Party Transformation

Transcription

1 Party Transformation In West and Eastern Europe André Krouwel SSEES UCL, London

2 Too many party types! Many party types exist in the literature, but no general theory of party transformation. Most parties in the West are older than the majority of the electorate! Thus: political scientists observed the same parties for decades, re-naming them each time they transform. Each author focuses on specific stage of characteristic: proliferation of models. Basically 5 models + sequentially linked 2

3 Clusters of party models Elite, caucus and cadre parties Mass-parties Catch-all, electoralist parties Cartel parties Business-firm parties Patronage and charismatic parties (Weber) Parties of personage (Neumann) Caucus (Ostrogorski) Parties of parliamentary origin (Duverger) Parties of individual representation (Neumann, Kirchheimer) Party of notables (Weber, Neumann, Seiler) Elite parties (Beyme) Clientelistic parties (Rueschemeyer et al.) Modern cadre party (Koole) Local cadre party (Epstein) Governing caucus (Pomper) Mass party (Michels, Duverger, Beer) Class-mass and denominational mass parties (Kirchheimer) Weltanschauung and Glaubens party (Weber) Parties of external origin, branch-based mass parties, cell-based devotee parties (Duverger) Parties of democratic or total integration, party of principle (Neumann) Amateur and party democracy model (Wright) Militants party (Seiler) Mass-bureaucratic party (Panebianco) Programmatic party (Neumann, Wolinetz) Fundamentalist parties (Gunther and Diamond) Cause advocate party (Pomper) Catch-all parties (Kirchheimer) Professional-electoral parties (Panebianco) Stratarchy (Eldersveld) Rational- efficient, professional machine model (Wright, Schumpeter, Downs, Pomper) Party machine (Seiler) Multi-policy party (Downs, Mintzel) Party-cartel (Kirchheimer) Cartel-party (Katz and Mair) Business-firm (Hopkin and Paolucci) Franchise Organisations (Carty) Parties of professional politicians (Beyme) Entrepreneurial parties (Krouwel) 3

4 What is wrong with party models? Too uni-dimensional: one aspect is seen as characteristic without justification. Most models focus on ideology and social background of membership (or elite). Others focus on the organisational structure or functions of political parties. Low level of conceptual and terminological clarity and precision. No empirical indicators to assess whether parties have transformed into another type. 4

5 4 dimensions of party transformation 1. Genetic origin 2. Electoral dimension Electoral appeal and social support Social basis and type of elite recruitment 3. Ideology (goals and programmes) Basis for political competition Extent of competition 4. Organisation Relation between PoG + PCO + PPO (PPG/PIG) Resources Campaigning 5

6 Genetic origin 6

7 Electoral dimension 7

8 Ideological dimension 8

9 Organisational dimension 9

10 Genetic origin Elite caucus or cadre party Mass party Catch-all, electoralist party Cartel party Business-firm present 1950-present 1990-present Parliamentary origin Extraparliamentary origin: Social groups (class, religion, ethnicity) Originates from mass parties, linking or merging themselves with interest groups Fusion of parliamentary parties and the state apparatus (and interest groups) Originates from the privateinitiative of political entrepreneurs 10

11 Origin in West: social cleavages Lipset and Rokkan: the historicity of party alternatives is of crucial importance ( ) in the study of differences and similarities across nations. Politics of European states are the products of three revolutions: Reformation and Counter-Reformation French Revolution Industrial Revolution Revolutions struck countries at different times and different conditions 11

12 Revolutions and social cleavages 12

13 Revolutions, issues and cleavages Critical juncture Reformation: the 1648 settlement National revolution Critical issue Consolidation of territorial state Control over mass education Resultant cleavage 1. Periphery versus statebuilding centre 2.Church versus secular state Industrial revolution Protection versus modernisation and free enterprise versus workers rights 3. Rural/agricultural versus urban/industrial interests 4. Workers versus capital owners 13

