1. Recognition of independence 4

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1 CONTENTS Introductory note Preface List of works referred to iii vii xxi Chapter I HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF INTER-AMERICAN UNITY, Recognition of independence 4 a. Principle of self-determination 4 b. Test of de facto status 6 2. The Monroe Doctrine 8 a. Colonization period closed 9 b. Principle of non-intervention: Its defensive character 9 c. "No-transfer Doctrine" The Panama Congress, a. Bolívar's proposal of a "confederation" 14 b. Obstacles to success of the Congress 16 c. Central American federation Extra-continental and intra-continental conflicts: Period a. Falkland Islands conflict, b. Belize controversy, c. European interventions, 1838, d. Struggle for control of Isthmus of Panama 23 e. United States-Mexican war, f. Congress of Lima, Period a. Conference at Santiago, b. Spanish interventions in Santo Domingo, 1861 in Peru, c, French intervention in Mexico, d. Cuban insurrections, e. Congress at Lima, f. Paraguayan war, Period

2 a. War of the Pacific, b. Congress of jurists, Lima, c. Bolivarian Congress, Caracas, d. Congress of Jurists, Montevideo, Chapter II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF INTER-AMERICAN UNITY, I889-I First International Conference of American States, a. Scope of objectives proposed 34 b. Nature of the "International Union of American Republics" 36 c. Limited results of the Conference 37 Plan of Arbitration Political issues, a. Venezuelan boundary dispute, b. Emancipation of Cuba, c. Second International Conference of American States, "Imperialism" under guise of the Monroe Doctrine 43 a. Venezuelan debt question 43 b. Panama Canal 44 c. Roosevelt's corollary to Monroe Doctrine: "International police power'' 45 d. Third Conference of American States, e. Hague Conference of 1907; Drago Doctrine Woodrow Wilson's idealism: practical and impractical 48 a. New doctrine of recognition 48 b. Treaties for the Advancement of Peace 49 c. Pan American Pact The League of Nations and the Latin American States 51 a. Privileged position claimed by United States, b. Centenary of Monroe Doctrine, Santiago Conference, a. Continued political isolation of United States 52 b. Gondra Treaty Havana Conference, a. Codification of international law 54 b. Defeat of efforts to control intervention 54

3 c. Washington treaties on arbitration and conciliation 55 d. Argentine Anti-War Treaty Montevideo Conference, a. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy 56 b. Convention on Rights and Duties of States 57 Chapter III TRANSITION FROM THE OLD ORDER TO THE NEW, Inter-American Conference for Maintenance of Peace, Buenos Aires, a. Consultation in the event of a threat to the peace 59 b. United States accepts the principle of non-intervention Eighth International Conference, Lima, a. Declaration of Lima 62 b. Scope of the procedure of consultation First Meeting of Foreign Ministers, Panama, a. Solidarity in defense of neutral rights 64 b. Justification of the Security Zone Second Meeting of Foreign Ministers, Havana, a. Collective security: Resolution XV 66 b. Act of Havana: "Dependent Territories" Third Meeting of Foreign Ministers, Rio de Janeiro, a. Breaking of relations with Axis Powers 67 b. Measures against subversive activities Conference on Problems of War and Peace, Mexico City, a. Act of Chapultepec 70 b. Reorganization of the inter-american system 72 c. Resulting policy at San Francisco Inter-American Conference for Maintenance of Continental Peace and Security, Rio de Janeiro, Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance 75 Chapter IV

