United Nations (UN) Peacekeeping

Transcription

1 United Nations (UN) Peacekeeping With the end of the cold war and the unprecedented levels of cooperation in the United Nations Security Council, there has been increased scope for peacekeeping activity, and Australia s involvement has risen significantly. Senator The Honourable Robert Ray, Minister for Defence Membership in the United Nations is open to all peaceloving states which accept the obligations of the charter and, in the judgement of the organisation, are willing and able to carry out these obligations. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. Article 4, Chapter 2, United Nations Charter The first United Nations peacekeepers, 36 unarmed military observers, travelled to the Middle East to supervise a truce in the Arab-Israeli war of Since then, soldiers and civilians from 110 nations have participated in 54 UN peacekeeping missions. Wearing the peacekeepers trademark blue helmet or blue beret, they have monitored ceasefires, maintained buffer zones between hostile forces, supervised demilitarisation, and helped former opponents implement peace agreements. Whatever their role, UN peacekeepers have always sought to assist in the search for peaceful solutions to local and regional conflicts.. In 1956, the then UN Secretary-General, Dag Hammarskjöld, outlined the form future peacekeeping operations should take. Perhaps the most important of his proposals were that all parties in a conflict would be required to give their permission before UN intervention occurred, and negotiation and diplomacy would be employed wherever possible in the place of violence. The UN has no standing army and peacekeeping operations are composed of elements drawn from the various member states put together to meet the specific requirements of a particular conflict. Each operation s mandate and authorisation for deployment come directly from the Security Council. Further recommendations on operational aims and responsibilities come from the Secretary-General, while day-to-day management and logistical support are provided by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). Peacekeeping troops remain under the authority of their own nation s military command and, with the exception of their blue helmets or berets and UN insignia, they retain their national uniforms. Over the last half-century, the range of duties performed by UN peacekeepers has grown considerably. While much of their work remains within the boundaries of traditional peacekeeping and the majority of peacekeepers are still soldiers, civilians have played an increasingly important role as the scope of peacekeeping has widened. Peacekeepers may now also be responsible for safeguarding and delivering humanitarian assistance, assisting the return of demobilised soldiers to civilian life, overseeing elections, training police, and monitoring human rights. In the contemporary world civilian police officers, human rights monitors, communications specialists, electoral experts and 7

2 observers all work alongside soldiers helping to make peace around the world. The importance of an armed military presence among the blue helmets has always depended on the peacekeeping context. UN military observers and civilian police tend to be unarmed, while peacekeeping forces are generally lightly armed and only use minimal force in self-defence or if authorised tasks are obstructed by armed opponents. Peacekeepers attempt to rely on their impartiality and their authority as representatives of the international community. Ultimately, however, peacekeeping can only be successful if all parties have a commitment to seek a peaceful solution to conflict and respect the process of negotiation and agreement. On occasion the UN has found it necessary to arm its peacekeepers more heavily in order to maintain a credible deterrent. This robust peacekeeping involving heavy weaponry or air support occasionally becomes necessary when all other options have been exhausted and conflicting parties insist on pursuing a violent military course. In addition, the Security Council has authorised member states to use all necessary means to achieve a specific set of peacekeeping objectives, potentially without the agreement or consent of the parties in conflict. While authorised by the Security Council, these operations remain distinct from other UN peacekeeping actions as the member states involved retain command. Examples of such engagements can be found in the military action taken during the Korean conflict of 1950, or more recently, in Somalia and Rwanda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the aftermath of Iraq s invasion of Kuwait, and in East Timor. In most conflict zones peacekeepers liaise with numerous other UN and Peacekeeping is often used as a generic term applied to a wide variety of missions. Distinctions need to be drawn between the different types of operations Australian troops have been involved in and may be involved in the future. These may include: Peace Building Diplomatic and military actions following conflict that seek to rebuild nations and repair relations between former enemies; it often involves UN involvement in elections, the reconstruction of civil infrastructure and institutions as well as attempts to rebuild shattered economies. Peace Enforcement Military operations in support of diplomatic efforts to restore peace between conflicting parties who may not have consented to intervention. Peacekeeping (PK) Political and military activity aimed at conflict control and operating with the consent of all parties; it usually involves a UN field presence working to implement or monitor actions designed to curb conflict (cease-fires, buffer-zones etc.). Peacekeeping Operation (PKO) Military operations conducted without powers of enforcement established to help, restore and maintain peace with the consent of warring factions, often combined with the protection of humanitarian operations. Peace Making The diplomatic process of negotiating an end to conflict may involve military activities including military-to-military contacts, security assistance and preventive deployments. Peace Support Operation An umbrella term referring to all types of military operations designed to support diplomatic peacemaking. Preventative Diplomacy Actions taken before a crisis deteriorates into armed confrontation or actions aimed at limiting the spread of violence once it begins. international non-government organisations. These may include the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the World Food Programme, the UN Children s Fund, and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Oxfam and other NGOs. 8

3 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCE FORCE (ADF) INVOLVEMENT OVERSEAS Australia s involvement in United Nations (UN) Observer and Peacekeeping missions goes back to Since then, Australia has participated in an increasing number of missions, from diplomatic efforts through to peace enforcement. Observers were first sent to Indonesia to monitor the cease-fire between Indonesia and the Netherlands after World War II. Since 1945, the UN has conducted more than 28 multinational Peacekeeping operations. In the same period there have been a further 30 multi-national peacekeeping operations conducted by international bodies. Australia has participated in over half of these operations, directly contributing to 15 UN operations and contributing to another 10 operations conducted by other international organisations. Australia s involvement has been modest but consistent over the years and has covered the full spectrum of activities. Australia has provided personnel to act as military observers, electoral supervisors, humanitarian workers, civil police, HQ staff, logistics and communication experts as well as free force commanders. In the following section, country briefs are provided on the more recent and resource intensive Australian peacekeeping operations as well as conventional warfare operations. The briefs are designed to provide the reader with coverage of each country s history, demographic information and Australia s military involvement. AUSTRALIAN MILITARY INVOLVEMENT IN OVERSEAS PEACEKEEPING & CONVENTIONAL OPERATIONS SINCE 1947 Indonesia Korea Kashmir Middle East Congo West New Guinea Yemen India/Pakistan Sinai Rhodesia Sinai Iran/Iraq Afghanistan/Pakistan Namibia Persian Gulf/Kuwait/Iraq Western Sahara Cambodia Yugoslavia Somalia Rwanda Bouganville East Timor (INTERFET) East Timor UN Ethiopia Sierra Leone Iraq Solomon Islands Afghanistan present present 2001 present 2001 present 9

4 UNCI -- UN Commission for Indonesia ( ) UNCI was the first UN peacekeeping mission in which Australia was involved. The mission was established in 1947 as the Good Offices Commission (GOC). At the end of World War II, the Dutch sought to reestablish their rule in the then Netherlands East Indies but were resisted by the newly established Indonesian republic. Australia became involved in the mission in August 1947 when locally based diplomatic staff were seconded to the GOC to assist in the delineation and supervision of the ceasefire and repatriation of Dutch forces to the Netherlands. Later in August, four more Australians joined the mission as military observers and the commitment increased to 15 when the GOC became UNCI in The Australian force was withdrawn in April UNCOK -- UN Commission on Korea ( ) UNCOK was established in 1948 as a diplomatic mission to monitor the withdrawal of World War II occupation forces from Korea. In May 1950 war loomed on the divided Korean peninsula (divided by the regimes fostered by the two occupying powers, the USA and USSR) and UNCOK added military observers to undertake monitoring activities in the field. In June 1950, when hostilities broke out, only two Australian observers were on the ground in Korea. United Nations (UN) The United Nations was set up in 1945, at the end of the Second World War. Australia was a founder member; today almost every country on earth has joined.australians were the first peacekeepers to serve under United Nations auspices when they sent military observers to Indonesia in 1947 during the independence struggle independence struggle The United Nations Charter envisaged a system of collective security, in which member states would provide forces to defend countries against aggression. This did not work, partly because of the Cold War, and partly because most conflicts since then have been civil wars within states. Peacekeeping as we know it grew up as a compromise, using minimal force and generally only being employed with the consent of the warring parties. Military observers, usually unarmed, might monitor a ceasefire or peace agreement. Later came peace enforcement operations, in which armed peacekeepers were authorised to use force to prevent further bloodshed. Today more complex peacekeeping operations use a great variety of specialist skills to give societies which have been shattered by war the space in which to rebuild themselves. Australian War Memorial Web site - UNTSO -- UN Truce Supervision Organisation [Israel and neighbours] (1948-present) Israel and its neighbours have fought several wars since the UN partitioned Palestine in UNTSO was formed in June 1948 to supervise the various and truces after the first Arab-Israeli War. UNTSO covers the areas of 10

5 Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Jordan and Egypt. Australia committed four observers to the mission in July This commitment increased to six in the mid-1960s, ten in 1978 and 13 in During the Vietnam War, Army reservists were used to man the contingent. The four observer groups that form the UNTSO have also worked closely with other UN missions in the area. During the establishment of new missions, personnel have been redeployed to provide initial personnel for the new mission. This has seen Australian personnel participation in other UN peacekeeping missions -- UNYOM in Yemen, UNIPOM in India-Pakistan, UNEF II in the Sinai, UNDOF in. Syria, UNIIMOG in Iran-Iraq and UNPROFOR in Bosnia-Herzegovina. On 12 January 1988 Captain Peter McCarthy was killed when his vehicle hit a landmine. UNMOGIP -- UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (1949-present) In 1947 the United Kingdom divided its Indian empire into two parts along religious lines. Independence was granted to Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. However, one of the many princely states involved was the largely Muslim Kashmir, which had a Hindu ruler. Many Kashmiris wanted to join Pakistan while only some residents wanted to join India and a few did not want to join either. The first India- Pakistan war broke out and, in January 1949, UNMOGIP was established to monitor the ceasefire in Kashmir at the end of the war. The Australian commitment began in October 1950 with Lieutenant General RH Nimmo CBE being appointed as the first Chief Military Observer. Nimmo, who remained in command until his death on 4 January 1966, was chosen as the first Australian general to command a UN mission because the UN considered an Australian was best suited to supervise a dispute involving two Commonwealth countries. In 1952 Australia added a contingent of six military observers, with members serving for one or two years. During the Vietnam War, when the Army s resources were stretched, many Army reservists served in the contingent. The contingent was withdrawn progressively in 1985 because the Australian government considered Australia was overcommitted to the UN at the time. The last member of the contingent returned to Australian in December UNC-K -- UN Command- Korea ( ) UNC-K was the UN s first peace restoration operation. Australia provided the fourth largest contingent (after the USA, UK and South Korea) in support of the UN effort to restore peace. At the height of fighting, the Australian commitment consisted of an aircraft carrier, two destroyers, two infantry battalions with supporting arms and services, and a fighter squadron with supporting services. An armistice came in Australia s commitment formally ended in 1956 with 339 killed, over 1,200 wounded and 29 who had become prisoners of war. UNCMAC -- UN Command Military Armistice Commission [Korea] (1953-present) UNCMAC was established in 1953 to represent the UN as a signatory to the armistice between the UN and North Korea as well as to monitor the armistice. UNCMAC did not permanently deploy observers along 11

