C H A P T E R 33 AMERICA IN FLUX

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1 C H A P T E R 33 AMERICA IN FLUX SUMMARY The United States in the 1990s was characterized by a growing economy, changing demographics, and new foreign policy concerns. The nineties saw an economic boom that emerged from increased consumption and consumer confidence as well as technological innovations that made higher productivity possible without causing inflation. Even so, 2001 brought about a significant economic downturn and loss of jobs. While the American population continued to shift toward the Sunbelt, the growing ethnic diversity caused by an influx of immigrants from Latin America made many Americans anxious. With the tragic events of September 11, 2001, the threat of international terrorism emerged as the primary national concern. The Changing American Population In the 1970s and 1980s, Americans moved internally at a significant rate, especially to the South and to the West and to urban areas. An influx of immigrants, primarily from developing nations, also changed the country s demographics, making the nation more ethnically diverse. A People on the Move The Sunbelt states of the South and West began to flourish during World War II with the buildup of military bases and defense plants. This growth continued with the Cold War and the movement of industries attracted by lower labor costs and favorable climatic conditions. Americans also increasingly moved to urban areas, enjoying better education and higher incomes, but also suffering from rising crime rates, traffic congestion, and higher costs of living. Another striking population trend was the marked increase in the number of elderly, many of whom suffered from health problems and poverty. With almost two-thirds of Americans over the age of 65 voting regularly, the elderly have proven to be very influential in the nation s politics. The Revival of Immigration The numbers of immigrants to the nation rose sharply in the 1970s and 1980s, as millions arrived primarily from Latin America and Asia. The rising numbers of foreigners indicated the emergence of an increasingly diverse American society in the next century and provoked calls for restrictions from some conservative groups. With the attacks of September 11, such concerns increased. The Surging Hispanic Population Hispanics, including Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, and other immigrants from Latin America, became the nation s largest ethnic group. Though differences among these groups exist, they are characterized by many similarities including their relative youth, high fertility rates, poverty, lack of education, and employment in low-paying jobs. The large number of undocumented aliens, primarily 273

2 from Mexico, contributes to the exploitation of Hispanic Americans as concern over economic competition and strained social services encourage increasing hostility among more conservative Americans. Advance and Retreat for African Americans The second largest of the nation s ethnic groups, African Americans made some economic gains during the era (especially among educated, middle class Blacks), but still did not share proportionately in the nation s wealth. A growing countermovement against policies of affirmative action and racial quotas emerged while the acquittal of several White policemen who had beaten Black motorist Rodney King led to an eruption of Black frustration in a bloody race riot in South Central Los Angeles in Although northern cities still claimed the heaviest concentration of African Americans, many migrated back to the South seeking a re-establishment of family ties or economic opportunity. Americans from Asia and the Middle East By the 1980s, Asian Americans were the nation s fastest-growing minority group, although they still only comprised a little over 3 percent of the total population. Compared to other minority groups, Asian Americans became relatively well educated and affluent, making remarkable progress and striking contributions to American culture. The major exception to this generalization was refugees from Southeast Asia. Immigration from the Middle East followed the same trends as Asian immigration during the period. Melting Pot or Multiethnic Diversity? Rather than a melting pot in which individual groups lose their distinctiveness, America in the latter twentieth century had become a mosaic in which ethnic groups retained their identities while also contributing to a more encompassing and diverse whole. The new emphasis on diversity manifested in calls for more multicultural courses in the education curriculum and greater cultural pluralism in society. In the 2000 census, multiracial became an official category of identification and met with an overwhelming acceptance. Democratic Revival Democrats campaigned hard on the issue of the economy and were able to capture the White House in 1992 and keep it in 1996 (despite a Republican sweep in the midterm elections). They gained political strength by moving away from their traditional reliance on big government, choosing moderate candidates, and tailoring programs to appeal to the middle class. The major figure in this Democratic revival was Bill Clinton. The Election of 1992 The major issue in the presidential election of 1992 was the economic recession that continued to plague the nation. In the Bush administration and the Republican Party as a whole, many Americans found no relief. Democratic candidate Bill Clinton, stressing investment in the nation s future, benefited when independent candidate H. Ross Perot 274

