have are pretty much the same as what your neighbors have? What do you do if you don't have much of anything? The drive to the bottom Market stagnation and saturation Sales take place mostly in the MDCs where population isn't growing, and markets are already tight and highly competitive. Dependence on MDCs Rostow's Development Model In the 1950s W.W. Rostow proposed a five-stage model of development based on international trade: The Traditional Society Preconditions for Takeoff The Takeoff The Drive to Maturity The Age of Mass Consumption Some would now add a sixth stage: Post-Industrial Financing Development LDCs cannot afford to fund their own development it would take too long, and it costs too much. LDCs have to get the money they need from the MDCs in one of two ways: Loans (from banks, individual countries, or from international organizations) Investment by transnational corporations 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 10 of 12

157 Loans for Development The two major lenders for development are the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Private banks and individual countries also make loans to LDCs for investment in projects such as dams, irrigation systems, etc. Total value of all outstanding loans to LDCs: more than two trillion dollars. But not all the loans have turned out well. There have been many expensive failures; Levels of corruption and mismanagement have been appalling. The result: some LDCs are unable to repay their loans or even the interest on their loans. So what happens? If you can't pay your off you loans, the bank can seize your assets, and you can go bankrupt. Countries don't have either of those options. Banks are forced to restructure loans, and the LDCs find it harder and harder to get money for development. The Jubilee 2000 Proposal In the late 1990s an organization called Jubilee 2000 came up with an interesting idea: Total outstanding debt: $2,000,000,000,000 Outstanding debt of poorest 41 nations: $200,000,000,000 So the poorest of the poor only owe about 10% of the total write it off. Idea endorsed (in some form) by Pope John Paul II, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Bono, the G8 Nations at their 1999 meeting, etc. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, in association with lending countries and agencies, have begun to cancel some or all of the debt for about 30 Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs): Benin Bolivia Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Chad Congo Congo Republic Cote d'ivoire Ethiopia The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Honduras Kenya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mozambique Nicaragua Niger Rwanda Sao Tome & Principe Senegal Sierra Leone St. Lucia Tanzania Uganda Yemen Zambia For more information, see: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 11 of 12

158 Transnational Corporations Transnational (or multinational ) corporations are major private organizations that operate in many countries. Some transnational corporations today are larger economically than many (even most) nations. LDCs that seek investment from transnationals have several issues to deal with: Creating attractive infrastructure (roads, harbors, power, etc.) Competition with other LDCs The Race to the Bottom Problems of regulation (laws vary from country to country, etc.) Keeping the company happy making the job, environmental, tax and other laws as attractive as possible. Remember a transnational corporation's primary loyalty must be to its stockholders, not to whatever countries it happens to be operating in at the moment. Development High-Level and Low-Level At the highest level, less developed countries have one problem that is almost impossible for them to overcome ¾ of all foreign investment flows between more developed countries. In terms of the world s economy, most of the less developed world is basically peripheral. At the lowest level, one of the most interesting developments has been the development of micro-credit banks institutions that engage in micro-credit lending lending tiny amounts of money (typically a few hundred dollars) to individuals (often women) in poor countries to start micro-businesses. The first micro-credit lender was the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. Today similar institutions exist in 34 countries. For more information see: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 12 of 12

159 Urban Patterns An Urban World Increasing urbanization: % urban; % urban % urban? Greater urban population in More Developed Countries. Greater urban growth in Less Developed Countries. Although under half of the people in most less developed regions are urban, Latin America and the Middle East have urban percentages comparable to MDCs. Source: An Urban Country Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 1 of 8

160 Defining Cities We can define cities in two different ways: Based on the social character of cities the ways in which life in cities differs from life in rural places. Based on physical or legal criteria. Defining Urban Settlements Social Definitions: In the 1930s the sociologist Louis Wirth discussed the ways in which city life differs from life in non-urban places: o SIZE & SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS: Cities are bigger than nonurban places which means that in cities, you spend much of your time with strangers. Your relations with people you work with are often legal or contractual, not personal. o DENSITY & SPECIALIZATION: Cities don t just have more people than non-urban places they have a greater density of population. Interactions with other people are constant and inescapable. And people in cities tend to specialize in their work otherwise competition for jobs and money becomes overwhelming. o HETEROGENEITY & FREEDOM: People in cities are far more diverse than in non-urban places behaviors or customs, as well as members of ethnic and religious groups, that would be socially undesirable in a rural area are tolerated in cities. Legal Definitions: an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit. Legal definitions vary from country to country for example: o US 2,500 persons (this goes back to the first census in 1790) o South Africa 500 persons o India 5,000 persons with an adult male population predominantly in non-agricultural work. Physical Definitions URBANIZED AREA: o The central city and the surrounding built-up suburbs where population density exceeds 1,000 persons per square mile. o The physical city the visible city. METROPOLITAN AREA: o The zone of influence of a city; the functional city Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 2 of 8

161 Metropolitan Statistical Areas Since 1949 the Census Bureau has used a method for measuring and comparing the functional areas of cities the Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). The exact definition of an MSA has varied over time. Today an MSA is defined as: A central city with a population of at least 50,000. The county within which the city is located. Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city s county. CMSA Beyond the MSA Overlapping MSAs are combined into Consolidated MSAs. An MSA within a CMSA that has more than one million people is a Primary MSA. CBSA: MSA vs. MSA? Since 2000 the Census Bureau has used the Core Based Statistical Area or CBSA classification scheme (for more information see: ) Under the CBSA standard there are two kinds of MSA: METROPOLITAN statistical areas MICROPOLITAN statistical areas. A CBSA consists of one or more counties with a central city with a population of at least 10,000: If the population is more than 50,000, it s metropolitan. If it s between 10,000 and 50,000 it s micropolitan. There are at least 362 metropolitan, and 560 micropolitan areas in the US today. Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 3 of 8