6 the ceasefire line. Australia s RAAF ground crew and two Sioux contribution is one senior service helicopters joined UNTEA from 18 officer. Since 1967 Australia s November to Christmas Day 1962, to UNCMAC responsibilities have been assist with a cholera eradication conducted by the Defence Attache at program. The detachment was the Australian Embassy in Seoul, withdrawn near the end of the South Korea. program, after one of the helicopters crashed. ONUC -- UN Operation in the Congo ( ) In mid 1960 the newly independent Republic of Congo began to break down as a viable state and the former colonial power, Belgium, intervened to protect the large number of its citizens still living there. ONUC was established to assist the Congolese government to restore law and order, ensure withdrawal of Belgian forces, maintain Congo s territorial integrity and provide technical assistance. The force grew to some 20,000 strong. Australia did not directly contribute to ONUC as the UN preference was for maximum participation by African states. In August 1960 an Army medical team of three personnel was seconded to the International Red Cross and deployed to the Congo to support the rehabilitation process. The team members returned to Australia in December 1960 and February UNTEA -- UN Temporary Executive Authority [West Irian] ( ) In early 1962 Indonesian forces landed in the disputed territory of West New Guinea, which was then under Dutch control. UNTEA was established in October 1962, after the cessation of hostilities between Indonesia and the Netherlands, to supervise the transfer of West New Guinea to Indonesia. The military component of UNTEA grew to some 1,600 troops and was known as the United Nations Security Force (UNSF). An Australian detachment consisting of four Army pilots, seven UNYOM -- UN Yemen Observation Mission ( ) In July 1963 the UN established UNYOM to monitor the disengagement agreement between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic, at the end of the Yemeni civil war. From 25 June to 23 November 1963 two Australian UNTSO observers were deployed to UNYOM in Yemen. UNFICYP -- UN Force in Cyprus (1964-present) UNFICYP was established in March 1964 to prevent communal violence between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Its role was later expanded to include supervision of the ceasefire between the Turkish Army and the Greek Cypriot National Guard. UNFICYP also includes a civil police component (UNCIVPOL). Australia s commitment began in May 1964 with 40 policemen of the Commonwealth Police. Police from all states were seconded to the Commonwealth Police who became the Australian Federal Police (AFP) in 1979 and had its own personnel. The number of Australian police serving in Cyprus increased to 50 in 1967 before decreasing to 16 in In May 1988 the first policewoman began service with UNFICYP, with many policewomen serving since. Australia s commitment is currently 15 AFP officers serving for a period of six months. 12

7 Three Australians, Sergeant Ian UNDOF -- UN Disengagement Donald Ward, Sergeant Lew Thomas Observer Force [Syria] (1974- and Inspector Paul Hackett, have died present) on duty with UNFICYP. UNIPOM -- UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission ( ) UNIPOM was established in September 1965 to supervise the ceasefire and withdrawal of forces along the border at the end of the second India-Pakistan war. Australia provided three observers, one seconded from UNTSO and two seconded from UNMOGIP. Lieutenant General RH Nimmo CBE was appointed as acting Chief Military Observer UNIPOM until a separate CMO was available. In October 1965 UN headquarters delegated Nimmo oversight of both the UNIPOM and UNMOGIP missions due to their close relationship. UNIPOM was disbanded in February UNEF II -- UN Emergency Force II [Sinai] ( ) UNEF II was established in October 1973 to supervise the ceasefire between Israel and Egypt in the Sinai following the Yom Kippur War. Two Australian observers from UNTSO were seconded to assist with the establishment of UNEF II and from 1976 Australia contributed a 46-man RAAF detachment operating four UH- 1 helicopters. In July 1977 the detachment became a RAN-RAAF operation. An Army officer was provided as a staff officer at HQ UNEF until December He was joined by a Warrant Officer from July to December The Australian detachment was withdrawn and UNEF II wound down operations from August UNDOF was established in June 1974 to supervise the ceasefire between Israel and Syria in the Golan Heights and to supervise the disengagement and separation of forces. UNDOF maintains an area of separation, which is some 80km long and varies in width between approximately 10km in the centre to less than 1km in the extreme south. The area of separation is inhabited and is policed by the Syrian authorities. No military forces other than UNDOF patrols are permitted within the area. Australia has only seen several observers redeployed to UNDOF from the Observer Group Golan of the UNTSO mission. Currently no Australians are deployed with UNDOF. UNIFIL -- UN Interim Force in Lebanon (1978-present) In March 1978 the UN established UNIFIL to monitor the withdrawal of Israeli troops from southern Lebanon and to assist in the restoration of Government authority. No Australians are deployed with UNIFIL, however, UNTSO UN Military Observers, including Australians, provide the support. UNIFIL still continues its operations today. CMF -- Commonwealth Monitoring Force [Zimbabwe] ( ) The CMF was established by the Commonwealth in December 1979 to supervise the implementation of the Lancaster House Agreement between the Government of Southern Rhodesia (itself in rebellion with the UK since 1965) and the guerrilla forces of the 13

8 Patriotic Front. Under the agreement, authority was restored to the UK, a ceasefire implemented, a general election was held and independence achieved by the new Republic of Zimbabwe. The CMF was tasked with monitoring the agreement and resembled a UN observer mission but had more duties. The Australian Army contingent consisted of 152 with most ranks represented. The Australians were spread throughout the force, which consisted of a headquarters and three groups. The first group monitored the Rhodesian security forces, the second group on the containment of the guerrillas and the third group monitored the return of civilian refugees from neighbouring countries. The Australian contingent was withdrawn in March 1980, when CMF operations ended. MFO -- Multinational Force and Observers [Sinai] (1982- present) The UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the [British] South Africa Company in A 1961 constitution was formulated that favoured whites in power. In 1965 the government unilaterally declared its independence, but the UK did not recognize the act and demanded more complete voting rights for the black African majority in the country (then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrilla uprising finally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (as Zimbabwe) in Robert MUGABE, the nation's first prime minister, has been the country's only ruler (as president since 1987) and has dominated the country's political system since independence. /the-world-factbook In 1982 the MFO was established to supervise the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. Under the Accords Israel withdrew from the Egyptian territory it had occupied since the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. The MFO was created outside the framework of the UN because the Soviet Union was opposed to UN involvement. Australia provided a joint RAN/Army/RAAF detachment comprising eight UH-1 helicopters and some 100 personnel on six-month tours. The Australian contingent was withdrawn in April 1986 as the government sought to reduce Australia s peacekeeping commitments. On 8 January 1993 Australia s Defence Force returned to the Sinai, joining the MFO, with a 26- man army contingent that included headquarters staff and military police on twelve-month tours. 14

9 UNIIMOG -- UN Iran-Iraq Overall, the UN established UNTAG Military Observer Group in Namibia in April UNTAG supervised the return of refugees, the ( ) holding of a general election, the withdrawal of South African forces and Namibia s transition to independence. The Australian contribution of 304 Army engineers arrived in three groups between mid- UNIIMOG was established in early August 1988 to supervise the ceasefire between Iran and Iraq after the end of their eight-year war. Australia s involvement began with the temporary secondment of an observer from UNTSO. On 16 August 1988, Australia committed a further 15 observers each on six-month tours. Australians served on the Iranian side of the border as Iraq vetoed an Australian presence in the Iraqi held territory, due to the fact that an Australian Government scientist, Dr Peter Dunn, was a member of the UN team that had proved Iraqi use of chemical weapons during three inspections in the period. Australian troops were withdrawn on 10 December 1990 as UN-endorsed military operations against Iraq loomed. UNIIMOG service was particularly demanding due to a precarious ceasefire, climatic extremes, harsh terrain, primitive operational conditions and the stress caused by social deprivation experienced by Westerners in a fundamentalist Islamic society. NAMIBIA UNTAG -- UN Transition Assistance Group [Namibia] ( ) In brief, the United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) operation in Namibia began in April The operation worked under a UN mandate to provide the conditions necessary to ensure free and fair elections could be held and an independent and democratic government established in Namibia. March and mid-april The contingent was rotated in September- October 1989 when the size of the contingent increased to 309, due to the addition of five military policemen. From 26 October to 20 November the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) provided an electoral organisation expert and 27 electoral supervisors and the AFP contributed a fingerprint expert. The AEC and AFP contingent assisted in conducting the general election in early November. The military contingent was progressively withdrawn over the period February- April History As a result of more than 100 years of colonial rule by Germany and later South Africa the Namibian people had no tradition of exercising their 15

