POLITICS AMONG NATIONS The Struggle for Power and Peace
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1 SEVENTH EDITION POLITICS AMONG NATIONS The Struggle for Power and Peace Hans J. Morgenthau Late Albert A. Michelson Distinguished Service Professor ofpolitical Science and Modern History at the University of Chicago and Late Director of the Centerfor the Study ofamerican Foreign Policy at the University of Chicago Revised by Kenneth W. Thompson Director, Miller Center of Public Affairs University of Virginia and W. David Clinton Associate Professor of Political Science Tulane University Me Grain/ Hill Higher Education Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, Wl New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
2 I Contents PREFACE v FOREWORD xvii PART ONE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS A REALIST THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS 3 Six Principles of Political Realism 4 THE SCIENCE OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS 17 Understanding International Politics 17 Different Approaches 17 Limitations to Understanding 19 Understanding the Problem of International Peace 24 PART TWO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS AS A STRUGGLE FOR POWER 27 3 POLITICAL POWER 29 What Is Political Power? 29 As Means to the Nation's Ends 29 Its Nature: Four Distinctions 30 The Depreciation of Political Power 35 Two Roots of the Depreciation of Political Power 38 Nineteenth-Century Philosophy 39 The American Experience 39 The Science of Peace: Contemporary Utopianism 41 4 THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER: POLICY OF THE STATUS QUO 50 5 THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER: IMPERIALISM 56 What Imperialism Is Not 56 Economic Theories of Imperialism 59 The Marxist, Liberal, and "Devil" Theories of Imperialism 59 Criticism of These Theories 61 Different Types of Imperialism 64 Three Inducements to Imperialism 65 VII
3 viii Contents Victorious War 65 Lost War 65 Weakness 66 Three Goals of Imperialism 66 ' World Empire 67 Continental Empire 67 Local Preponderance 68 Three Methods of Imperialism 69 Military Imperialism 69 Economic Imperialism 70 How to Detect and Counter an Imperialistic Policy 74 The Problem of Policy: Containment, Appeasement, Fear 75 The Problem of Detection 79 B THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER: POLICY OF PRESTIGE 83 Diplomatic Ceremonial 84 Display of Military Force 89 Two Objectives of the Policy of Prestige 90 Three Corruptions of the Policy of Prestige 93 7 THE IDEOLOGICAL ELEMENT IN INTERNATIONAL POLICIES 97 The Nature of Political Ideologies 97 Typical Ideologies of Foreign Policies 100 Ideologies of the Status Quo 100 Ideologies of Imperialism 102 Ambiguous Ideologies 106 The Problem of Recognition 108 PART THREE NATIONAL POWER THE ESSENCE OF NATIONAL POWER 113 What Is National Power? 113 Roots of Modern Nationalism 116 Retreat from Nationalism: Apparent and Real 116 Personal Insecurity and Social Disintegration ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER 122 Geography 122 Natural Resources 124 Food 124 Raw Materials 126 The Power of Oil 127 Industrial Capacity 131
4 Military Preparedness 133 Technology 133 Leadership 135 Quantity and Quality of Armed Forces 136 Population 137 Distribution 137 Trends 139 National Character 140 Its Existence 140 The Russian National Character 142 National Character and National Power 145 National Morale 147 Its Instability 147 The Quality of Society and Government as Decisive Factors 149 The Quality of Diplomacy 152 The Quality of Government 156 The Problem of Balance Between Resources and Policy 156 The Problem of Balance Among Resources 157 The Problem of Popular Support 158 Domestic Government and Foreign Policy EVALUATION OF NATIONAL POWER 163 The Task of Evaluation 163 Typical Errors of Evaluation 166 The Absolute Character of Power 166 The Permanent Character of Power 168 The Fallacy of the Single Factor 170 Geopolitics 170 Nationalism 171 Militarism 173 ' PART FOUR LIMITATIONS OF NATIONAL POWER The Balance of Power THE BALANCE OF POWER 179 Social Equilibrium 179 Balance of Power as Universal Concept 179 Balance of Power in Domestic Politics 181 Two Main Patterns of the Balance of Power 184 The Pattern of Direct Opposition 184 The Pattern of Competition 186 Korea and the Balance of Power DIFFERENT METHODS OF THE BALANCE OF POWER 190 Divide and Rule 190