3 dropped out of the race. Even Republican assaults on Clinton s character failed to sway voters who were disenchanted with the economic results of Republican policies. Economic Recovery Clinton was an adept politician, though he had some difficulty adjusting to the presidency at first. He was actively assisted by his loyal wife and effective political partner, Hillary Rodham Clinton. True to his campaign promise, Clinton s cabinet was diverse in ethnicity and gender. Driven by the issue of deficit reduction, Clinton s economic appointments were his most important. Following the advice of Alan Greenspan, chair of the Federal Reserve Board, Clinton cut federal spending, instituted education and jobtraining programs, secured passage of an earned income credit for the working poor, and raised income taxes for the wealthy policies that led to a healthier economy. President Versus Congress Despite struggling with Congress over many of his policies, Clinton won approval of the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) in His health care plan including a universal health care system and Medicare reform, met with effective opposition and fell to defeat. Contract with America The failure of Clinton s health care initiative along with unresolved political and personal scandals for Clinton contributed to an overwhelming victory for Republicans in 1994 as they took control over both houses of Congress. Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich persuaded 435 other Republican candidates to support his conservative Contract with America, turning their individual races into one national contest based on ideological issues. The Clinton Rebound Clinton rebounded from the 1994 midterm election and his series of scandals mainly because of the remarkable growth of the economy. His political skills allowed him to take the political defeat of the elections and turn it into an advantage. When the Republicans demanded a balanced budget and tried to slash social programs, Clinton agreed in principle but stood firm against cuts. After two shut downs of the federal government for lack of a budget, the Republican majority was forced to give ground as the public blamed them almost exclusively. This, and his fundraising skills, all but assured his victory in the 1996 election. Clinton and the World Devoting himself almost exclusively to domestic issues, the Clinton Presidency offered no clear direction for foreign policy. Choosing an experienced foreign policy team, Clinton largely left international matters in their hands. Global Tensions in the Post-Cold War Era The greatest challenge for Clinton lay in dealing with Russia and China in the post-cold War era. Clinton avidly supported Russian president Boris Yeltsin and his program for free-market reforms and nuclear non-proliferation. His successor Vladimir Putin, also 275

4 received American support despite an ongoing brutal war with Chechnya. China continued to receive most favored nation status despite its abysmal record on human rights. In the Middle East, Clinton continued to work for peace between Israelis and Palestinian Arabs and twice fired on Iraq and a defiant Saddam Hussein. Of gravest concern in American dealings with the Middle East lay the nation s growing dependence on Persian Gulf oil. Intervening in Somalia and Haiti Between 1993 and 1999, Clinton opted for intervention with American troops in four areas of the world Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, and Kosovo with mixed results. In Somalia, American troops botched attempts to capture a local warlord and were withdrawn after eighteen American soldiers were killed. In Haiti, American troops helped restore a democratic government, but one that proved unable to handle economic woes. Halting Civil War in Bosnia In Bosnia, Clinton s call for NATO air strikes on Serb forces contributed to a cease-fire and a shaky peace settlement, but it was one supported primarily by American troops. Saving Kosovo In 1998 the United States with NATO again intervened in Serbia to try to halt the ethnic cleansing being perpetrated by Serb Leader Slobadan Milosevic against the Kosovars. After initially failing to stop Milosevic s atrocities, the continued destruction of the Serbian infrastructure by NATO bombing raids eventually resulted in domestic pressure that forced Milosevic to cease his abuses. NATO troops were stationed in the region to maintain the fragile peace. The End of the Century By the end of the century, the economy was doing better than ever before, but there were many issues that remained unsettled spawning violence from both the extreme right and the extreme left. Such outbreaks of violence contributed to a feeling of unease as the nation entered the new millennium. From Deficit to Surplus The economy was the bright spot in the last decade of the twentieth century as the country experienced its longest period of sustained economic growth in its history and unemployment and inflation were at all-time lows. One benefit of this remarkable growth was the switch from deficit to a surplus. This of course led to a new battle on what to do with the surplus. Violence in the 1990s Amid the prosperity were some shocking signs that all was not well in American society. The disasters at Ruby Ridge and Waco and the courthouse bombing in Oklahoma City revealed that there were some on the far right who wanted to solve their complaints with violence. The attacks of the Unabomber and the outbreak of riots at the World Trade Organization talks in Seattle indicated that there was a real concern about increased 276