10 democratic rights. The UNTAG the ICJ ruling and the UN s position, operation s central function was to South African forces illegally provide the context in which the people occupying Namibia continued to of Namibia were both aware of their exercise de facto authority and the UN rights and freely able to exercise them. remained unable to establish an effective administration. Previously known as South West Africa, Namibia gained its independence in 1990 after 70 years of struggle by Namibians and by the international community. The League of Nations initially put pressure on South Africa to initiate movement towards Namibian independence and the United Nations continued to apply this pressure after WWII. A series of judgements by the International Court of Justice condemned the continued South African occupation of Namibia and in 1966 the UN assumed de jure sovereignty over the Territory. Despite UN Mandate and Resolutions UNTAG was established in accordance with resolution 632 (1989) of 16 February 1989, to assist the Special Representative of the Secretary-General to ensure the early independence of Namibia through free and fair elections under the supervision and control of the United Nations. UNTAG was also to help the Special Representative to ensure that all hostile acts were ended; troops were confined to base, and, in the case of the South Africans, ultimately withdrawn from Namibia; all discriminatory laws were repealed, political prisoners were released, Namibian refugees were permitted to return, intimidation of any kind was prevented, law and order were impartially maintained. See Security Council Resolutions 276 (1970); 385 (1976); 431 (1978); 435 (1978); 629 (1989); 632 (1989). In response to South Africa s refusal to acknowledge the illegality of its occupation, the South West Africa People s Organisation (SWAPO) vowed to utilise all possible means, including armed struggle, to achieve national liberation. During 1960s armed resistance to South African occupation was limited, SWAPO s efforts were focused instead on petitioning the UN and other international bodies for action against South Africa. However, during the 1970s the armed struggle intensified, significantly raising the cost of South Africa s continued presence. The success of a nation-wide general strike in emphasised South Africa s weakening hold on the region, and was followed by a massive increase in human rights abuses committed by the occupying South African Forces. From the late 1970s and through the 1980s the territory s economy entered a period of crisis. The failing economy combined with increasingly effective military resistance to turn the territory from a net economic asset for South Africa to a significant economic and political burden. Indeed, if the figures are adjusted for the total number of troops serving in each conflict, comparatively more South African soldiers were killed in Namibia than US soldiers in Vietnam. In 1976, SWAPO was recognised by the UN as the sole and authentic representative of the Namibian people. However, despite continued international opposition and increasing military and financial losses, South Africa remained intransigent. It was not until 1988 when South Africa s second attempt to invade Angola was 16

11 defeated in part by units of SWAPO s People s Liberation Army Namibia of Namibia (PLAN) under Angolan General Information and Statistics command that South Africa was forced to concede a UN-supervised transition to independence for Namibia. The first objective of UNTAG was to completely dismantle the South African military infrastructure in Namibia and to confine SWAPO forces to their bases in Angola. Local troops under South African command were similarly to be demobilised and the South West African Police were to be placed under effective international supervision. Tragically, before UNTAG was able to establish control, South African troops attacked a number of PLAN units that were attempting to report to UNTAG. As part of its role in neutralising the instruments of South African occupation, UNTAG personnel were forced to concentrate on the local media. UNTAG became aware that many Namibians were confused about both UNTAG s role and the broader aims of the international community. Local media and other public information outlets had been tightly controlled by South Africa and were organised to provide support for occupation and apartheid. UNTAG thus found it necessary to closely monitor local media and ensure that all Namibians received information that was impartial and pertinent to the radically changing political climate. UNTAG remained in Namibia until independence, with changes to its organisation occurring as the role was adjusted. During this time the UN remained adamant that UNTAG would be a 12-month mission. Australia provided combat and logistical support to UNTAG. Both the civilian and military components of UNTAG required engineer support. In The Republic of Namibia is an arid and sparsely populated country located in South Western Africa (see map). It has an area of 825,418 sq. km. People Population: 1,771,327 Infant mortality: deaths/ 1,000 live births Life expectancy: years Literacy: 38% Ethnic groups: black 87.5%, white 6%, mixed 6.5% The life expectancy and infant mortality reflect the abject poverty in which large numbers of Namibians are forced to live. Economy Namibia is Africa s fourth-largest exporter of nonfuel minerals and the world s fifth-largest producer of uranium. Namibia is a source of 30% of the world s gem-quality diamonds and also produces large quantities of lead, zinc, tin, silver, and tungsten. Mining accounts for 20% of GDP. At least 50% of Namibians depend entirely on subsistence (often sub-subsistence) agriculture and although per capita GDP is high for a sub-saharan nation this figure is skewed by extreme disparities in income; most of Namibia's people suffer from largescale unemployment and live in abject poverty. Commercial farming of beef and sheep for export is generally the preserve of white farmers. Over-fishing has lead to extremely depleted fish stocks. Major industries: meat-packing, fish processing, dairy products; mining. South Africa is a major trading partner. Government Namibia is headed by a president who is both the head of state and the head of government. It has a bicameral legislature consisting of the National Council (26 seats; 6-year terms) and the National Assembly (72 seats; 5-year terms). There is universal suffrage and Namibians are eligible to vote at age 18. The legal system is based on Roman-Dutch law and the constitution of

12 executing its role, ASC UNTAG only Australia remained by The provided support to around 7,500 original purpose of the UNMCTT was peacekeepers over an area to train Pakistan-based Afghan approximately the size of New South refugees in mine ordnance recognition Wales. The operational priorities and and basic clearance techniques. This tasks varied over the period that the later broadened to include the planning ASC was deployed. The contingent s and supervision of mine clearance organisation included a headquarters activities in Afghanistan. The last (CE UNTAG) and a construction Australian contingent (10 teams had squadron group (17 Construction Sqn served) was withdrawn on 12 July UNTAG). Headquarters CE UNTAG contained operations, works, accommodation, communications, finance, logistic and personnel cells. UNBRO -- UN Border Relief Operation [Cambodia] ( ) In early 1989 two AFP personnel were seconded to work with the UNBRO mission in north-eastern Thailand, to assist the UN and the Thai government to improve security and protection of 300,000 displaced Cambodians located in refugee camps along the Thai- Cambodian border. They also trained Cambodian camp guards in basic police functions, established committees of justice and a central jail. Australia continued to provide two AFP personnel to UNBRO on twelvemonth tours until May 1993 when the refugees were repatriated to Cambodia. UNMCTT -- UN Mine Clearance Training Team [Afghanistan/Pakistan] ( ) On 16 July 1989 Australia began providing nine Army field engineers on four-month tours with the UNMCTT. In March 1990 the contingent was reduced to six but increased to seven in January 1991 and to nine again in December The UNMCTT originally consisted of contingents from nine countries but MIF I -- First Maritime Interception Force [Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman] ( ) Iraq invaded Kuwait on 2 August 1990 beginning the Second Gulf War. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 660 demanding Iraq withdraw. On 6 August the Security Council imposed mandatory commercial, financial and trade sanctions on Iraq under Resolution 661. On 26 August, the UN passed Resolution 665 calling on UN members to contribute naval forces to assist in implementing the trade sanctions. In anticipation of Resolution 665, Australia had deployed a RAN Task Group -- HMAS Adelaide, Darwin and Success -- to the Gulf of Oman on 13 August. The Task Group commenced maritime peacekeeping operations in the evening of 3 September. On 3 December 1990 HMAS Sydney and Brisbane replaced Adelaide and Darwin. By the end of December MIF I had conducted 6,945 interceptions of merchant vessels, including 487 boardings to check for illicit cargo, and 35 ships had been diverted to non-iraqi ports. The Australian Task Group conducted a significant share of these operations. 18

13 Operation HABITAT [Iraq] In brief, UNAMIC was established in (1991) November 1991 to assist the four Cambodian parties to maintain their Following the ceasefire of UNendorsed military operations in Iraq, ceasefire during the period prior to the establishment and deployment of the humanitarian assistance was authorised United Nations Transitional Authority under Resolution 688 to be provided to in Cambodia (UNTAC) and to initiate Kurdish refugees in Iraq. The mine-awareness training for civilians. Australian contingent of 72 Army and Later the mandate grew to include a 3 RAAF medical, dental, engineering major training program for and logistic personnel were deployed Cambodians in mine detection and to Turkey and Iraq between 16 May mine-clearance of repatriation routes, and 16 June 1991 to assist the Kurdish reception centres and resettlement refugees. The commonly used US term areas. The Australian contingent for this operation is Operation Provide consisted of some 65 personnel Comfort. including military observers, a signals unit and minor support to the mission. UNAMIC was absorbed by UNTAC in March MNF(I-K) -- Multinational Forces in Iraq-Kuwait (1991) On 29 November 1990 UN Resolution 678 gave Iraq six weeks to withdraw from Kuwait. UN members were authorised to use all necessary means if Iraq failed to comply. The UNsanctioned peace operation to liberate Kuwait commenced with air and maritime raids on 17 January A major land offensive commenced on 24 February, with a ceasefire being declared 100 hours later on 28 February although hostilities did not officially end until 12 April During this period the RAN Task Group provided support in the Arabian Gulf. On 26 January 1991 HMAS Westralia replaced HMAS Success. Australia s commitment included two surgical teams, the RAN Clearance Diving Team 3, intelligence personnel and ADF personnel who served on individual exchanges with other allied land, sea and air forces. Cambodia UNAMIC -- UN Advance Mission in Cambodia ( ) UNAMIC, UNTAC The United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia (UNAMIC; October 1991 March 1992) was established to assist in the maintenance of a ceasefire agreed to in Paris on 23 October UNAMIC s work also prepared the way for the deployment of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC; March September 1993). UNTAC absorbed UNAMIC personnel and administration in March Formally agreed to by each of Cambodia s warring parties (with the exception of the Khmer Rouge), the Paris peace agreements 19

14 (the Agreements on the Comprehensive diplomatic relations with the US in 1965 and Political Settlement of the Cambodia worked towards developing closer ties with Conflict), provided for UN military and North Vietnam and China. Having civilian assistance to monitor progress abandoned his links with Washington, he towards holding democratic elections. secretly permitted Viet Cong troops to be UNTAC peacekeepers were also involved in stationed in Cambodia along the border with administering government ministries, Vietnam. maintaining law and order, rehabilitating Although not at war with Cambodia, the US infrastructure, safeguarding human rights, began to secretly bomb suspected Viet Cong mine-clearance and detection, and the camps across the Cambodian border in repatriation and resettlement of those At the same time, Sihanouk s administration displaced by the conflict. UNTAC s mandate began to be attacked from both sides of expired in September 1993 with the formation of a democratically elected Cambodia government and the promulgation of a new General Information and Statistics Constitution establishing a constitutional monarchy in Cambodia. People The conflicts leading to the presence of UN peacekeeping missions in Cambodia had their origins in political events following the gradual collapse of French colonial control and the creation of a truly independent Cambodian nation in Population: 12,212,306 Infant mortality rate: deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: years In 1953, Prince Norodom Sihanouk, despite having been placed on the Cambodian throne by the French, declared the nation s independence. Although his administration was recognised as the sole legitimate Cambodian government by the 1954 Geneva Conference on the First Indochina War, his rule was opposed by communist guerrillas linked to Vietnam s Viet Minh, and the anticommunist forces of Khmer Serei, a movement formed in 1951 to agitate for Cambodian independence. During the 1950s and 1960s Sihanouk s rule became increasingly authoritarian provoking an intensification of resistance from both the communists and the democrats. The prince s major concerns, however, lay with South Vietnam and Thailand; both of which he saw as major threats to Cambodia s continued independence. He also feared the potential success of attempts to unite North and South Vietnam under communist control. Despite his proclamations of neutrality in international affairs, Sihanouk broke off Ethnic groups: Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4% Literacy: 35% Government Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy governed by a multiparty liberal democracy. The King is head of state but exercises no executive power. Cambodia has a bicameral legislature consisting of the National Assembly (lower house: 120 members) and the Senate (upper house: 61 members). Two further levels of government exist: provincial and communal. Provincial governors are appointed by the central government, while communal leaders are elected by the people, however, no communal elections have been held for decades. Cambodian politics. His troops lost ground to Khmer Rouge communist guerrillas in the 20