162 Models of City Structure Starting in the 20 th Century, social scientists began to try to create models simplified representations of reality to understand how cities function. There are three popular models of North American city structure that are widely used and discussed. Each has problems; none accurately describes how any particular city actually works but the models are still useful because they give us insights into how cities grow and function. Three Models of North American City Structure Concentric Zone Model Oldest (1923) Postulates a series of concentric rings of decreasing land value surrounding the Central Business District (CBD) Sector Model Pre World War II (1939) Incorporates linear and transport corridors Growth on periphery ( pie slices ) Continued emphasis on CBD Multiple Nuclei Model Post World War II (1945) Multiple centers of attraction Less emphasis on a single CBD Social Area Analysis None of the three models is perfect they are simplified, not real. However, the test of a model is whether or not it s useful can we use the three models individually or in combination to make predictions about cities? The answer is a firm maybe some patterns (family size, income, ethnicity, etc.) can sometimes be predicted using the models. Models Outside North America None of the three models developed for North America are very useful in other parts of the world. Europe o In Europe the wealthy tend to live in or near the center of town. o The poor tend to be concentrated in suburbs ( slum suburbs ) Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 4 of 8

163 Less Developed Countries o As in Europe, there tend to be slum suburbs and a wealthy center. o Most cities in LDCs have also been affected by colonialism, which created new areas of cities and often modified their shapes. o Precolonial, colonial, and post-colonial cities are often distinctive o Latin American cities often have a distinctive elite spine. o Most cities in LDCs have extensive squatter settlements in and around them where recently arrived people improvise housing. Given enough time (and the right to live on and own their own land), squatter settlements can evolve into decent neighborhoods Problems of Inner Cities Instead of squatter settlements and slum suburbs, in North America areas of poverty are often concentrated in the inner city the area surrounding the CBD (this corresponds roughly to the zone in transition in the concentric zone model, and is the origin of the phrase inner city a term which can be used even in cities that really don t fit the concentric zone model). North American inner cities suffer from a number of physical, social and economic problems. Inner Cities: Physical Problems The major physical problem of the inner cities is the poor condition of the housing. DETERIORATION o Filtering large, old single-family homes become multi-family apartments without upgrading the facilities. Eventually, as the facilities become worse and worse, they are abandoned ( filtering is a peculiar term think of it as a metaphor, and imagine a sieve or a sifter, breaking up large chunks of dirt or flour into smaller and smaller particles). o Redlining & Blockbusting illegal processes designed to concentrate ethnicities in ghettos where services are few and it is impossible to get loans to improve property. In redlining banks, mortgage brokers, real estate agents, insurance companies, etc. would get together and draw lines on the map that restricted where people could (and couldn t) buy or rent. In blockbusting unscrupulous real estate agents would buy up property in a white neighborhood and move in blacks (or some other undesirable ethnicity). They would then start a panic among the white householders, induce them to sell as 2007 Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 5 of 8

164 cheaply as possible, and finally the real estate agents would sell the property to blacks anxious to get out of the ghetto (or other redlined areas). URBAN RENEWAL o In theory, urban renewal is a process of replacing deteriorated housing with new public housing. o Although public housing has been successful in some places, in others it has been a brutal nightmare. o Gentrification rather than tear down deteriorated housing, in some places it has been renovated but the poor who once lived in the neighborhood can t afford new renovated housing, and must move. Inner Cities: Social Problems Most people who live in inner cities are there because they can t afford to go anywhere else they are poor! The Underclass the idea that people are trapped in a cycle of problems often because they lack job skills or have become a part of the one to two million homeless in America. The Culture of Poverty in the inner city includes high rates of Single parent families Crime Ethnic and racial segregation Inner Cities: Economic Problems Poor people and poor housing mean that inner cities have enormous needs and no money to pay for them. Cities have two choices when it comes to paying for services they can t afford: Reduce services (disastrous in areas that are already hurting). Raise taxes (disastrous in areas that already find it hard to bring people and businesses to the area). Other solutions have been tried: Annexation (taking over land outside the city, thereby expanding the tax base this once was feasible, but in most areas it isn t any longer). State and Federal contributions (loans and grants). Annexation Today To see examples of cities dealing with annexation issues today, see: Lincoln, Nebraska: Austin, Texas: Riverside, California: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 6 of 8

165 The Growth of Suburbs The suburban population of the US has grown enormously in the past 50 years much faster than the overall population growth rate. About 50% of all Americans now live in suburbs and their popularity is extremely high (90% of people polled say they prefer suburbs to inner cities). At the same time, the percentage of people living in central cities has declined. Only about 30% of all Americans now live in central cities. The Peripheral Model Around the central city is the suburban residential and business area, circled by a beltway. Around the beltway are business nodes edge cities. Edge cities typically have lots of jobs and very few residents the classic example is Tysons Corner, Virginia. Located 15 miles from Washington, D.C., Tysons Corner has a population of 18,540 and two shopping malls, 35 million square feet of office and retail space, and something like 170,000 jobs. Tysons Corner information: Problems of Suburbs Sprawl: the progressive spread of development over the landscape. Problems caused by sprawl include: Costs of extending services Loss of agricultural land Dependence on the automobile (and a lack of public transportation). Segregation: Physical segregation from work. Social segregation: o By age o By family structure o By race o By income o By social class Expanding suburban areas, Sacramento, CA. Areas in orange are new suburbs ( ). Source: Alan Rice Osborn Geography Department, SDSU Page 7 of 8