5 globalization from many on the left. More senseless still was the increasing eruption of school violence perpetrated by disaffected White, middle class, non-urban boys. Shadow on the White House President Clinton s relationship with a White House intern cast a long shadow on his presidency, leading to his impeachment by the Republican controlled House. Ultimately, the rabid pursuit of Clinton s sexual misconduct by prosecutor Kenneth Starr resulted in an angry American public, disgusted that a private issue had taken on such public importance. Though Clinton survived the crisis by shrewdly blaming the fiasco on his political opponents vendetta (the Senate failed to find him guilty), his presidency was badly damaged. Clinton spent the remainder of his term in office trying to restore his legacy. The New Millennium The predicted peril of Y2K contributed to a surge in consumer spending as Americans stockpiled canned goods and generators, but Y2K proved to be little more than an empty threat as the United States moved into the twenty-first century with few resultant difficulties. The new millennium was not without its own challenges, however. The election of 2000 was both hotly contest and controversial, resulting in Republican control of the presidency and Congress while the dawn of 2001 saw the crash of the technologyladen NASDAQ stock market and a subsequent economic recession with extremely high rates of unemployment. The infamous terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 ushered in a new age of fear, but efforts to protect the nation clashed with the traditional civil liberties upon which the U.S. rested while a declaration of a war on terrorism sparked an invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, neither of which eliminated the terrorist threat. The Disputed Election of 2000 The election of 2000 was dominated by two themes: the economic boom and prosperity of the 1990s and the sense of disappointment spawned by the scandals of the Clinton administration. The conflict between these two themes the first of which benefited Democrat Al Gore s candidacy while the second buoyed Republican George W. Bush led to one of the nation s closest elections. The entrance of consumer advocate Ralph Nader into the race on the Green Party ticket complicated things further. When charges of voter fraud emerged in Florida, the electoral decision dangled in the balance for five weeks. Ultimately, the court s decision to halt further recounts in Florida led to Bush s victory. Though the close nature of the election revealed an evenly split electorate, Bush took over the presidency as if he had won an overwhelming mandate for conservative Republican policies. Bush s Domestic Agenda Bush s appointments to his administration relied primarily on former associates with experience and expertise. His most controversial appointment was John Ashcroft, a staunch conservative and favorite of the Christian Right, to Attorney General. In an attempt to face the stalling economy head on, Bush pushed through significant tax cuts that turned the budget surplus into a sky rocketing annual deficit. Despite these cuts, the country entered an economic recession in 2001 coupled with extremely high 277

6 unemployment rates and public disgust over corporate scandals and corrupt business practices that enabled CEOs to get rich while the rank and file lost their jobs, retirement funds, and savings. Though the economy began to recover in 2003, unemployment remained high as did America s lack of economic confidence. Terrorism: Attack and Counterattack On September 11, 2001, hijackers crashed two planes into the World Trade Center, one plane into the Pentagon, and one plane into the Pennsylvania countryside, taking the lives of over 3,500 victims. President Bush s response to the attacks provided the nation with the comfort and leadership it needed as he memorialized those who died and declared a war on terrorism. When it became known that Osama bin Laden and al-qaeda were responsible for the attacks, the war on terrorism found a target in the country of Afghanistan, training ground for al Qaeda terrorists. Though the invasion of Afghanistan was successful in ousting the extremist regime of the Taliban, bin Laden remained at large. The establishment of the new Department of Homeland Security to guard against future attacks saw success in the upgrading of airport security, but the difficulty of securing the nation became apparent with the anthrax scare of 2001 and the contradiction inherent in the relentless detaining and questioning of Muslim Americans by John Ashcroft and the American commitment to civil liberties. George Bush s handling of the war on terrorism netted him astronomical approval ratings that obscured some Americans doubts over his economic program. A New American Empire? The events of September 11 caused a shift in American foreign policy that rejected traditional forms of international cooperation, resting instead on a policy of American preeminence. As part of the continuing war on terrorism, President Bush identified Iran, Iraq, and North Korea as part of an axis of evil. The new National Security Strategy included the U.S. s full acceptance of the role of global police and the assertion that the use of preemptive force was justified in order to maintain world peace. The first test for the NSS was Iraq. Arguing that Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) that were an immediate danger to the U.S. and the world, Bush demanded that UN inspectors search the nation for such weapons. Failing to find any evidence of these weapons, the UN Security Council vetoed Bush s resolution authorizing force to compel Iraq s disarmament. Ignoring the veto, the Bush administration proceeded on its own with Britain as its major ally. In a little over a month, the war was over, Saddam was deposed but not captured, and no WMDs were found. With the failure to find WMDs, questions about the validity of the war arose and were quieted by the Bush administration with assertions of Saddam s brutal history as a dictator. Despite the end of official combat in Iraq, winning the peace was elusive as attacks against U.S. forces continued throughout the country. 278