15 north and in Phnom Penh a number of rightwing and virulently anti-communist ministers Rouge Cambodian communists. new government comprised of anti-khmer began to plot against him. During a state visit to the USSR, Sihanouk was deposed by a coalition of right-wing ministers and army officers under General Lon Nol. Instead of returning home, the prince travelled to Beijing where with Chinese assistance he established a government-in-exile with strong links to the Khmer Rouge (against whom he had previously fought). In Cambodia, escalating US bombing campaigns and the subsequent invasion of Cambodia by US and South Vietnamese forces increased local support for Sihanouk and the Khmer Rouge especially in the countryside. Over the next five years Cambodia was plunged into civil war as the Khmer Rouge and Lon Nol s forces in Phnom Penh fought to control the country. In 1975, the Khmer Rouge lead by Pol Pot (Saloth Sar) defeated Lon Nol s troops and occupied Phnom Penh ordering all residents to leave the city and take up residence in rural areas. In less than a week the urban population of Cambodia had been driven from the cities and towns by Khmer Rouge forces. Thousands were killed in the forced marches. Modelling their policies of national transformation on Mao s Great Leap Forward, the Khmer Rouge and the Communist Party of Kampuchia attempted to create a collectivised rural nation overnight. Private property was abolished; schools, monasteries, markets, banks and shops were closed; and the Cambodian population was mobilised as an unpaid labour force. The literalism with which the communist transformation was undertaken combined with violence and suspicions of foreign sabotage to cause at least a million deaths over the next three years from execution, disease, overwork and starvation. By 1978, isolated conflicts with Vietnamese forces had escalated into full-scale war and Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia, defeated the Khmer Rouge and installed a Under the Vietnamese-sponsored government (the People s Republic of Kampuchea; PRK) many of the excesses of Pol Pot s regime were reversed: the ownership of private property was permitted, monasteries and schools were reopened, and people returned to the cities. A number of resistance organisations remained opposed to the PRK and established camps along the Cambodian-Thai border. These groups united in 1982 to form an unstable government in exile the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK). Cambodia s legal system is the result of a number of influences. Royal decrees sit alongside customary law, communist legal theory and French-influenced codes from the UNTAC mandate. The influence of common law has recently increased. Economy Cambodia is ranked among the world s poorest and most underdeveloped countries. Civil war during the 1970s, the radical restructuring of the Khmer Rouge, and continuing low intensity war during the 1980s all contributed to the destruction of the nation s economic infrastructure. Economic growth during the early 1990s slowed through 1997 and into 1998 due to increasing violence and political conflict. The IMF withdrew its representative in late 1997, and the World Bank subsequently suspended all financial support. The elections of 1998, increased political stability and the collapse of the Khmer Rouge all contributed to increased international confidence and local economic growth. Large sections of Cambodian economic activities are devoted to agricultural subsistence, and there is a great divide between rural and urban incomes. International investment remains low, as does Cambodia s involvement in international trade. Information drawn from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade ( and the CIA s World Factbook ( 21

16 After an extended campaign in 1985 PRK troops forced the Khmer Rouge to retreat into Thailand. However, the Khmer Rouge continued to wage a guerrilla war against the government in Phnom Penh for the remainder of the 1980s countries opposed to Vietnam provided substantial financial support to the Khmer Rouge and other resistance groups during the entirely of this period. The People s Republic of Kampuchea was renamed the State of Cambodia in April Bowing to international pressure, including US economic sanctions the Vietnamese government withdrew its forces from Cambodia in September of the same year After extensive negotiations, the ceasefire that would be formalised in Paris in October was entered into voluntarily by each of the warring factions in May Elections were conducted under UN supervision in May 1993 and are generally regarded as being a great success the elections enjoyed a voter turn out of more than 90% of those eligible. Unfortunately, in mid-1994 the political situation in Cambodia began to deteriorate. By 1997, the two major political parties were engaged in armed conflict both attempting to draw on surviving elements of the Khmer Rouge. With Pol Pot s death and the arrest and defection of other important leaders in 1998, the Khmer Rouge is no longer a military or political force of any significance. On the 26 th of July 1998 new national elections were held under international supervision. These elections were marred by violence and intimidation, and although there has been a period of relative calm since then, there are international concerns that violence could flair again during the communal elections of Further Reading Michael W. Doyle, Ian Johnstone, and Robert C. Orr (eds.), Keeping the peace. multidimensional UN operations in Cambodia and El Salvador (1997) Sorpong Peou, Conflict Neutralization in the Cambodia War: From Battlefield to Ballot-box (1997) Kim DePaul, Children of Cambodia's Killing Fields: Memoirs by Survivors (1997) David P. Chandler, A History of Cambodia, 2nd ed. (1992) Michael Vickery, Cambodia, (1984) MIF II -- Second Maritime Interception Force [Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Red Sea] ( ) Following the liberation of Kuwait, UN sanctions continued against Iraq because it continued to defy Security Council Resolutions. HMAS Westralia remained in the Arabian Gulf supporting UN sanctions and was replaced by HMAS Darwin in June In October 1991 HMAS Sydney replaced Darwin and the area of Australian operations shifted to the Red Sea. Since then HMAS Darwin, Melbourne, Sydney and Canberra have continued their participation in MIF II. UNSCOM -- UN Special Commission [Iraq] ( ) In April 1991 UN Resolution 687 imposed a peace agreement and disarmament provisions on Iraq and established a UN Special Commission. The task of UNSCOM was to locate and supervise the destruction of Iraqi nuclear, chemical and biological weapon capabilities. Australia has committed between two and six ADF personnel and scientific experts, on three to six-month tours, to UNSCOM since late 1991 until

17 UNMOVIC -- UN Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (1999-present) UNMOVIC replaced UNSCOM in December Several Australians have been trained and await deployment. MINURSO -- UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (1991-present) The United Nations has been seeking a settlement in Western Sahara since the withdrawal of Spain in The Saharawi people have since fiercely resisted annexation by neighbouring Morocco. From 29 July to 12 August 1990 Australia deployed an officer to the Western Sahara to assist with the UN reconnaissance team in planning a peacekeeping mission. In September 1991, MINURSO was established to monitor the ceasefire and supervise a referendum on whether the Saharawi people wanted independence or incorporation with Morocco. Since the establishment of MINURSO, Australia has provided a communications unit of 45 personnel. The contingent was dispersed over four areas and operated in severely harsh climatic and environmental conditions. The Australian contingent was withdrawn in 1994 and at that time a referendum had still not been held. MINURSO continues its operations today identifying voters for the planned referendum. Major Susan Felsche was killed on 21 June 1993 in an aircraft crash whilst on this mission. UNTAC -- UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia ( ) In March 1992 UNTAC was established under the 1991 Paris Agreements to supervise a ceasefire and general election in Cambodia. UNTAC absorbed UNAMIC and consisted of some 22,000 personnel from 32 countries. Australia s contribution to UNTAC increased to over 500 personnel comprising a 488 strong Force Communications Unit, 14 staff on HQ UNTAC and the Force Commander, Australia s Lieutenant General JM Sanderson AO. In May 1992 the AFP began contributing a 10 strong detachment to UNTAC to serve with the civil police component. The detachment served in Banteay Chhmar and Thma Pouk, some of the most lawless areas in the far northwest of Cambodia. Seven AEC personnel worked from mid-1992 to July 1993 in preparation for the general election. Between 18 May and 15 June 1993 a further 44 AEC staff worked in Cambodia to assist with the registration of voters, electoral education and conducting the general election which was held from May UNTAC was disbanded in September UNOSOM I -- First UN Operation in Somalia ( ) In brief, in the early 1990s Somalia collapsed into clan warfare and then civil war. By 1992 the civil war had worsened and the country ceased to function as an organised nation. UNOSOM I was established in April 1992, after the Security Council adopted UN Resolution 751, to monitor a ceasefire in Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, protect the delivery of humanitarian assistance and reconstitute Somalia as a functioning 23

18 political, social and economic entity. Australia contributed a 30 strong ADF Movement Control Unit (MCU) in October 1992 and January 1993 to assist UNOSOM I with the influx of assigned forces. The total strength of the force of UNOSOM I was some 4,400 personnel. UNITAF -- Unified Task Force in Somalia ( ) In brief, UNITAF, though not a UN mission, was established under UN Resolution 794 in December 1992 as the situation in Somalia had overtaken the ability of UNOSOM I to quickly restore peace and stability. The first elements of UNITAF came ashore, on 9 December 1992, at Mogadishu without opposition with the ability to use force if needed to restore peace and assist in providing open and free passage of relief supplies and humanitarian aid. Participation from Australia was requested on 8 December and approved on 15 December Australia provided a 937 strong contingent with the advance party arriving in Somalia on 21 December. The contingent served in the Baidoa Humanitarian Relief Sector (HRS), a 17,000 square kilometre area in the southwest of Somalia. HMAS Tobruk provided support to the operation. UNITAF was a coalition working under the authority of the UN. Lance Corporal Shannon McAliney was accidentally killed on 2 April 1993 whilst deployed. had served with UNITAF served under UNOSOM II for 10 days before being withdrawn during mid to late May A small number of ADF personnel remained and joined HQ UNOSOM II. In May 1993 a senior AFP officer was redeployed from UNBRO in Thailand to Somalia to serve as the Senior Civil Police Adviser to the Commander UNOSOM II. UNOSOM II was withdrawn from Somalia in early March SOMALIA UNSOM I UNITAF and UNISOM II Present-day Somalia was formed through the merger of British Somaliland with Italian Somaliland after both former protectorates gained their independence in Somali Operation in Somalia ( ) UNOSOM II was established in March 1993 to use all necessary means to establish a secure environment for humanitarian relief operations in Somalia. UNITAF handed over to a reinforced UNOSOM II in early May The Australian contingent that independence was followed by a series of self-determination campaigns by Somali communities in Kenya, the Ogaden (see map on following page), and French Somaliland. As a result of strong opposition to any form of selfdetermination for the Kenyan Somali communities, a series of unsuccessful 24