4 THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES 1. Ninth International Conference of American States 80 a. Charter of the Organization of American States 81 b. Title of the new organization 82 c. Relation of the Organization to the United Nations 82 d. Membership; exclusion of particular government 83 e. Purposes, principles and objectives Organs of the Organization 87 a. The Inter-American Conference 87 b. The Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs 88 Advisory Defense Committee 89 c. Council of the Organization 91 Composition 91 Functions; competence 92 Organs of the Council 98 Economic and Social Council 98 Council of Jurists 98 Cultural Council 98 d. Pan American Union 98 Administrative functions 100 e. Specialized conferences 101 f. Specialized organizations 103 Conditions attached to recognition 104 Relations with similar international agencies Other American inter-governmental agencies 106 a. Inter-American Peace Committee 106 b. Inter-American Defense Board 109 c. Ad Hoc Committee of Special Representatives of Presidents of the American States 113 d. Informal meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs 115 e. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 115 f. Inter-American Nuclear Energy Commission 117 g. Special Consultative Committee on Security Semi-official organizations a. Inter-American Statistical Institute 118 b. Pan American Railway Congress Association 124 c. Inter-American Commercial Arbitration Commission Relations with American non-governmental organizations Relations with the Organization of Central American States (ODECA) Relations with the United Nations and other international bodies

5 (See Chapter XII) 509 Chapter V INTER-AMERICAN REGIONAL LAW 1. General principles of inter-american law 134 a. Mutual respect for sovereignty and independence 134 b. Equality of states 135 c. Non-intervention 137 d. International law the standard of conduct 140 e. Observance of treaties 142 f. Repudiation of the use of force 143 Non-recognition of territorial conquests 143 g. Pacific settlement of international disputes (see Chapter VI) 145 h. Mutual defense (see Chapter VII) 145 i. Principles of economic, social and cultural cooperation 145 j. Recognition of the fundamental rights of man 146 k. Right of resistance Sources of inter-american regional law 150 a. Treaties and conventions 151 b. Resolutions and declarations 152 Proposed study of commitments 153 Juridical value of resolutions 155 Act of Chapultepec 156 c. Charter, OAS, Arts Distinctive character of inter-american law 158 a. The question at issue 158 b. Opinion of International Court of Justice Relation of inter-american regional law to general international law 162 a. Adherence to Hague conventions of 1899 and b. Generalization of the inter-american juridical system 163 c. Laws of war and of neutrality 164 d. Adjustment of regional to international law 169 Chapter VI FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION: THE PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES 1. Procedures of pacific settlement 171 a. Treaty of Union, Panama, b. Plan of Arbitration, Washington,

6 c. Treaty on Compulsory Arbitration, d. Hague Convention of e. Gondra Treaty, f. The procedure of conciliation 177 g. Washington Treaties, h. Anti-War Treaty, i. Buenos Aires Treaties, j. Coordination of peace agreements, k. Pact of Bogota, l. Proposed revision of Pact of Bogota Specific applications of procedures 193 a. Provisions of particular treaties 193 b. Actual arbitration cases Prevention of disputes: Buenos Aires Treaty, Inter-American Peace Committee 198 a. Character, as agent of the OAS 198 b. Nature of controversies submitted to it 199 c. Reasons for its success Proposed Inter-American Court of Justice 208 a. Bolivar's proposal 208 b. Resolutions of Conferences, c. Resolution of Meeting of Consultation, d. Resolution of Caracas Conference, Inter-American Court to Protect the Rights of Man Central American Court of Justice 215 Chapter VII FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION: REGIONAL COLLECTIVE SECURITY 1. Bolívar's plan of confederation, President Wilson's proposed Pan American Pact Latin America and the League of Nations 220 a. Response to principle of collective security 220 b. Opposition to Monroe Doctrine as a "regional understanding" Consultation in the event of a threat to the peace 222

7 a. Buenos Aires, b. Declaration of Lima, Continental solidarity in the presence of war 223 a. Declaration of Panama, b. Collective security proclaimed at Havana, c. Collective action at Rio de Janeiro, Regional reorganization 228 a. Act of Chapultepec, b. San Francisco Conference, Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, a. Distinction between armed attacks and other forms of aggression 231 b. Questions of interpretation 233 c. Specific applications of the treaty Relation of Rio Treaty to Charter of United Nations 246 a. Possible conflict of jurisdictions 246 b. Case of Guatemala, 1954; Dominican Republic, Limitation and control of armaments Civil strife 252 a. Control over export of arms 252 b. Havana Convention, c. Protocol revising Havana Convention Control of subversive activities 258 a. Measures directed against agents of the belligerents, b. Measures directed against international communism 260 c. Resolutions of Caracas Conference, d. Case of Guatemala, e. Case of Cuba, Maintenance of representative democracy 269 a. Democracy as an ideal 269 b. Democracy as the alternative to subversive activities 271 c. Declaration of Santiago, d. Resolution of Punta del Este, Chapter VIII