7 Conclusion: The American Century? The United States has emerged at the beginning of the twenty-first century as the strongest nation in the world. Its military is unparalleled, and despite a slow recovery from the 2001 recession, its economy drives the world s marketplace. Even so, hostility toward the United States and suspicions regarding its motives are rampant throughout the world, which may prove to be a stumbling block in maintaining such a position of supremacy. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After mastering this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Analyze the causes and the results of those changes in the American population during the latter twentieth century and early twenty-first century. 2. Discuss the movement of the U.S. population during the latter twentieth century and early twenty-first century. 3. Assess the debate surrounding the revival of immigration to the U.S. during the latter twentieth century and early twenty-first century. 4. Discuss how demographic, economic, social, and political changes during this era impacted African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans and Middle-Eastern Americans. 5. Trace the development of the Internet through the dot.com boom and bust. 6. Discuss the challenges multiethnic diversity poses for the melting pot theory of America. 7. Evaluate the impact of American economic policies during the 1980s and early 1990s. 8. Explain the economic alliance of Alan Greenspan and Bill Clinton and its impact on Clinton s economic policies. 9. Explain the resurgence of the Democratic party and the election of Bill Clinton as president in 1992 and Explain the failure of Republicans to capitalize on their political victory in winning control of Congress in Evaluate the performance of Bill Clinton as president in terms of both domestic and foreign affairs. 279

8 12. Explain the controversies and scandals that swirled around the Clinton White House, and explain how and why Clinton survived these scandals. 13. Account for the rise of violence from the Right and Left during the 1990s. 14. Explain the significance of the Contract with America for the Republican party and its impact on the Clinton administration. 15. Account for the close election in 2000, and identify some of the challenges that Bush faced because of the narrow and controversial election returns. 16. Evaluate the performance of George W. Bush as president in terms of both domestic and foreign affairs. 17. Assess the impact of the events of September 11, 2001 on the U.S. and the world. 18. Speculate on the possibility of an American Century. GLOSSARY To build your social science vocabulary, familiarize yourself with the following terms: 1. affirmative action a policy or program for correcting the effects of past discrimination in the employment or education of members of certain groups, as women, or African Americans. A firm believer in affirmative action, he had been the Court s most liberal member. 2. admonition warning to correct some fault. He took to heart the admonition of the grandfather who raised him. 3. demographer statistical scientist dealing with the study of populations. demographers predicted that they (Hispanics) would replace African Americans as the nation s largest minority group by the year undocumented aliens illegal immigrants. The entry of several million undocumented aliens, created a substantial social problem for the nation. 5. analogy an explanation of something by comparing it with something similar. this analogy (the melting pot) has seemed irrelevant to the Third World migration to America in recent times. 6. anglophiles people who strongly admire England, its people, customs, and influence. What we ve had is a pressure cooker, where everybody has had to come in and become anglophiles. 280

9 7. protocols sets of rules governing the communication and transfer of data between machines. By 1970, a series of protocols allowed all the various hardware and operating systems to speak to one another. 8. glass ceiling an invisible barrier above which someone is not promoted. Those (women) who entered such male areas as management and administration soon encountered the glass ceiling. 9. outing exposure of someone as homosexual. some gay leaders encouraged outing -releasing the names of prominent homosexuals in an effort to make the nation aware of how many Americans were gay or lesbian. 10. zealots fanatics, those extremely devoted to a cause. the greatest danger to democracy came from zealots who took the law into their own hands. 11. clout power or influence. these mandatory health alliances would have enough clout to bargain for competitive rates. 12. peripatetic moving about. a peripatetic foreign policy at prey to the whims of the latest balance of forces. 13. implacable relentless, inflexible. but implacable ethnic and religious tensions soon endangered the peace process. 14. downsizing the ruthless firing of employees to achieve greater efficiency. Leaner American corporations, benefiting from downsizing now found they could compete on favorable terms with Japanese and German rivals. 15. entitlements legal rights or qualifications to something. but largely sparing entitlements like Medicare. IDENTIFICATION Briefly identify the meaning and significance of the following terms: 1. undocumented aliens 2. Rodney King 281