19 Somali guerrilla actions were initiated in northern Kenya and the Ogaden. The Somalia Soviet Union provided the Somali General Information and Statistics guerrillas with extensive military assistance. The Somali connection to the Soviet Union was furthered after a coup d etat in General Maxamed Siyaad Barre the post-coup head of state and president of the newly formed Supreme Revolutionary Council inaugurated a programme of Marxist- Leninist Scientific Socialism. Under a Marxist-Leninist approach to nationalism and state governance traditional Clan allegiances were outlawed, central control was extended to rural areas transforming traditional farming practices, and a massive national literacy campaign was begun. When Haile Selassie s assassination threw Ethiopia into chaos in 1974 the Ogaden Somalis took the opportunity to renew their military push for selfdetermination. With the support of the revolutionary Somali government the fighters of the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) moved to gain control of large sections of the Ogaden. However, they were soon repulsed by Ethiopian forces backed by Cuban troops, forcing hundreds of thousands of Somali refugees across the border into Somalia. Following the Ogaden defeat, internal opposition to Siyaad increased dramatically. The clan rivalries stifled under Siyaad s rule resurfaced, leading to his fall and a Somalian civil war in Appropriating the immense stores of Soviet military equipment that scattered the country, the Somali clans began an increasingly violent internecine struggle. The warring parties brought famine to Somalia as their violence ravaged the central grain producing regions during a time of severe drought. People Population: 7,488,773 (the calculation of these estimate is complicated by traditionally nomadic sectors of population and refugee movements) Infant mortality: deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy: 46.6 years Literacy: 24% Government Somalia has had no fully functioning government since the UN withdrawal. Despite the formation of an interim government (the Transitional National Government) in October 2000, numerous clan and regional leaders claim authority in many parts of the country. A new 245-member National Assembly first sat in August 2000 in Dijibouti and now sits in Mogadishu. However, banditry and interclan violence still dominate many sections of the country. The judiciary does not function. As there is no longer a fully functioning national government nor judiciary, the majority of areas are subject to Islamic (Shari a) law and clan authority. Some stability is to be found in northern Somalia where the clans occupying the area of former British Somaliland have established the Republic of Somaliland. Although this Republic has no international recognition, its growing stability and clan attempts to create a level of representative government have led to a number of EU-sponsored assistance programmes being established in the area of Somaliland. Although this Republic has no international recognition, its growing stability and clan attempts to create a level of representative government have led to a number of EU-sponsored assistance programmes being established in the area. Information courtesy of the UN Statistics Division the CIA s World Factbook see and the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade see 25

20 By 1992, more than half of Somalia s population (more than 4.5 million people) were suffering from starvation Further Reading and malnutrition-related diseases an See UN Security Council resolutions: estimated 300,000 people died and more than 2 million fled the country. International aid efforts were hampered by war, looting, banditry and clan violence. UNISOM I was established in April 1992 with an initial force of 50 unarmed military observers. The continued deterioration of the humanitarian situation in Somalia led the UN to divide the country into four major operational zones and deploy armed peacekeepers. By the end of 1992, the number of peacekeepers authorised to be deployed as part of UNISOM I was close to 4,300. In conjunction with the peacekeeping operation, work was begun on the 100- Day Action Programme for Accelerated Humanitarian Assistance, which aimed to ameliorate the humanitarian disaster brought about by civil war and drought. The Programme included not only the provision of emergency food supplies, but also donations of tools, seeds and livestock, immunisation programmes, and attempts to stem the massive outflow of refugees. Increasing violence directed at peacekeepers and humanitarian staff hampered the UN s work. Ships carrying food were shelled as they attempted to enter the port of Mogadishu, and UN personnel were attacked and often detained by clan factions. UN convoys were also regularly hijacked and looted. By the end of 1992, the Security Council unanimously authorised the use of all possible means to establish a secure environment for the provision of humanitarian aid in Somalia. The United States initiated Operation 733 (1992), 751 (1992), 765 (1992), 767 (1992), 775 (1992), 794 (1992), 814 (1993), 878 (1993), 885 (1993), 886 (1993), 923 (1994), 946 (1994), 954 (1994). Abdisalam M. Issa-Salwe, Cold War Fallout: Boundary Politics and Conflict in the Horn of Africa (2000) Friederike Teutsch, Collapsing Expectation, National Identity and Disintegration of the State in Somalia (1999) Walter Clarke, Jeffrey Herbst (eds.), Learning from Somalia: The Lessons of Armed Humanitarian Intervention (1997) UN Publications, The United Nations and Somalia, (1996) Said S. Samatar, Somalia: A Nation in Turmoil (1991) Ahmed I. Samatar, Socialist Somalia: Rhetoric and Reality (1988) Restore Hope and assumed command of the United Task Force (UNITAF). UNITAF forces entered Somalia in mid-december 1992 and soon gained control of major airports, seaports, roads, and food distribution points. By early 1993, approximately 37,000 UNITAF troops had been deployed from more than 20 countries. UNITAF forces controlled 40% of Somali territory, mainly in the South. However, large parts of Somalia remained extremely dangerous for UN personnel. UNISOM II was established in early 1993 to complete the work of UNITAF. Taking over from UNITAF in May 1993, UNISOM II s efforts were regularly disrupted by continued unprovoked attacks on UN personnel. These attacks continued throughout 26

21 1993, resulting in the deaths of more than 100 UN peacekeepers. As a result of continued violence and the failure of a number of cease-fires UNISOM II s strength was reduced during 1994, and the mission s peacekeepers were entirely withdrawn by March Although the intractability of the Somali clans meant that the UN missions were unable to achieve their goal of establishing a functioning state apparatus in Somalia, the presence of peacekeepers during significantly improved the provision of humanitarian assistance to the Somali people, saving many hundreds of thousands of lives. An interim government, the Transitional National Government, was formed in October The TNG comprises a President, Prime Minister and 245 members of an interim National Assembly. Despite this development, Somalia remains wracked with violence and banditry, and other clan and regional governing bodies continue to wield authority in many parts of the country. Australia contributed personnel to both the UNITAF and UNISOM II missions. For a more detailed account of Australia s involvement see the article reproduced from Army in this volume. UNPROFOR -- UN Protection Force in Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina and Macedonia ( ) UNPROFOR was originally established in Croatia as an interim arrangement to create the conditions of peace and security needed to negotiate an overall settlement of the Yugoslav crisis. UNPROFOR was instituted in February 1992 with a mandate to ensure that the three United Nations Protected Areas (UNPAs) in Croatia were demilitarised and all people living in these areas were protected from the fear of armed attack. This mandate was increased to include monitoring functions in certain other areas of Croatia, control the movement of civilians, perform immigration and customs functions, deliver humanitarian relief in Bosnia- Herzegovina, assist the security and functioning of Sarajevo airport, and protect UN personnel and preventive deployment in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Several Australians served with UNPROFOR as military observers and in liaison roles. On 31 March 1995, it was decided to restructure UNPROFOR, replacing it with three separate but interlinked peacekeeping operations. ONUMOZ -- UN Operation in Mozambique ( ) ONUMOZ was established in December 1992 to help implement the General Peace Agreement signed by the President of the Republic of Mozambique and the President of the Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana (RENAMO). The mandate of ONUMOZ was to facilitate the implementation of the Peace Agreement, monitor and verify the ceasefire, provide technical assistance and monitor the electoral process, provide security for vital infrastructure, disband private and irregular armed groups and coordinate and monitor humanitarian assistance operations. Up to 20 Australians served under ONUMOZ in 1994, including members of the AFP and in mine clearance roles. After the successful presidential and legislative elections and the installation of the President of Mozambique in late 1994, 27

22 ONUMOZ s mandate came to an end and the mission was formally disbanded in January UNAMIR -- UN Assistance Mission in Rwanda ( ) In brief, UNAMIR was established in October 1993 to assist in ensuring the security of the capital of Kigali, monitor the ceasefire and establish demilitarised areas, monitor the security situation during the final period of the transitional Government s mandate leading up to elections, assist with mine-clearance and assist in the coordination of humanitarian assistance activities, and later the safety and security of civilians who sought refuge with UNAMIR. In 1994, a contingent of 308 Australians was deployed to UNAMIR to serve as medical personnel (115), infantry protection and support troops. UNAMIR also assisted in the establishment and training of a new national police force. UNAMIR was disbanded in March RWANDA UNAMIR, UNOMUR proclaimed its independence in 1961 after a successful people s revolution overthrew the country s Tutsi monarchy. Grégoire Kayibanda and the Parti du Mouvement de l'emancipation du Peuple Hutu (Party for the Emancipation of the Hutu People) lead the transfer of power from the Tutsi minority to Rwanda s Hutu majority. Grégoire Kayibanda became independent Rwanda s first president. In the wake of the revolution many members of the Tutsi minority fled Rwanda although over the next decades they made a series of armed attempts to regain power. In Rwanda, the removal of Tutsis from the government and administration created a power vacuum that led to intense conflict between Hutu politicians in particular across the nation s northsouth regional divide One of the world s most densely populated countries, Rwanda is located in central Africa, bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Burundi and Tanzania (see map on following page). Combined with Burundi, the territory was part of German East Africa until After the First World War Rwanda and Burundi remained a single unit (Ruanda-Urundi) administered by Belgium under a League of Nations mandate..the conflict between north and south led to a military coup in 1973 that removed Kayibanda (a southerner) from office. The Kayibanda government was replaced by an administration lead by Major General Juvénal Habyarimana (a northerner) who ruled Rwanda for the next 21 years. Although the Belgian mandate did not expire until 1962, the territory had In 1990, shortly after Habyarimana announced a programme of 28