14 Social cleavages If only one cleavage is salient the normal or residual social class one then this acts as the fundamentally structuring element. Other cleavages might cut across class divisions: often this is religion, particularly where religious behaviour is closely associated with conservative orientations, whatever social class one belongs to. Lower-level cleavages can be nested in higher order cleavages: the centre-periphery cleavage where minority nations resist the construction of a state might strengthen divisions based on social class; especially if members of a minority community are also in an unfavourable socioeconomic position. Cleavages can be structuring, reinforcing or cross-cutting. 14

15 Social cleavages Southern Europe Experience of democratic government short-lived. Long tradition of mass exclusion (unions, peasant and student organisations and left wing parties banned) No real popular representation in parliament (no competitive elections + no real opposition parties). Authoritarian regimes established under conditions of economic and political crisis. Class domination in state (army, bureaucracy) and church. Not fascist, yet similar in rhetoric and outlook: extreme nationalism and conservatism. Anti-socialist/anti-communist: governed in the interests of industrialists, large landowners and bourgeoisie.

16 Social cleavages Southern Europe Prolonged state formation: Essentially longwave counter-revolutionary phenomenon (O Donnell). Weak social cleavage articulation due to conflict about regime formation: weak civil society and weak/fragmented institutions to resist regime. Regime associated with single charismatic figure, supported by the Church. Religious cleavage: large influence of Catholic church. 16

17 Social cleavages Southern Europe Relative international isolation as result of autarkic economic policies: missing out on European economic miracle in 1960 s. Weak agricultural economies (large primary, small secondary sector): mass mobilisation of workers problematic. Dualist socio-economics: many modern features alongside traditional elements (religion, emancipation) Weak articulation on new cleavages: postmaterialism 17

18 Party formation Southern Europe Rapid transition movement. Newly established liberal-democratic order imposed from above. Resistance by upper-class to include lower class into the political system. Party formation from above. 18

19 Social cleavages in ECE Weak social cleavage articulation: national revolution not completed and economic development problematic (oligarchs/moguls & corruption). Nationalism remains overriding social cleavage. State-formation and economic cleavages have become interconnected: Pro-market libertarians versus anti-market authoritarians (Kitschelt 1992). GAL (Green-Alternative-Libertarian) versus TAN (Traditionalist-Authoritarian-Nationalist) 19

20 On the origin of parties in ECE Parties emerge within parliamentary system, rather than from society (Innes, 2001). Parties of winners and losers (black & white divide in revolution) (Kitschelt, 1999): From communist nomenclature: Successor parties (cadre or mass?) Parties of power (business-firms!) From society: (formerly) politically excluded: Oppositional blocks/forums (catch-all?) Discontent/radical nationalist parties Intellectuals/dissidents (cadre parties) From business (and state): Business moguls/ex-nomenclature Populist entrepreneurs 20

21 Origin new parties WE 21

22 Ideological dimension Elite caucus or cadre party Mass party Catch-all, electoralist party Cartel party Businessfirm Period present 1950-present 1990-present Basis for party competition Traditional status of individual candidates Ideology and representation of a social group The quality of management of the public sectors Maintenance of accrued power by sharing executive office Issues and personalities (as a political product) Extent of party competition Very limited on the basis of personal status and wealth Polarised and ideological competition (centrifugal competition) Centripetal competition on technicalities Diffusion of political disagreement. 'Conflicts' become symbolic: artificial competition on issues. Permanent struggle for mediaattention 22

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25 10 green 8 radical-left 6 4 Tan/Gal social democratic liberal social democratic regionalist/ethnic liberal regionalist/ethnic centrist agrarian christian democratic no family conservative 2 radical-left agrarian christian democratic no family confessional conservative 0 populist-right confessional populist-right East West Left/Right