10 3. The Internet 4. Monica Lewinsky 5. Timothy McVeigh 6. Hillary Rodham Clinton 7. Contract With America 8. Cablinasian 9. Election of war on terrorism 282

11 MATCHING A. Match the following individuals with the appropriate description: 1. Albert Gore, Jr. a. chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, helped shape Clinton s successful economic policies 2. Leon Panetta b. Clinton s political partner, committed to reform of the nation s health care system 3. Alan Greenspan c. Bill Clinton s White House budget director 4. Janet Reno d. Bill Clinton s Vice President and the Democratic Presidential candidate in the election of Madeleine Albright e. Clinton s attorney general, called for appointment of an Special Prosecutor to investigate the Whitewater scandal f. American ambassador to the United Nations, worked skillfully on international issues confronting the U.S. B. Match the following political figures with the appropriate description: 1. Newt Gingrich a. president at end of Cold War, suffered political defeat due to subsequent economic stagnation 2. Bob Dole b. presidential candidate in 1996, lacked charisma and public sensitivity 3. H. Ross Perot c. senator from Pennsylvania, attempted to discredit the charges of Anita Hill against Clarence Thomas 4. Ralph Nader d. eccentric Texas billionaire, sought to focus attention of Americans on the dangers of the federal deficit 5. George Bush e. consumer advocate, presidential candidate of the Green Party in 2000 f. Speaker of the House, sought to unite Republicans in support of conservative, ideological issues 283

12 COMPLETION Answer the question or complete the statement by filling in the blanks with the correct word or words. 1. The, best defined as a broad band running across the country below the 37th parallel from the Carolinas to southern California, had begun to flourish with the buildup of military bases and defense plants during World War II. 2. The young professional golf champion, who is part Black, part Thai, part Chinese, part Native American, and part Caucasian, has argued that the U.S. Census should include a label for multiracial Americans. 3. The traditional image of America has been called inadequate by some Americans because of the nation s multiethnic diversity. 4. Critics of argued that it would undermine small American companies and send millions of American jobs to exploited and underpaid workers in third world countries. 5. What began in January 1993 as an attempt to arrest charismatic leader on gun-dealing charges finally ended in April with the death of seventy-five Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas. 6. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, president Bush created the to secure the nation against future attacks. 7. In early 1994, former Arkansas state employee charged that in 1991 then-governor Clinton had made unwelcome sexual advances. 8. The withdrawal of American troops in March 1994 from the African nation of was unquestionably the low point of Clinton s foreign policy. 9. In 1996, U.S. mediator Richard Holbrooke secured agreement by warring factions to the Dayton plan, calling for free elections, the return of refugees to their former homes, and a NATO force to oversee the peace process in the nation of. 10. In declaring war against Saddam Hussein, the Bush administration justified their actions by alleging that Iraq had. 284

13 TRUE/FALSE Mark the following statements either T (True) or F (False) During the latter part of the twentieth century, the nation became more urbanized. The largest of the nation s ethnic groups in 2002 was that of Hispanics. Perhaps the key factor in slow economic progress by Hispanic immigrants to the United States is lack of education. Most Americans support affirmative action, believing it helps to level the playing field for minorities. The debate over immigration has become more complicated since the events of September 11, George W. Bush won the popular vote in 2000, giving him the presidency. Bill Clinton s economic policies resulted in a budget surplus for the first time in many years. The action of Timothy McVeigh in the bombing of a federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995 appears to have been the act of a zealot in his hatred of a government that he felt was taking away the liberties of the people. As president, Clinton preferred to concentrate more on foreign affairs than on domestic issues. 10. In the election of 1996, Clinton won the support of women and minorities with his stress on education, health care, and providing opportunities for the young. 285