23 democratisation, the Tutsi-Hutu ethnic conflict escalated when armed Tutsi Rwanda members of the Rwandan Patriotic Front General Information and Statistics (RPF) invaded Rwandan territory from their bases in Uganda. Ethnic and political tensions remained high despite a cease-fire negotiated in 1991 and talks between the RPF and Habyarimana s government resulting in a 1992 peace accord signed in Arusha, Tanzania. As a result of the accord a 50-member Neutral Military Observer Group (NMOG I) furnished by the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was stationed in Rwanda. Nevertheless, hostilities resumed in the northern part of the country in early February Rwanda accused Uganda of providing a safe haven for FRP guerrillas and the conflict between the two nations led to the first UN mission in Rwanda the United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR) was stationed in Uganda to monitor the border with Rwanda in an attempt to control the movement of troops and military equipment. People Population: 7,312,756 Infant mortality rate: deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: years Ethnic groups: Hutu 84%, Tutsi 15%, Twa (Pygmoid) 1% Religions: Roman Catholic 52.7%, Protestant 24%, Adventist 10.4%, Muslim 1.9%, indigenous beliefs and other 6.5%, none 4.5% Literacy: 48% Population below poverty line: 70% Government Rwanda is a republic, governed by a multiparty legislature, the head of state is a popularly elected president. The present form of government is based on the new national constitution adopted in May 1995 by the Transitional National Assembly. Rwanda s legal system is based on German and Bel Belgian civil law with elements of local customary law. The Rwandan Government has supported the presence of the UN s Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda. However, lack of funding has prevented the adequate staffing of the Human Rights Field Operation since mid The Arusha talks of 1993 established the need for a UN presence in Rwanda itself and the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was established with a mandate to contribute to the establishment and maintenance of a climate conducive to the secure installation and subsequent operation of the transitional Government. While UNAMIR forces were prepared for deployment a second NMOG force (NMOG II) remained in Rwanda. UNAMIR began by ensuring the security and stability of Kigali. The mission took command of UNOMUR and NMOG II forces, monitored the ceasefire, established an extended de-militarised Economy Approximately 90% of Rwanda s population live in rural areas and are engaged in subsistence agriculture. As Rwanda is the most densely populated country in Africa the population pressures on the country s environmental are immense. Rwanda has few natural resources and almost no local industries. Although the country s primary exports remain coffee and tea, production is yet to recover from the civil war and genocide of the 1990s. The economy remains vulnerable to shifts in the volatile international markets for coffee and tea. Information courtesy of the UN Statistics Division the CIA s World Factbook see and the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade see 29

24 zone (DMZ), and began to demobilise RPF forces in preparation for elections. UNIMIR also focused on the humanitarian crisis caused by the radical increase in the number of displaced persons in Rwanda. Refugees were living in a large number of camps in which severe malnutrition and disease were rampant. Although by mid-1993 approximately 600,000 people had returned to their homes, at least 300,000 still remained in the camps. In April 1994, President Juvénal Habyarimana of Rwanda and President Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi were killed when their aircraft mysteriously crashed at Kigali airport. One broadly supported theory contends that Hutu extremists, opposed power-sharing with the largely Tutsi RPF, shot down the plane. In the three months following the Presidents deaths, Rwanda was overwhelmed by wave after wave of genocidal killings and civil war; between 500,000 and one million people were killed. Tutsis were the main target of the killings, but Hutus believed to sympathise with Tutsis were also killed, as were Rwandan politicians and members of the intelligentsia. The violence created a humanitarian crisis of massive proportions as hundreds of thousands of refugees fled the country. UNIMIR personnel were attacked and a number of Belgian peacekeepers were killed. Belgium withdrew its battalion and the UN was faced with a situation in which only a massive reinforcement of the peacekeepers could potentially stabilise the situation. As member states were extremely reluctant to further increase the number of personnel deployed in Rwanda, only 270 UNIMIR personnel remained in Rwanda as of April 1994 to act as intermediaries between the conflicting parties. All humanitarian personnel were evacuated to surrounding countries. In June 1994, the French government took command of Operation Turquoise authorised under Chapter VII of the Charter to pursue by all possible means the provision of humanitarian aid to the Rwandan people. Operation Turquoise established a humanitarian protected zone in southwestern Rwanda that covered approximately a fifth of the nation s territory. Operation Turquoise was designed as an interim measure to remain active while UNAMIR reached its full authorised strength of 5,500 personnel. As it was, it would not be until October 1994 three months after the RPF had itself taken power and stopped the genocide that UNIMIR was established at full strength in Rwanda. As a result of the successful RPF offensive and fearing retribution, more than 2 million Hutus fled Rwanda for surrounding countries. Hutu leaders retained control in many of the refugee camps that were subsequently established and prevented many of the refugees from returning home. The situation inside Rwanda remained extremely unstable and attacks on UNIMIR personnel continued throughout 1994 and It was not until 1996 that the situation in Rwanda allowed UNIMIR to withdraw. During 1996 and 1997 many of the Hutu refugees returned to Rwanda, however, Hutu militias (interhamwe) began military action against the RPF government from bases in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) causing RPF forces to enter the DRC. 30

25 The Lusaka Peace Accords signed in SPPKF - South Pacific Peace were designed to resolve this Keeping Force [Bougainville] continuing conflict, however, fighting (1994) continues. In Rwanda the RPF has established a government and begun the difficult tasks of repatriating refugees, resuscitating the largely subsistence economy and beginning the judicial process against those accused of perpetrating the 1994 genocide 130,000 people remain imprisoned awaiting trial. In March 1999, the UN Secretary- General commissioned an independent inquiry into the failure of the UN and the international community to halt the genocide in Rwanda. The inquiry concluded that a lack of political will and a failure to commit resources on the part of the international community had greatly exacerbated the extent of the tragedy. Further Reading Gerard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (1998) Ian Martin, After Genocide: The United Nations Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda (1998) UNITAR, Humanitarian Action and Peacekeeping Operations: Debriefing and Lessons (1997) United Nations, The United Nations and Rwanda, (1996) R M Connaughton, Military Support and Protection for Humanitarian Assistance in Rwanda (1996) Alain Destexhe, Rwanda and Genocide in the Twentieth Century (1995) Obi Igwara (ed.), Ethnic Hatred: Genocide in Rwanda (1995) In brief, SPPKF was a coalition operation to support a political initiative by the Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea to bring about a peaceful resolution to the secessionist conflict on Bougainville. It was established in September 1994 to provide a secure environment and transport for the delegates attending the Bougainville Peace Conference in October The operation involved 645 Australian personnel (RAN, Army, RAAF), including the Force Commander, and personnel from New Zealand, Tonga, Vanuatu and Fiji. Bougainville An Anglo-German treaty on Samoa placed Bougainville in German hands from The island was occupied by Australian soldiers in 1914, and placed under John Pearn, Reflections of Rwanda: A Selected Photo-archive of service with the Forward Surgical Team, the Australian Medical Support Force,UNAMIR II, Rwanda (1995) Australian administration in Japanese forces occupied Bougainville from 1942 until the end of WWII despite the U.S. occupation of most of the island in 31

26 1944, a Japanese garrison remained until After 1945, Bougainville was again subject to Australian administration as part of Australia s mandate under the UN Trust Territory of New Guinea. When Australia granted Papua New Guinea independence in 1975, Bougainville remained part of the new nation. The movement of the majority of profits from the Panguna copper-mine offshore combined with its environmental and social havoc wreaked by the operation to give rise to strong secessionist feeling among the inhabitants of the island. A rebel insurrection began on Bougainville in 1988 and succeeded in closing the mines the following year. The conflict began with campaigns organized in the late 1980s by local landowners in the Central Bougainville Mountains. Acting on the secessionist feelings of many islanders the initial campaigns protested against the environmental degradation and disruption of indigenous culture caused by mining operations, as well as the perceived paucity of compensation and royalty payments paid to islanders. A nine-year secessionist revolt followed, ending in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives. The Agreement on Peace, Security and Development in Bougainville was signed by the Papua New Guinean Government, the Transitional Government in Bougainville, the Bougainville Resistance Force, the Bougainville Interim Government, the Bougainville Revolutionary Army and other leaders from the island on 23 January 1998 at Lincoln University in Christchurch, New Zealand. This agreement was endorsed by the UN Security Council on 22 April On 30 April 1998, another agreement covering the implementation of the ceasefire in Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, was signed in Arawa, Bougainville, supplementing the Agreement on Peace, Security and Development. Australian forces have been involved in the multinational Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) since The PMG provides a neutral presence, trusted by all parties, that maintains communication between the participants in the peace process. The PMG consists of the HQ in Arawa, a Logistics Support Team (LST) and five Monitoring Teams (MTs) based around the island. Bougainville General Information and Statistics Population: 200,000 People Infant mortality: deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: 63.1 years Economy Home to Panguna, one of the largest open-cut mines in the world. Much of the population lives by subsistence farming and fishing. MNF -- Multinational Force [Haiti] ( ) In 1990, the UN observed Haiti s first democratic elections. The first democratically elected President, Jean Bertrand Aristide, (elected with 67 per cent of the vote) was overthrown in a military coup d etat on 30 September 1991, forcing the President into exile. The UN mediated an agreement for the return of Haiti to a democracy. Haiti s military leaders did not comply with the agreement and in 1994 the Security Council authorised the formation of a multinational force to facilitate the leader s departure. After the MNF took control, the exiled President returned to Haiti in The Australian 32

27 contingent serving with the MNF, from TMG -- Truce Monitoring October 1994 until March 1995, Group [Bougainville] (1997- consisted of 25 AFP officers, three 1998) Victorian Police officers and two Queensland Police officers. The UN formally took over from the MNF on 31 March MINUGUA -- UN Verification Mission in Guatemala (1997) The peacekeeping mission within the larger civilian and humanitarian MINUGUA mission was established by the Security Council on 20 January 1997 to verify agreement on the definitive ceasefire between the Government of Guatemala and the Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG), which was signed in Oslo on 4 December Verification functions under the Oslo agreement included observation of a formal cessation of hostilities, the separation of forces and the demobilisation of URNG combatants in assembly points specifically prepared for this purpose. Australia provided one military observer to serve with MINUGUA. MINUGUA was disbanded on 27 May S-FOR -- Stabilisation Force [Balkans] (1997-present) At the London Conference on 4/5 December 1996 all parties signed up to a continuation of the international presence in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Following the passing of the mandate under UN Security Council Resolution 1088, the NATO-led Peace Implementation Force (IFOR) operation terminated on 20 December 1996, being replaced by the S-FOR. As at 1 January 1997, the deployment was planned for an 18-month duration with reviews every six months. Six ADF officers were attached to the British forces serving under S-FOR. Peace talks were held in Burnham, New Zealand in October 1997 to settle the long-running conflict between the Papua New Guinea government and the separatist Bougainville Revolutionary Army. A Truce Monitoring Group was deployed to Bougainville. Four AFP officers served with the TMG until its operations concluded in April 1998 and it was replaced with a Peace Monitoring Group. PMG -- Peace Monitoring Group [Bougainville] (1998- present) The PMG was established in 1998 to replace the Truce Monitoring Group, observe the ceasefire and help bring peace to the island. About 250 Australian civilians and soldiers were initially deployed working as peace monitors. Currently there are 190 military personnel and 18 civilian monitors deployed. Two AFP police monitors were originally deployed on a 12 week rotational basis. The PMG operations in Bougainville are still continuing. Lance Corporal Shawn Lewis was killed in a diving accident on 20 May UNAMET -- UN Assistance Mission to East Timor (June- October 1999) In 1975 Indonesia invaded the Portuguese colony of East Timor. After almost a quarter-century of bloodshed in the territory, a new Indonesian government under President Habibie agreed to allow the East Timorese to vote on their future. UNAMET was established by Security Council Resolution 1246 on 11 June 33