8 FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION: THE DEVELOPMENT AND CODIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 1. General problem of the codification of international law 276 a. Early conception of codification 276 b. Present meaning of "codification" Machinery and procedure of codification 279 a. Convention of b. International Commission of Jurists, c. American Institute of International Law 281 d. Permanent Committees, Havana, e. Committee of Experts, f. International Conference of American Jurists, g. Inter-American Neutrality Committee, h. Inter-American Juridical Committee, i. Inter-American Council of Jurists, j. National Committees Specific problems of codification 293 a. Distinction between development and codification of international law 293 b. States as subjects of international law 295 c. Recognition of de facto governments 296 Continuity of diplomatic relations 298 d. Nationality and statelessness 301 e. Status of aliens; Responsibility of the State 304 f. Boundary disputes; Antarctic sectors 313 g. Territorial waters and related questions 314 h. Extradition 320 i. Asylum, territorial and diplomatic 324 j. Diplomatic officers; consuls; passports and fees 329 k. Treaties, bilateral and multilateral 330 Effect of reservations to multilateral treaties Private international law 341 a. Montevideo Treaties; Bustamante Code 341 b. Restatement of the Law of the Conflict of Laws Uniformity of legislation 346 a. International sale of goods 347 b. International cooperation in judicial procedures 348 c. International commercial arbitration 351 d. Immunity of state ships Laws of war and of neutrality 356

9 Chapter IX FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION: PROMOTION OF ECONOMIC INTERESTS 1. Program of the First International Conference of American States, a. Commercial interests dominant 357 b. Impractical character of certain objectives Organization of agencies 359 a. Pan American Union 359 b. Specialized conferences 361 c. Financial and Economic Advisory Committee 362 d. Economic and Social Council 363 e. Punta del Este Conference: Alliance for Progress Trade and Commerce 369 a. Customs union 369 b. Customs regulations; consular formalities 369 c. Tariffs; reciprocity treaties 372 d. Economic integration and the proposal of a common market 375 e. Raw materials vs. manufactured products 378 f. Prices and markets; terms of trade 379 g. Specific products: coffee, cacao, bananas, meat 382 h. Commercial arbitration Production 387 a. Natural resources and strategic materials 387 b. Agriculture and livestock industry; agrarian reform 390 c. Industrialization Financial problems 397 a. Balance of payments 397 b. Currency; foreign exchange 399 c. Inter-American Development Bank 401 d. Investments Program of Technical Cooperation Transportation 412 a. Land; railroads; Pan American Highway 412 b. Maritime transportation; ports and harbors 415 c. Air 418

10 8. Communications; radio broadcasting 419 a. Postal services 419 b. Telecommunications 420 c. Radio broadcasting Patents; copyrights; trade marks Weights and measures; production standardization Statistics Industrial uses of atomic energy 428 Chapter X FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION: PROMOTION OF SOCIAL INTERESTS 1. Scope of the field of social interests 430 Standards of living Demographic questions 434 a. Eugenics and homiculture 434 b. Immigration and migration 435 c. Vital statistics Fundamental human rights 440 a. Christian ideal of human relations: Vitoria, Bartholomé de las Casas 440 b. American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man 443 c. Inter-American Court to Protect the Rights of Man 444 d. The family as a social unit 446 e. Special protection of children: Inter-American Children's Institute 446 f. Social Service Status of women 450 a. Recognition of legal equality 450 b. Organic Statute of the Inter-American Commission of Women 453 c. Work of the Commission Protection of indigenous races 458 a. Special protective legislation 458 b. Inter-American Indian Institute Welfare of workers 461