14 MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Alan Greenspan s economic policies included a. deficit spending. b. cutting taxes. c. increasing social welfare programs. d. lowering interest rates for expanding businesses and home mortgages. 2. During the 1970s and 1980s, the American population was characterized by a. an internal movement of people to the Sunbelt region of the South and West. b. a remarkable influx of immigrants from Japan and Germany. c. an exodus of people moving away from congested urban areas. d. all of the above 3. During the 1960s, the U.S. changed its immigration policy to a. establish a system of allowable quotas for each nation. b. grant preferences to immigrants on the basis of family relationships and job skills. c. deny refugees seeking asylum from communist Cuba. d. punish employers who knowingly hired undocumented aliens. 4. Which of the following minority groups enjoys a median family income higher than the national level? a. African Americans b. Hispanics c. Asian Americans d. Vietnamese Americans 5. The majority of immigrants to the U.S. during the latter third of the twentieth century came from a. Latin America and Eastern Europe. b. Asia and the Middle East. c. Latin America and Africa. d. Latin America and Asia. 6. Critics of liberal immigration policies argue that a. illegal immigrants take jobs away from Americans. b. illegal immigrants extensively use government services putting strain on the system. c. illegal immigrants keep wages artificially low by working for lower pay. d. all of the above 286

15 7. During the latter part of the twentieth century, the multiethnic diversity of the nation s population manifested itself a. in a new emphasis on the multiculturalism of the U.S. in college courses. b. the addition of a multiracial category to the U.S. census. c. in a rejection of the melting pot image of the U.S. d. all of the above 8. Perhaps the most significant factor contributing to the election of Bill Clinton in 1992 was the a. end of the Cold War. b. restructuring of the American economy. c. economic stagnation for the middle class. d. failure of the Bush administration to remove Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq. 9. In his campaign for the presidency in 1992, Bill Clinton a. ran on a liberal platform endorsing expanded social welfare programs. b. ran on a foreign policy platform that the U.S. should act as global police. c. ran on a moderate platform promising economic change. d. ran on a platform that challenged his Republican opponent s character. 10. During his first term as president, Bill Clinton succeeded in having Congress approve a. the North American Free Trade Association. b. national health care reform. c. lower taxes for the wealthy. d. increased federal support for welfare recipients. 11. In his Contract with America, Newt Gingrich supported a a. balanced budget amendment to the Constitution. b. term limit for members of Congress. c. line-item veto for the President. d. all of the above 12. Clinton won a second term as president because a. the Republicans nominated a lackluster candidate. b. he won the support of women and minorities. c. he benefited from a growing and prosperous economy. d. all of the above 13. During the 1990s the nation was plagued by a series of violent episodes that included all of the following except a. school violence. b. the anthrax scare. c. the Unabomber attacks. d. the bombing in Oklahoma City. 287

16 14. George W. Bush s domestic policies have included a. a series of tax cuts to stimulate the economy. b. the appointment of the extremely conservative John Ashcroft as Attorney General. c. the No Child Left Behind program to reform education. d. all of the above 15. George W. Bush s foreign policies have included a. the assertion of American preeminence. b. the full acceptance of the role of global police. c. the assertion of the right of preemptive use of force. d. all of the above THOUGHT QUESTIONS To check your understanding of the key issues of this period, solve the following problems: 1. Why does the author title this chapter America in Flux? What factors made this a period a period of change? Explain. 2. Who gains and who loses from illegal immigration? What immigration policies should the nation enforce? 3. Do you favor or oppose policies of affirmative action? Explain. 4. Is America today a melting pot or a mosaic of multiethnic diversity? What difference does it make which analogy is used? 5. What provided the impetus for development of the Internet? Trace the major steps in its evolution from the late 1950s to the present. Does the Internet represent electronic anarchy or the ultimate solution to problems of communication? 6. Contrast American economic policies during the Clinton years and those of the George W. Bush administration. Which seemingly worked better? Explain. 7. Why did the 1990s witness a series of violent episodes within the U.S.? Discuss the results and implications for future responses. 8. What factors contributed to the resurgence of the Democratic party and the election of Bill Clinton as president in 1992 and 1996? 9. What successes and what failures in foreign policy did the nation experience under Bill Clinton as president? Consider both short-term as well as long-term implications in your answer. 288