28 1999 to organise and conduct the ballot One Australian soldier died from in order to ascertain whether the East illness in January Timorese people accepted or rejected the proposed constitutional framework providing for a special autonomy for UNTAET -- UN Transitional East Timor within the unitary Republic Administration in East Timor of Indonesia. Fifty members of the AFP served with UNAMET from June (October 1999-present) The role of civilian police in UNAMET was to advise members of UNTAET was established on 25 the Indonesian police in the course of October 1999 under the Security their duties and to escort ballot boxes Council s Resolution after the vote. The ballot was UNTAET s mandate is to provide conducted on 30 August 1999 and the East Timorese people voted strongly against autonomy under Indonesia and to begin a process of transition towards independence. In the wake of the ballot, much violence occurred, many East Timorese were killed and as many as 500,000 were displaced from their homes. About half left the territory, some by force. INTERFET -- International Force East Timor (September February 2000) In September 1999 the Security Council authorised INTERFET, headed by Australia, to restore peace and security in East Timor, protect and support UNAMET in carrying out its tasks and facilitate humanitarian assistance operations. About 5,500 Australian troops were sent to East Timor as part of Australia s contribution to the multinational force. Major General Peter Cosgrove commanded the force for five months until February Civilian police, including the AFP, carried out monitoring and advisory duties under INTERFET. At the beginning of operations, INTERFET airdropped supplies of food and medicine and protected convoys carrying aid workers, making sure supplies got to the East Timorese people. security and maintain law and order throughout East Timor, establish an effective administration, assist in the development of civil and social services, ensure the coordination and delivery of humanitarian, rehabilitation and development assistance, support capacity-building for self government and assist in the establishment of conditions for sustainable development. The mission established its headquarters in Dili and began the deployment of personnel. The handover of military operations from INTERFET to UNTAET was completed on 28 February About 2,000 Australian troops remain in East Timor, under UNTAET, protecting the western border of the territory. 34

29 Corporal Stuart Jones was accidentally killed on 9 August IPMT - International Peace Monitoring Team [Solomon Islands] (November present) IPMT was established as a result of the Townsville Accord. Currently there are 22 ADF personnel, 20 AFP officers and one ship for logistics support deployed. East Timor UNAMET, INTERFET, UNTAET The question of East Timor s selfdetermination has been on the UN agenda since 1960, when, while still administered by Portugal, East Timor was added to the UN list of Non-Self- Governing Territories. In 1974, the territory was plunged into civil war after the Portuguese administration encouraged the formation of a provisional government and a popular assembly to determine the future of East Timor proponents of integration with Indonesia caused widespread violence and destruction in the territory. As the fighting escalated, Portugal withdrew and the territory was soon occupied by Indonesian military forces and subsequently incorporated into Indonesia. The UN has always refused to recognise the legitimacy of the Indonesian occupation and the Security Council and General Assembly have repeatedly called for Indonesia to withdraw its troops from East Timor. Only in 1998, after many attempts by the UN to resolve the situation, did the Indonesian government indicate that limited autonomy for East Timor might be possible although under this proposal the territory would remain a part of Indonesia. As a result, Indonesia and Portugal signed a series of agreements in New York on 5 May 1999, agreeing to allow a UNsponsored popular consultation to take place. The people of East Timor would vote to accept or reject special autonomy for East Timor within the unitary Republic of Indonesia. The United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) began on 11 June 1999 in order to co-ordinate the vote of the East Timorese people. According to the agreements of 5 May, UNAMET would also be responsible for the territory until the people s decision could be fully implemented. Against all the odds mountainous terrain, poor roads, primitive communications, a highly volatile situation, and little time UNAMET was able to register 451,792 voters among a population of more than 800,000, both in East Timor and abroad. On 30 August 1999, 98% of those registered cast their votes, 78.5% voting to reject the proposal for special autonomy and instead begin working towards full independence. Sadly, the announcement of the result was followed by a protracted campaign of violence and property destruction by pro-integration militias supported by elements of the Indonesian security forces. Ignoring their responsibilities under the 5 May agreements the Indonesian authorities consistently failed to deal with the violence. As a result, more than 500,000 people were displaced from their homes and many thousands lost their lives. The violence forced around 250,000 East Timorese to leave the territory. When diplomatic efforts by the UN Secretary-General and Security Council failed to either halt the 35

30 violence or persuade Indonesia to meet its security responsibilities in the East Timor territory, work began towards General Information and Statistics organising an international force to safeguard the people of East Timor. As People a result of increased international Population: 800,000 pressure including the US threat of Infant mortality (per 1000 live births): 121 sanctions and a Security Council Life expectancy years mission to Jakarta and Dili the Indonesian government finally agreed Government to allow an international force into East East Timor is currently administered by the Timor in September The United Nations Transitional Administration in Security Council subsequently East Timor (UNTAET). UNTAET works with authorised the international force the Second Transitional Government, a Council of Ministers and the newly elected (30 August (INTERFET), led by Australia, to 2001) Constituent assembly. deploy in East Timor in order to: restore peace and security; protect and support UNAMET; and, to facilitate humanitarian assistance operations. The Constituent Assembly was elected to write and implement a new national Constitution and design the framework for future elections and the final transition to East Timor s full independence as a democratic and sovereign nation. At the same time, the UN began a massive emergency humanitarian relief effort. UN assistance ranged from airdrops of food to the provision of emergency shelter and basic services to the thousands of displaced people. The deployment of further humanitarian workers, supplies and equipment increased as the security situation stabilised. INTERFET s successful stabilisation of East Timor also allowed UN personnel to begin the process of voluntary repatriation of those displaced to West Timor and other parts of Indonesia by the violence. Following the initial outbreak of violence the Indonesian Armed forces and police began to withdraw from East Timor, followed by Indonesian administrators. In late September 1999, Indonesia and Portugal reaffirmed their commitment to the transfer of authority in East Timor to the UN. Both also agreed that a transitional administration would be necessary as a Economy East Timor is one of the poorest territories in South-East Asia. It remains an agricultural economy with around 85% of the population living in rural areas. Coffee is East Timor s sole significant export. East Timor s fragile economy was completely devastated by the violence that followed the Popular Consultation in Pro-Indonesian militias destroyed at least 70% of the nation s infrastructure during this period and both public and private sectors of the economy completely collapsed. The violence also radically disrupted the agricultural cycle, destroyed local stores of food and seed stock, and resulted in all payments systems ceasing to function after every bank in the territory was looted. East Timor remains reliant on international assistance and will require assistance for a significant period after national independence next year. Major financial assistance to East Timor is presently organised through two trust funds: the UN s Consolidated Trust Fund and the World Bank s Trust Fund for East Timor (TFET). Information courtesy of the UN Statistics Division the CIA s World Factbook the World Bank at and the result Australian of Department the premature of Foreign Affairs departure and Trade see of Indonesian civil authorities. As a 36

31 result, UNAMET returned to its Dili headquarters on 28 September. The Indonesian government formally recognised the decision of the East Timorese people on 19 October A week later the UN Security Council established the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) as an international peacekeeping operation responsible for the transitional administration of the territory until East Timor s full independence. In UN resolution 1272 (1999), UNTAET is mandated to: provide security and maintain law and order throughout the territory of East Timor; establish an effective administration; to assist in the development of civil and social services; ensure the co-ordination and delivery of humanitarian assistance, rehabilitation and development assistance; support capacity-building for selfgovernment; assist in the establishment of conditions for sustainable development. Further Reading Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, East Timor in Transition : An Australian Policy Challenge (2001) Noam Chomsky, A New Generation Draws the Line: Kosovo, East Timor and the Standards of the West (2001) Ian Martin, Self-Determination in East Timor: The United Nations, the Ballot, and International Intervention (2001) Peter Chalk, Australian Foreign and Defence Policy in the Wake of the 1999/2000 East Timor Intervention (in Press) Heike Krieger (ed.), East Timor and the International Community: Basic Documents (1997) Geoffrey C. Gunn, East Timor and the UN: The Case for Intervention (1997) José Ramos-Horta, Funu: The Unfinished Saga of East Timor (1987) The website of the transitional administration in East Timor is at: IRAQ & AFGHANISTAN OPERATION CATALYST, OPERATION SLIPPER Command of military operations from INTERFET to UNTAET was officially transferred on 28 February The people of East Timor went to the polls a second time on 30 August 2001 exactly two years after the Popular Consultation to elect a Constituent Assembly. The Assembly is working with the Second Transitional Government, the Council of Ministers and UNTAET to govern East Timor until full independence as a sovereign nation in the first half of Elections have occurred in 2007 Iraq and Afghanistan are current deployments The Australian Army currently has significant forces deployed on two major operations: OPERATION CATALYST - Australia's commitment to the Coalition forces in Iraq. The army's contribution includes: Al Muthanna Task Group; this is a battlegroup consisting of a headquarters, infantry company, armoured squadron and training team, with a total of 450 personnel. This has 37