5 ountents Compensations 191 Armaments 192 Alliances 193 The General Nature of Alliances 193 Alliances vs. World Domination 198 Alliances vs. Counteralliances 200 The "Holder" of the Balance THE STRUCTURE OF THE BALANCE OF POWER 209 Dominant and Dependent Systems 209 Structural Changes in the Balance of Power EVALUATION OF THE BALANCE OF POWER 213 The Uncertainty of the Balance of Power 214 The Unreality of the Balance of Power 218 The Balance of Power as Ideology 222 The Inadequacy of the Balance of Power 224 Restraining Influence of a Moral Consensus 224 Moral Consensus of the Modern State System 228 PART FIVE LIMITATIONS OF NATIONAL POWER: International Morality and World Public Opinion MORALITY, MORES, AND LAW AS RESTRAINTS ON POWER INTERNATIONAL MORALITY 240 The Protection of Human Life 241 Protection of Human Life in Peace 241 Protection of Human Life in War 244 Moral Condemnation of War 247 International Morality and Total War 248 Universal Morality vs. Nationalistic Universalism 251 Personal Ethics of the Aristocratic International 251 Destruction of International Morality 255 Destruction of International Society 257 Victory of Nationalism over Internationalism 259 Transformation of Nationalism 261 Human Rights and International Morality WORLD PUBLIC OPINION 270 Psychological Unity of the World 272 Ambiguity of Technological Unification 273 The Barrier of Nationalism 275
6 PART SIX LIMITATIONS OF NATIONAL POWER International Law THE MAIN PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 283 The General Nature of International Law 283 The Legislative Function in International Law 286 Its Decentralized Character 286 Interpretation and Binding Force 289 The Judicial Function in International Law 292 Compulsory Jurisdiction 293 The Optional Clause 294 International Courts 297 The Effect of Judicial Decisions 299 The Enforcement of International Law 300 Its Decentralized Character 300 Treaties of Guaranty 303 Collective Security 304 Article 16 of the Covenant of the League of Nations 305 Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations 309 The Veto 312 The "Unitingfor Peace" Resolution SOVEREIGNTY 317 The General Nature of Sovereignty 317 Synonyms of Sovereignty: Independence, Equality, Unanimity 319 What Sovereignty Is Not 321 How Sovereignty Is Lost 322 Majority Vote in International Organizations 326 Is Sovereignty Divisible? 329, PART SEVEN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD THE NEW MORAL FORCE OF NATIONALISTIC UNIVERSALISM 337 Nationalism, Old and New 337 The Struggle for the Minds of Men 339 Three Principles of Propaganda THE NEW BALANCE OF POWER 347 Inflexibility of the New Balance of Power 347 Numerical Reduction of Great Powers 347 The Bipolarity of Power 349 The Tendency Toward a Two-Bloc System 350
7 xii Contents Disappearance of the Balancer 351 The Problem of a "Third Force" 352 Disappearance of the Colonial Frontier 354 The Colonial Revolution 357 The Decline of the West 358 Potentialities of the Bipolar System 363 The Possibility of Its Breakup 363 Continuation of the Cold War 364 The New Diplomacy of Movement 366 Detente and Peaceful Coexistence TOTAL WAR 377 War of Total Populations 379 War by Total Populations 382 War Against Total Populations 383 The Mechanization of Warfare 384 The Mechanization of Weapons 385 The Mechanization of Transportation and Communications 388 War for Total Stakes 389 Total Mechanization, Total War, and Total Dominion 392 PART EIGHT THE PROBLEM OF PEACE Peace Through Limitation DISARMAMENT 401 The Problem of Peace in Our Time 401 The History of Disarmament 403 The Failures 404 The Successes 407 Four Problems of Disarmament 408 The Ratio 408 The World Disarmament Conference 412 Disarmament Negotiations Since the Second World War 413 Standards of Allocation 414 Does Disarmament Mean Reduction of Armaments? 417 Does Disarmament Mean Peace? 419 Arms Control in the Nuclear Age SECURITY 434 Collective Security 434 The Italo-Ethiopian War 440 The Korean War 441 An International Police Force JUDICIAL SETTLEMENT 446 The Nature of the Judicial Function 446