11 a. General principles 461 b. American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man 462 c. Inter-American Charter of Social Guarantees 463 d. Workers education 464 e. Labor migration; rural exodus 464 f. Industrial safety; prevention of accidents 465 g. Social security Housing; urban planning; agrarian reform Cooperatives Public health 470 a. Pan American Health Organization 470 b. Specific problems Public morals; Social defense 473 a. Traffic in narcotic drugs 473 b. Consumption of alcoholic beverages 473 c. Traffic in women Red Cross activities 474 Chapter XI FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION: PROMOTION OF CULTURAL INTERESTS 1. Cultural cooperation, in general 476 a. Objectives of the promotion of cultural interests 476 b. Sources of cultural cooperation 477 Democratic ideals; social justice 477 American Declaration of Rights and Duties of Man 478 Charter of the Organization of American States 478 Charter of Punta del Este 479 c. Cultural Charter of America Organization of cultural agencies 481 a. Columbus Memorial Library 481 b. Pan American Institute of Geography and History 482 c. Inter-American Cultural Council 484 Congress of Ministers of Education 485 d. Committee for Cultural Action 486 e. Pan American Union: Department of Cultural Affairs Education of particular groups 488

12 a. Elimination of Illiteracy 488 b. Elementary education: universal, free, and compulsory 489 c. Secondary education; higher education 490 d. Adult education; workers' education; vocational education 491 e. Training of teachers Fields of cultural interest 493 a. Letters; philosophy; science 493 b. Moral objectives in the field of cultural relations: 496 peace; continental solidarity; cooperation 496 c. Arts; music Means and methods of promoting cultural relations 498 a. Exchange of students and professors 498 Standards; credits; Rowe Fund 499 b. Translations of the "literature of power" 500 c. Books and publications contributing to the development of continental unity 501 d. Libraries; bibliographies; Cuervo Dictionary 502 e. Films; broadcasts; exhibits; Pan American Day 504 f. Protection of authors' and artists' rights Protection of cultural heritage 506 a. Monuments; archeological structures; churches 506 b. Homes of great men; historic urban areas 508 Chapter XII RELATIONS OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES WITH THE UNITED NATIONS AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL BODIES 1. Relations with the League of Nations 509 a. Latin American support of the Covenant 509 Objections to the Monroe Doctrine as a "regional understanding" 509 b. Intervention of the League in American disputes 512 Boundary dispute between Bolivia and Paraguay Relations with the United Nations 515 a. Approval of the Atlantic Charter 515 b. Policy at Conference at Mexico City, c. Policy at San Francisco, Competence of General Assembly 517 Adoption of Article 51 of the Charter 518 Scope of collective action 519 Statute of the International Court of Justice 520 d. Regional collective security 521

13 Relation of Rio Treaty to Charter of United Nations 521 Possible conflict of jurisdictions: Case of Guatemala, e. Charter, OAS, proclaims status of "regional agency" 523 But "agency" limited to maintenance of peace and security 523 Support of decision of General Assembly on Korea, 1950; on Egypt and Hungary, 1956; on atomic tests, f. Policies of the American States in matters of substantive law 526 Collective security and the "cold war" 527 The principle of equality: Admission of new members to UN 527 Anti-colonialism 529 Domestic jurisdiction 529 Protection of human rights 530 Freedom of information 531 Rights and duties of states 531 g. Representation of United Nations at inter-american conferences Relations of the OAS with inter-governmental organizations related to the United Nations 532 a. Economic and social agencies of the United Nations 532 Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) 533 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 535 World Health Organization (WHO) 536 International Labour Organisation (ILO) 537 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 538 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 538 Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) 539 b. Juridical agencies: International Law Commission 539 c. Cultural agencies: UNESCO 540 APPENDIX A. CHARTER OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES 547 APPENDIX B. TREATY OF RECIPROCAL ASSISTANCE 572 APPENDIX C. CHART OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES 583 APPENDIX D. CHART OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION 584 APPENDIX E. DECLARATION TO THE PEOPLES OF AMERICA 585 (establishing the Alliance for Progress) INDEX 589