17 10. In your opinion, how will history judge Bill Clinton as president? Explain. 11. Explain the successes and failures of the Republicans and their Contract with America? 12. Discuss the controversy surrounding the election of Consider the impact the race had on George W. Bush s administration. Has he acted without a mandate? Explain. 13. Discuss George W. Bush s foreign policies. What have the ramifications been for the U.S. and the world? 14. Consider the possibility that the twenty-first century may be an American century. What dangers are inherent in such a distinction? CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS Read Chapter 33 of the text and the following selections: Causes of the L.A. Riots (1992) by Maxine Waters and Statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee (1993) by Anita Hill. Answer the questions following the reading selections. MAXINE WATERS, CAUSES OF THE L.A. RIOTS The riots in Los Angeles and in other cities shocked the world. They shouldn t have. Many of us have watched our country including our government neglect the problems, indeed the people, of our inner-cities for years even as matters reached a crisis stage. The verdict in the Rodney King case did not cause what happened in Los Angeles. It was only the most recent injustice piled upon many other injustices suffered by the poor, minorities and the hopeless people living in this nation s cities. For years, they have been crying out for help. For years, their cries have not been heard. I recently came across a statement made more than 25 years ago by Robert Kennedy, just two months before his violent death. He was talking about the violence that had erupted in cities across America. His words were wise and thoughtful: There is another kind of violence in America, slower but just as deadly, destructive as the shot or bomb in the night.... This is the violence of institutions; indifference and inaction and slow decay. This is the violence that afflicts the poor, that poisons relations between men and women because their skin is different colors. This is the slow destruction of a child by hunger, and schools without books and homes without heat in winter. What a tragedy it is that America has still, in 1992, not learned such an important lesson. I have represented the people of South Central Los Angeles in the U.S. Congress and the California State Assembly for close to 20 years. I have seen our community continually and systematically ravaged by banks who would not lend to us, by governments which abandoned us or punished us for our poverty, and by big businesses who exported our jobs to Third-World countries for cheap labor. In LA, between 40 and 50 percent of all African-American men are unemployed. The poverty rate is 32.9 percent. According to the most recent census, 40,000 teenagers that is 20 percent of the city s 16 to 19 year olds are both out of school and unemployed.... We have created in many areas of this country a breeding ground for hopelessness, anger and despair. All the traditional mechanisms for empowerment, opportunity and self-improvement have been closed. We are in the midst of a grand economic experiment that suggests if we get the government off people s backs, and let the economy grow, everyone, including the poor, will somehow be better off.... The results of this experiment have been devastating. Today, more than 12 million children live in poverty, despite a decade of economic 289

18 growth, the precise mechanism we were told would reduce poverty. Today, one in five children in America lives in poverty.... While the budget cuts of the eighties were literally forcing millions of Americans into poverty, there were other social and economic trends destroying inner-city communities at the same time. I m sure everyone in this room has read the results of the Federal Reserve Board s study on mortgage discrimination that demonstrates African Americans... are twice as likely as whites of the same income to be denied mortgages.... In law enforcement, the problems are longstanding and well documented as well. Is it any wonder our children have no hope? The systems are failing us. I could go on and on.... We simply cannot afford the continued terror and benign neglect that has characterized the federal government s response to the cities since the late 1970s. Anita Hill, Statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee (1993) Mr. Chairman, Senator Thurmond, members of the committee: My name is Anita F. Hill, and I am a professor of law at the University of Oklahoma. I was born on a farm in Okmulgee County, Oklahoma, in I am the youngest of thirteen children.... For my undergraduate work, I went to Oklahoma State University and graduated from there in I am attaching to this statement a copy of my resume for further details of my education.... I graduated from the university with academic honors, and proceeded to the Yale Law School, where I received my J.D. degree in Upon graduation from law school, I became a practicing lawyer with the Washington, D.C., firm of Wald, Wakrader & Ross. In 1981 I was introduced to now Judge Thomas by a mutual friend. Judge Thomas told me that he was anticipating a political appointment, and asked if I would be interested in working with him. He was in fact appointed as assistant secretary of education for civil rights. After he had taken that post, he asked if I would become his assistant, and I accepted that position. In my early period, there, I had two major projects. First was an article I wrote for Judge Thomas s signature on the education of minority students. The second was the organization of a seminar on high-risk students, which was abandoned because Judge Thomas transferred to the EEOC, where he became the chairman of that office. During this period at the Department of Education my working relationship with Judge Thomas was positive. I had a good deal of responsibility and independence. I thought he respected my work, and that he trusted my judgment. After approximately three months of working there, he asked me to go out socially with him. What happened next, and telling the world about it, are the two most difficult things experiences of my life. It is only after a great deal of agonizing consideration, and a number of sleepless nights, that I am able to talk of these unpleasant matters to anyone but my closest friends. I declined the invitation to go out socially with him, and explained to him that I thought it would jeopardize what at the time I considered to be a very good working relationship. I had a normal social life with men outside the office. I believed then, as now, that having a social relationship with a person who was supervising my work would be ill-advised. I was very uncomfortable with the idea and told him so. I thought that by saying no and explaining my reasons, my employer would abandon his social suggestions. However, to my regret, in the following few weeks, he continued to ask me out on several occasions. He pressed me to justify reasons for saying no to him. These incidents took place in his office, or mine. They were in the form of private conversation, which would not have been overheard by anyone else. My working relationship became even more strained when Judge Thomas began to use work situations to discuss sex. On these occasions he would call me into his office for a course on education issues and projects, or he might suggest that because of the time pressures of his schedule, we go to lunch to a government cafeteria. After a brief discussion of work, he would turn the conversation to a discussion of sexual matters. His conversations were very vivid. He spoke about acts that he had seen in pornographic films involving such matters as women having sex with animals, and films showing group sex or rape scenes. He talked about pornographic materials depicting individuals with large penises or large breasts, involving various sex acts.... Throughout the period of these conversations, he also from time to time asked me for social engagements. My reaction to these conversations was to avoid them by limiting opportunities for us to engage in extended conversations. This was difficult because, at the time, I was his only assistant at the office of education or the office for civil rights. During the latter part of my time at the Department of Education, the social pressures, and any conversation of his offensive behavior, ended. I began both to believe and hope that our relationship could be a proper, cordial, and professional one. 290