8 Contents xiii The Nature of International Conflicts: Tensions and Disputes 448 Pure Disputes 449 Disputes with the Substance of a Tension 449 Disputes Representing a Tension 450 Limitations of the Judicial Function PEACEFUL CHANGE 455 Peaceful Change Within the State 455 Peaceful Change in International Affairs 459 Article 19 of the Covenant of the League of Nations 460 The Charter of the United Nations INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT 463 The Holy Alliance 463 History 463 Government by the Great Powers 465 Dual Meaning of the Status Quo 466 Peace, Order, and the National Interest 467 The Concert of Europe 470 The League of Nations 471 Organization 472 Dual Meaning of the Status Quo: France vs. Great Britain 474 Three Weaknesses of the League of Nations 476 Constitutional Weakness 477 Structural Weakness 478 Political Weakness INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE UNITED NATIONS 483 The United Nations According to the Charter 483 Government by Superpowers 483 Undefined Principles of Justice 486 The United Nations Political Reality 487 The Rise and Decline of the General Assembly 487 New Procedures 498 The United Nations and the Problem of Peace 500 PART NINE THE PROBLEM OF PEACE Peace Through Transformation THE WORLD STATE 505 Conditions of Domestic Peace 506 Suprasectional Loyalties 506 Expectation of Justice 508 Overwhelming Power 509 The Role of the State 510 The Problem of the World State 512
9 xiv Contents Two Schools of Thought 513 The Triple Test of Popular Support 514 Two False Solutions 516 World Conquest 517 The Examples of Switzerland and the United States THE WORLD COMMUNITY 521 The Cultural Approach: Unesco 521 Cultural Development and Peace 523 Cultural Unity and Peace 523 International Understanding and Peace 524 The Functional Approach 526 The Specialized Agencies of the United Nations 526 The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 530 The European Communities 532 Agencies for Economic and Technical Assistance 534 PART TEN THE PROBLEM OF PEACE Peace Through Accommodation DIPLOMACY 539 Four Tasks of Diplomacy 539 Instruments of Diplomacy 541 Symbolic Representation 542 Legal Representation 543 Political Representation 543 The Decline of Diplomacy 545 The Development of Communications 545 The Depreciation of Diplomacy 546 Diplomacy by Parliamentary Procedures 547 The Superpowers: Newcomers to Diplomacy 548 The Nature of Contemporary World Politics THE FUTURE OF DIPLOMACY 551 How Can Diplomacy Be Revived? 551 The Vice of Publicity 551 The Vice of Majority Decision 554 The Vice of Fragmentation 556 The Promise of Diplomacy: Its Nine Rules 558 Four Fundamental Rules 559 Five Prerequisites of Compromise 563 Conclusion 566 APPENDIX A UPDATING REALISM FOR THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 569 THE FALSE PROMISE OF INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 569 by John J. Mearsheimer
10 Contents xv REALIST CONSTRUCTIVISM 585 by J. Samuel Barkin THE ENGLISH SCHOOL VS. AMERICAN REALISM: A MEETING OF MINDS OR DIVIDED BY A COMMON LANGUAGE? 601 by Richard Little MORGENTHAU: POLITICS AS THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER 607 by Ashley Tellis AN IRAQ RETROSPECT 616 by Admiral William J. Crowe, Jr. NEW DEPARTURES IN THE PHILOSOPHIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS 621 by General Brent Scowcroft DID THE UNITED STATES WIN THE COLD WAR? 622 by Ambassador David D. Newson APPENDIX B CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS 628 BIBLIOGRAPHY 649 HISTORICAL GLOSSARY 673 INDEX 689 MAPS Political Map of the World, 1985 Political Map of the World, 2004 CHARTS Political Issues Considered by General Assembly and Security Council 491 The United Nations System 529
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