INTERNATIONAL LAW FOURTH EDITION. Malcolm N. Shaw. Sir Robert Jennings Professor of International Law, University of Leicester

Transcription

1 INTERNATIONAL LAW FOURTH EDITION Malcolm N. Shaw Sir Robert Jennings Professor of International Law, University of Leicester A GROTIUS PUBLICATION CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 Preface Table of cases Table of treaties and agreements Table of abbreviations page xxiii xxiv xxxv xliii 1. The nature and development of international law 1 Law and politics in the world community 2 The role of force 4 The international system 5 The function of politics - 10 Historical development 12 Early origins 12 The Middle Ages and the Renaissance 16 The founders of modern international law 20 Positivism and naturalism 21 The nineteenth century 23 The twentieth century 26 Communist approaches to international law 27 The Third World International law today 36 The expanding legal scope of international concern 36 Modern theories and interpretations 40 Positive law and natural law 40 New approaches Sources 54 Custom 56 Introduction 56

3 The material fact What is state practice? Opinio juris Protest, acquiescence and change in customary law Local custom Treaties General principles of law Equity and international law Judicial decisions Writers Other possible sources of international law The International Law Commission Other bodies Unilateral acts Hierarchy of sources and jus cogens International law and municipal law The theories The role of municipal rules in international law International law before municipal courts The United Kingdom (a) Customary international law (b) Treaties The United States Other countries Justiciability, act of state and related doctrines Executive certificates The subjects of international law Legal personality - Introduction States Creation of statehood Self-determination and the criteria of statehood Recognition Extinction of statehood The fundamental rights of states (a) Independence (b) Equality (c) Peaceful co-existence Protectorates and protected states Federal states

4 Sui generis territorial entities 160 Mandated and trust territories 160 Germany Condominium 164 International territories 165 Taiwan 166 The Turkish Federated State of Cyprus 166 The Saharan Arab Democratic Republic 167 Associations of states 168 Conclusions 171 Special cases 171 The Sovereign Order of Malta 171 The Holy See and the Vatican City 172 Insurgents and belligerents 173 National Liberation Movements (NLMs) 173 International public companies 175 Transnational corporations 176 The right of all peoples to self-determination 177 The establishment of the legal right 177 The definition of self-determination 181 Individuals 182 Individual criminal responsibility 184 International organisations 190 The acquisition, nature and consequences of legal personality - some conclusions 191 xi 6. The international protection of human rights 196 The nature of human rights 196 Ideological approaches to human rights in international law 198 The development of international human rights law 200 Some basic principles 202 Domestic jurisdiction 202 The exhaustion of local remedies rule 202 Priorities of rights 203 Customary international law and human rights 204 The United Nations system - general 205 The protection of the collective rights of groups and individuals 209 Prohibition of genocide 209 Prohibition of discrimination 212 The principle of self-determination as a human right 215

5 xii CONTENTS The protection of minorities 218 Other suggested collective rights 223 The United Nations system - implementation 225 Political bodies - general 225 The Commission on Human Rights 226 Expert bodies established by UN Organs 228 The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities 228 The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 229 Expert bodies established under particular treaties 231 The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 232 The Human Rights Committee 234 The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 240 The Committee against Torture 242 The Committee on the Rights of the Child 245 The Proposed Committee on the Protection of Migrant Workers 246 Conclusions 247 The specialised agencies 249 The International Labour Organisation 249 The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation The regional protection of human rights 255 Europe 255 The Council of Europe 255 The European Convention on Human Rights 257 The Commission 259 The Court 263 The Committee of Ministers 267 Future development of the European Convention System 270 The European Social Charter 272 The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment 275 The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities 277 The European Community 280

6 Xiii The OSCE (Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe) 281 The CIS Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 286 The American Convention on Human Rights 287 The Banjul Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights Recognition 295 Recognition of states 296 Recognition of governments 303 De facto and dejure recognition 308 Premature recognition 309 Implied recognition 310 Conditional recognition 312 Collective recognition 313 Withdrawal of recognition 313 Non-recognition 315 The legal effects of recognition 317 Internationally 317 Internally 318 The UK 318 The USA Territory 331 The concept of territory in international law 331 Territorial sovereignty 333 New states and title to territory 335 The acquisition of additional territory 338 Accretion 338 Cession 339 Conquest and the use of force 340 The exercise of effective control 342 Intertemporal law 346 Exercise of authority 347 Recognition, acquiescence and estoppel 350 Conclusions 352 Territorial integrity, self-determination and sundry claims 354 The doctrine of uti possidetis 356 Beyond uti possidetis 358 International boundary rivers 360 The Falkland Islands 360