19 When Judge Thomas was made chair of the EEOC, I needed to face the question of whether to go with him. I was asked to do so, and I did. The work itself was interesting, and at the time it appeared that the sexual overtures which had so troubled me had ended. I also faced the realistic fact that I had no alternative job. While I might have gone back to private practice, perhaps in my old firm or another, I was dedicated to civil rights work and my first choice was to be in that field. Moreover, at that time, the Department of Education itself was a dubious venture. President Reagan was seeking to abolish the entire department. For my first months at the EEOC, where I continued to be an assistant to Judge Thomas, there were no sexual conversations or overtures. However, during the fall and winter of 1982, these began again. The comments were random and ranged from pressing me about why I didn t go out with him, to remarks about my personal appearance. I remember his saying that some day I would have to tell him the real reason that I wouldn t go out with him. He began to show displeasure in his tone and voice, and his demeanor and his continued pressure for an explanation. He commented on what I was wearing in terms of whether it made me more or less sexually attractive. He incidents occurred in his inner office at the EEOC. One of the oddest episodes I remember was an occasion in which Thomas was drinking a Coke in his office. He got up from the table at which we were working, went over to his desk, looked at the can, and asked, Who has put pubic hair on my Coke? On other occasions, he referred to the size of his own penis as being larger than normal, and he also spoke on some occasions of the pleasures he had given to women with oral sex. At this point, late in 1982, I began to be concerned that Clarence Thomas might take out his anger with me by degrading me, or not giving me important assignments. I also thought that he might find an excuse for dismissing me. In January of 1983, I began looking for another job. I was handicapped because I feared that if he found out, he might make it difficult for me to find other employment and I might be dismissed from the job I had. Another factor that made my search more difficult was that this was during a period of a hiring freeze in the government.... On, as I recall, the last day of my employment at the EEOC in the summer of 1983, I did have dinner with Clarence Thomas. We went directly from work to a restaurant near the office. We talked about the work I had done, both at Education and at the EEOC. He told me that he was pleased with all of it, except for an article and speech that I had done for him while we were at the Office for Civil Rights. Finally he made a comment that I will vividly remember. He said that if I ever told anyone of his behavior it would ruin his career. This was not an apology; nor was it an explanation. That was his last remark about the possibility of our going out or reference to his behavior. In July of 1983 I left the Washington, D.C., area and I ve had minimal contacts with Judge Clarence Thomas since.... It would have been more comfortable to remain silent. I took no initiative to inform anyone. But when I was asked by a representative of this committee to report my experience, I felt that I had to tell the truth. I could not keep silent. 1. What sparked the race riots in South Central Los Angeles in 1992? How did the riots compare with the Watts riots of 1965? 2. According to Waters, what were the real causes of the L.A. riots? 3. Would Waters have viewed the economic policies of the Clinton administration as beneficial for African Americans? Explain. 4. According to the testimony of Anita Hill, what actions by Clarence Thomas constituted sexual harassment? 5. Upon what basis do you believe or discount the testimony of Anita Hill? Speculate on the reasons most Americans at the time did not seem to believe her? 291