26 Netherlands 2006

27 Belgium 2007

28 Portugal 2009

29 Israel 2009

30 Israel 2009

31 Israel 2009

32 Ideology party families in Europe 32

33 Europarties divided Left pro EU Right pro EU Right anti EU Left anti EU

34 Electoral dimension Elite caucus or cadre party Mass party Catch-all, electoralist party Cartel party Businessfirm Period present 1950-present 1990-present Electoral appeal and social support Limited electorate of upper social strata via personal contacts Appeal to specific social, religious or ethnic group on the basis of social cleavages such as class and religion Appeal to broad middle class, beyond core group of support regular cliëntèle that provides support in exchange for favourable policies electoral market with a high level of volatility. Voters as consumers. Social basis and type of elite recruitment Selfrecruitment(p rivate initiative from upper class) Cleavage based recruitment based on ideological commitment External recruitment from various interest groups Recruitment mainly from within the state structures (civil servants) Self recruitment, private initiative 34

35 Electoral alignments ECE Weak identities and socio-economic determination (widespread poverty), yet some structure discernible: Nationalists: country-side, elderly, statedependent and lower-educated. Opposition: urban, younger and middle-age generations, highly educated professionals and experts. 35

36 Organisational dimension Elite/cadre party Mass party Catch-all party Cartel party Business-firm Period present 1950-present 1990-present Importance membership organisation (party on the ground) Non-existent or minimal Voluntary membership organisation is the core of the party Marginalisation of members Members as a pool for recruitment of political personnel Minimal and irrelevant Position of party in central office Minimal. Party in central office subordinate to party in public office. Symbiosis between party in central office and party on the ground Subordinate to party in public office Symbiosis between party in central office and party in public office Minimal and irrelevant Position of the party in public office Core of the party organisation. Subject to the extraparliamentary leadership Concentration of power and resources at the parliamentary party group Concentration of power at the parliamentary party leadership and government (party in public office) High level of autonomy for individual political entrepreneurs in the party to 'promote' themselves Resource structure Personal wealth Membership contributions, ancillary organisations and party press Interest groups and state subsidies State subsidies Corporate and social interests and commercial activities Type of political campaigning Personal contacts Labour-intensive mass mobilisation Professionalisation and more capital intensive organisation Professional permanent organisation Spindocters, marketing 36 techniques, 'contracting-out'.

37 Political Campaign and the Media Mass-media = non-party channels of communication between people and representatives. Increasing influence of commercial media. More focus on leadership (+ horse-race) less on content/policies. More capital-intensive campaigns. More support of specific groups e.g. multinationals. Internal party competition next to inter-party competition. Spindoctors, media cycles and professional campaigning. 37

38 Development of campaigning Cadre/Mass ( ) Catch-all ( ) Businessfirm (1990- ) Campaign organization Local and decentralized National + more professional Preparation Short-term + ad hoc Long campaign National + decentralized operations Permanent campaign Feedback Local canvassing & party meetings Opinion polls, surveys Constant polling of opinion, focus groups, etc. Media Party Media, Local Press & radio broadcast Television strategy & direct Mail Media-cycle, mediated website, Campaign events Local meetings News management, press conferences Extension of news management, policy development via media Costs Low budget Electorate Stable social and partisan alignment Moderate Social and partisan dealignment High cost for consultants and commercial campaign Fragmented electorate as target groups 38

39 Organisational structures ECE parties Low membership-parties. Highly centralised decision-making Clientelistic clan structures & patronage. Party in public office (president and government) dominate party. Resources from the state and the state-controlled or state-regulated economic activities. Campaigning through state-controlled media. Party-states and state-parties! 39

40 Are parties in East and West similar? Parties are unrepresentative and undemocratic not socially rooted (membership) personalist/clientèlistic Volatile (constant changing party landscape) not institutionalised/dependent on the state Weak inter-party relations (party system) Party models (implicit) in mind of party assistance similar to observers of advanced democracies. West is democratic (loser's consent) and facing different structural constraints than in post-authoritarian systems. Elections and parties do not automatically constitute democracy! 40