7 Xiv CONTENTS "The Common Heritage of Mankind" 361 The Polar regions 363 Leases and servitudes Air law and space law 369 Air law 369 Theories 369 The structure 370 The Warsaw Convention System 374 Unauthorised aerial intrusion and the downing of civilian airliners 376 The law of outer space 381 The definition and delimitation of outer space 382 The regime of outer space 382 Telecommunications The law of the sea 390 The territorial sea 393 Internal waters 393 Baselines 394 Bays 396 Islands 398 Archipelagic states 399 The width of die territorial sea 401 Delimitation of the territorial sea between states with opposite or adjacent coasts 402 The juridical nature of the territorial sea 402 The right of innocent passage 403 Jurisdiction over foreign ships 406 International straits 407 The contiguous zone 410 The exclusive economic zone 411 Land-locked states 416 The high seas 418 Jurisdiction on the high seas 420 Exceptions to the exclusivity of flag-state jurisdiction 422 Right of visit 422 Piracy 423 The slave trade 423 Unauthorised broadcasting 424 Hot pursuit 424

8 Collisions 425 Treaty rights 426 Pollution 426 Straddling stocks 428 The continental shelf 432 Definition 434 The rights of the coastal state 435 Delimitation of the continental shelf between opposite and adjacent states 436 The international seabed 444 Introduction 444 The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (Part XI) 445 The Reciprocating States Regime 447 The 1994 Agreement on Implementation of the Seabed Provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea 448 Settlement of disputes Jurisdiction 452 The principle of domestic jurisdiction 454 Legislative, executive and judicial jurisdiction 456 Civil jurisdiction 457 Criminal jurisdiction 458 The territorial principle 458 The nationality principle 462 The passive personality principle 467 The protective principle 468 The universality principle 470 Piracy 470 War crimes, crimes against peace and crimes against humanity 471 Treaties providing for jurisdiction 473 Illegal apprehension of suspects and the exercise of jurisdiction 478 The US Alien Tort Claims Act 480 Extradition 482 Extraterritorial jurisdiction Immunities from jurisdiction 491 Sovereign immunity 491 The absolute immunity approach 494 The restrictive approach 496 XV

9 XVi CONTENTS Sovereign and non-sovereign acts 500 Commercial acts 505 Other non-immunity areas 510 The personality issue 511 Waiver of immunity 516 Pre-judgment attachment 517 Immunity from execution 518 The burden and standard of proof 521 Conclusion 522 Diplomatic law 523 The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations The inviolability of the mission 525 The diplomatic bag 529 Diplomatic immunities - property 531 Diplomatic immunities - personal 533 Waiver of immunity 536 The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations The Convention on Special Missions The Vienna Convention on the Representation of States in dieir Relations with International Organisations of a Universal Character The immunities of international organisations 540 Internationally protected persons State responsibility 541 The nature of state responsibility 542 The question of fault 545 Imputability 547 Ultra vires acts 549 Individuals 550 Mob violence, insurrections and civil wars 551 The concept of the injured state 552 Reparation 554 Circumstances precluding wrongfulness 558 The treatment of aliens 561 Nationality of claims 562 The exhaustion of local remedies 567 The relevant standard of treatment 569 The expropriation of foreign property 573 The property question 575 The nature of expropriation 575

10 Xvii Public purposes 576 Compensation 577 Bilateral investment treaties and lump-sum agreements 580 Non-discrimination 583 The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency International environmental law 585 State responsibility and the environment 590 The basic duty of states 590 The appropriate standard 592 Damage caused 594 Liability for damage caused by private persons 596 International liability for damage caused by lawful acts 597 The problems of the state responsibility approach 600 International co-operation 600 Atmospheric pollution 607 Ozone depletion and global warming 610 Outer space 614 International watercourses 616 Ultra-hazardous activities 619 Nuclear activities 620 The provision of information 621 The provision of assistance 623 Nuclear safety 624 Civil liability 624 Hazardous wastes 626 Marine pollution 628 Pollution from ships The law of treaties 632 The making of treaties 636 Formalities 636 Consent 637 Consent by signature 638 Consent by exchange of instruments 639 Consent by ratification 639 Consent by accession 641 Reservations to treaties 641 Entry into force of treaties 649 The application of treaties 650 Third states 652

11 xviii CONTENTS The amendment and modification of treaties 654 Treaty interpretation 655 Invalidity, termination and suspension of the operation of treaties 660 General provisions 660 Invalidity of treaties 661 Municipal law 661 Error 662 Fraud and corruption 663 Coercion 663 Jus cogens 665 Consequences of invalidity 665 The termination of treaties 666 Termination by treaty provision or consent 666 Material breach 667 Supervening impossibility of performance 669 Fundamental change of circumstances 669 Consequences of the termination or suspension of a treaty 671 Dispute settlement 671 Treaties between states and international organisations State succession 674 Continuity and succession 677 Succession to treaties 682 Categories of treaties: territorial, political and odier treaties 683 Succession to treaties generally 686 Absorption and merger 686 Cession of territory from one state to another 688 Secession from an existing state to form a new state or states 689 'Newly independent states' 692 Dissolution of states 694 International human rights treaties 695 Succession with respect to matters other than treaties 698 Membership of international organisations 698 Succession to assets and debts 699 State property 700 State archives 705 Public debt 707 Private rights 711

12 State succession and nationality 713 Hong Kong The settlement of disputes by peaceful means 717 Diplomatic methods of dispute settlement 720 Negotiation 720 Good offices and mediation 723 Inquiry 724 Conciliation 726 International institutions and dispute settlement 728 Regional organisations and the United Nations 728 The Organisation of African Unity 730 The Organisation of American States 731 The Arab League 732 Europe 733 International organisations of limited competence 734 Arbitration 737 Other mechanisms 744 Judicial settlement - the International Court of Justice 745 The organisation of the Court 746 The jurisdiction of the Court 749 General 749 The nature of a legal dispute 751 Contentious jurisdiction 753 Article 36 (1) 754 Article 36 (2) 759 Sources of law, propriety and legal interest 762 Interim measures 765 Enforcement 766 Application for interpretation of a judgment 767 Application for revision of a judgment 767 Examination of a situation after the judgment 767 Non-appearance 768 Third-party intervention 769 The advisory jurisdiction of the Court 771 The role of the court International law and the use of force by states 777 Law and force from the 'just war' to the United Nations 777 The UN Charter 781 'Force' 782 XIX

13 XX CONTENTS 'Against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state' 784 Categories of force 785 Retorsion 785 Reprisals 786 The right of self-defence 787 The protection of nationals abroad 791 Conclusions 793 Collective self-defence 794 Force and self-determination 795 Intervention 797 Civil wars 798 Aid to the authorities of a state 800 Aid to rebels 801 Humanitarian intervention 802 Terrorism and international law 803 The laws relating to armed conflicts - international humanitarian law 806 Development 806 The scope of protection 808 Methods of warfare 812 Armed conflicts: international and internal 815 Non-international armed conflict 817 Enforcement of humanitarian law 820 Conclusion The United Nations 824 The UN system 824 The Security Council 825 The General Assembly 828 The Economic and Social Council 832 The Trusteeship Council 833 The Secretariat 833 The specialised agencies 835 The International Labour Organisation 837 The World Health Organisation 837 The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation 837 The Food and Agriculture Organisation 837 Economic and financial specialised agencies 838 The peaceful settlement of disputes 839

14 The League of Nations 839 The United Nations system 839 The Security Council 841 The General Assembly 844 The Secretary-General 845 Peace-keeping and observer missions 846 Conclusion 853 The collective security system 854 The Security Council 854 Determination of the situation 855 Chapter VII measures 858 Measures not involving the use of force 858 Measures involving the use of force 865 The use of force in non-enforcement situations 868 Former Yugoslavia 868 Somalia 872 Rwanda 8? 3 Iraq 874 The range of UN actions from humanitarian assistance to enforcement - conclusions 875 The Security Council, international law and the International Court of Justice 876 The role of the General Assembly 879 The UN and regional arrangements and agencies 881 XXI 21. International institutions 887 Historical development Approaches to international institutions 889 Institutions of a universal character The League of Nations 8yz The United Nations International economic organisations 89? 892 Regional institutions Europe 894 The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation The Western European Union 896 The Council of Europe The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 897 The European Union The Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe 002 y (OSCE) 887

15 xxii CONTENTS The Commonwealth of Independent States 904 The American Continent 905 The Arab League 906 Africa 906 Eastern Europe 907 Asia 907 Some legal aspects of international organisations 908 Personality 909 The constituent instruments 914 The powers of international institutions 915 The applicable law 918 The responsibility of international institutions 919 Liability of member states 921 Privileges and immunities 923 Dissolution 929 Succession 930 Index 932