32 IRAQ Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series of military strongmen ruled the country until 2003, the last was SADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war ( ). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War of January-February Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. Coalition forces remain in Iraq under a UNSC mandate, helping to provide security and to support the freely elected government. The Coalition Provisional Authority, which temporarily administered Iraq after the invasion, transferred full governmental authority on 28 June 2004 to the Iraqi Interim Government, which governed under the Transitional Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL, elections for a 275- member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) were held in Iraq on 30 January Following these elections, the Iraqi Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA was charged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which was approved in a 15 October 2005 constitutional referendum. An election under the constitution for a 275-member Council of Representatives (CoR) was held on 15 December The CoR approval in the selection of most of the cabinet ministers on 20 May 2006 marked the transition from the ITG to Iraq's first constitutional government in nearly a half-century. two tasks: -1) Provide a secure environment for the Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group (JIRSG) 2) assist in the training of local Iraqi Army units so that they are able to take over the internal and external defence of their country The Australian Army Training Team has 55 personnel providing logistic training to the new Iraqi Army. Other tasks include Embassy security detatchment which provides security protection and escort for staff at the Australian Embassy in Baghdad, and consists of 100 personnel. AFGHANISTAN OPERATION SLIPPER Australia's commitment to the War on Terror. The army contribution is primarily concentrated in Afghanistan and consists of a Special Operations Task Group of personnel from the Special Air Service Regiment, 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment and Incident Response Regiment. 38

33 AFGHANISTAN Ahmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes and founded Afghanistan in The country served as a buffer between the British and Russian empires until it won independence from notional British control in A brief experiment in democracy ended in a 1973 coup and a 1978 Communist counter-coup. The Soviet Union invaded in 1979 to support the tottering Afghan Communist regime, touching off a long and destructive war. The USSR withdrew in 1989 under relentless pressure by internationally supported anti-communist mujahedin rebels. Subsequently, a series of civil wars saw Kabul finally fall in 1996 to the Taliban, a hardline Pakistani-sponsored movement that emerged in 1994 to end the country's civil war and anarchy. Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in New York City, a US, Allied, and anti-taliban Northern Alliance military action toppled the Taliban for sheltering Osama BIN LADIN. The UN-sponsored Bonn Conference in 2001 established a process for political reconstruction that included the adoption of a new constitution and a presidential election in 2004, and National Assembly elections in On 7 December 2004, Hamid KARZAI became the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. The National Assembly was inaugurated on 19 December he-world-factbook In addition to these, small numbers of personnel are deployed on various operations around the world, including Timor-Leste, the Solomon Islands, and on peacekeeping duties with the Multinational Force and Observers and the United Nations. Solomon Islands The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon Islands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War II occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in 1976 and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil society. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allen KEMAKEZA sought the assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; the following month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived to restore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effective in restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions 39

34 Revolution of the Carnations in Throughout the dictatorship, East Timor was viewed as a colonial backwater and used as a convenient dumping ground for the regime s opponents. East Timor A Brief History from a New Zealand Perspective Lt. Col. G. Harper NZDF Portuguese traders first settled on the island of Timor in the early 16 th century (c.1520) with the Spanish arriving soon after. Iberian activities in Timor were limited to the exploitation of the islands once-extensive sandalwood forests and the conversion of the Timorese to Christianity. In 1613, the Dutch took possession of the western part of the island. Tensions between the Dutch and the Portuguese flared periodically and were resolved only in the 19 th century with treaties signed between Portugal and the Netherlands in 1860 and These treaties defined the existing borders between East and West Timor including the Oecussi enclave Portugal took control of East Timor, while the Netherlands retained the West. In May 1926, the parliamentary government of Portugal was overthrown by a military coup. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar, a prominent Portuguese economist, was offered the position of finance minister by the military government in 1928, and in 1932 was appointed as prime minister, establishing the longest surviving dictatorial regime in Europe. Under Salazar s rule Portugal clung to its colonies in Africa and Asia despite the general mid-century trend towards European de-colonisation. Although Salazar suffered a serious stroke in 1968 and died two years later, his regime remained in power until the During World War II, Australian troops landed in Dili despite protests from Portugal. On the 19 th of February, 10 days after their attack on Pearl Harbour, 1000 Japanese troops occupied Dili. New Zealand s Contribution to UNTAET National Command Element (NCE) NZ personnel in the capital, Dili, who provide overall command of NZ Army elements in UNTAET. Headquarters Peace-Keeping Force (HQPKF) NZ personnel, also based in Dili, who work within the peace-keeping branch of HQUNTAET. A NZ colonel is the UNTAET Deputy Chief of Staff and the NZ Senior National Officer. Office of Defence Force Development - RNZN and NZ Army personnel providing weapon firing range control training for the East Timorese Army. A NZ Small Arms Training Team also provides weapon handling training. Headquarters Sector West (HQ Sec West) Sector West (Suai) is the location of the Australian and NZ battalions. The Chief of Staff is a NZ lieutenant colonel. NZBatt4 Attached to NZBatt4 are an Irish infantry platoon, a Singaporean platoon, and an infantry company each from Nepal and Fiji. Detachment from 3 Squadron, RNZAF 4 Iroquois helicopters and 66 crew and support personnel. UN Military Observers (UNMOs) 5 NZ Army officers at teamsites in various locations in East Timor. UNTAET. Quoted from: 40

35 In a classic guerrilla campaign, 327 colonial period as one in which the Australians struggled against the East Timorese were all equal citizens Japanese from the mountains around of a great Portuguese empire. Dili until January 1943, successfully tying down 20,000 Japanese troops. The Australian resistance resulted in the deaths of 1,500 Japanese soldiers for the loss of only 40 men. The East Timor campaign is now held up as a model guerrilla operation, with Australian troops only able to operate successfully through the support of the local East Timorese population. Australia withdrew its troops in 1943 and the Japanese occupied East Timor for another 2 years. More than 40,000 In Portugal on the 25 April 1974, the Armed Forces Movement mounted a coup that toppled Salazar s successor, Marcelo Caetano. The Revolution of the Carnations, as this coup came to be known, won general popular support and began a movement towards the restoration of parliamentary democracy in Portugal and a programme of peaceful de-colonisation. The news of the Lisbon coup d etat reached Timor via Radio Australia, and Portuguese news of the Lisbon coup d etat reached Timor via Radio Australia, and Portuguese officials soon encouraged the emergence of new political parties Timorese were killed during the period of Japanese occupation. After World War II, East Timor was returned to vagaries of a Portuguese colonial rule characterised by neglect, a lack of investment Portugal was the poorest country in Western Europe at this time and a total disinterest in developing the colony. By the end of World War I, centuries of exploitation had finally exhausted the island s sandalwood reserves as a commercially viable resource, and coffee became Timor s only important export crop. By 1960, only 6% of East Timorese children attended primary school, and by 1974 the average annual income in East Timor was only 30 Australian dollars. Despite the ills of Portuguese rule, however, many East Timorese regard this period with affection. A certain colonial mystique has combined with the realities of common intermarriage, the lack of a colour bar and little anti-colonial political activity or violence (as seen in Angola or Mozambique), to create a vision of the vision of the colonial period as one in which the East Timorese were all equal citizens of a great Portuguese empire. In Portugal on the 25 April 1974, the Armed Forces Movement mounted a coup that toppled Salazar s successor, Marcelo Caetano. The Revolution of the Carnations, as this coup came to be known, won general popular support and began a movement towards the restoration of parliamentary democracy in Portugal and a programme of peaceful de-colonisation. The news of the Lisbon coup d etat reached Timor via Radio Australia, and Portuguese officials soon encouraged the emergence of new political parties as part of a drive for East Timorese autonomy. Within five weeks, two main parties and one minor party of significance emerged. The first major party to form was the UDT (Timor Democratic Union). Formed on the 11 th of May 1974, it consisted of government officials and 41

36 small farmers. The most conservative of the parties, the UDT was strongly anti-communist. Its main objective was progressive autonomy through the formation of a Federation with Portugal with an aim of complete independence in 15 to 20 years. For the UDT, economic development was seen as key to East Timorese independence. The UDT started as the largest of East Timor s political parties, however, a dearth of a coherent policies and continual internal conflict caused the party to lose ground to the other major party, Fretilin. Fretilin (Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor) was formed on the 20 th of May 1974, describing itself as socialist, democratic and anticolonial. Fretilin s party leadership consisted of ex-priests, minor officials and Army NCOs. The party was essentially populist, Catholic and mildly socialist; at the centre of their political programme was the drive towards independence within 8 to 10 years. Fretilin was the best organised of the new East Timorese political parties, and focused a considerable part of its energy on East Timor s largely rural population resident outside the main centres. As a result, Fretilin s membership grew rapidly and quickly outpaced that of the UDT. The other significant party was Apodeti (Timorese Popular Democratic Association), formed on 27 May Believing that East Timor was not a viable economic entity and that the territory would not survive alone, Apodeti advocated integration with Indonesia with a certain degree of autonomy. Party members were mostly drawn from the two provinces bordering West Timor, and although they never numbered more than a few hundred, Apodeti soon became a vehicle for overt Indonesian propaganda and subversive Indonesian military operations. In Feb 1975, Australian journalist Robin Osborne estimated that support for the three major political parties was approximately: UDT, 10%; Apodeti, 5%; Fretilin, 60%; with 25% of East Timorese assumed to be too remote, illiterate or apolitical to be included. With this flurry of political activity, the year 1975 marked a watershed in East Timor s history; it was a year that began with high hopes for a new national life and identity and ended in tragedy. In January 1975, the UDT and Fretilin joined in an uneasy coalition that lasted until May the same year. During this period, Indonesia increased its efforts to destabilise the territory through Operation Komodo, a covert military intelligence operation. On the 20 th of August 1975, civil war broke out in East Timor between the UDT and Fretilin. Although the violence lasted less than a month, at its conclusion more than 2,000 East Timorese soldiers had left their barracks and joined Fretilin. By the end of September, UDT had collapsed as a political entity and many of its members had been forced to leave East Timor. The decisive defeat of UDT caught Indonesia, Australia and Portugal by surprise; Indonesia reacted by beginning to build up troops in West Timor. On the 16 th of October 1975, Indonesian troops attempted to cross the East Timor border but were repulsed by Fretilin s armed forces, Falintil. The Balibo incident, when five journalists were killed by Indonesian troops, also occurred at this time. On the 20 th of November, the second major Indonesian offensive began at Atabai and Indonesian forces took the town in two weeks. Fretilin issued their Unilateral Declaration of Independence a week later, on the 28 th of November On the 7 th of December, however, the Indonesian invasion began in force with the deployment of 42

37 10,000 troops. The next day the Portuguese abandoned East Timor ending over 450 years of occupation. The Indonesian invasion was followed by a formal annexation of the territory and East Timor became the 27 th province of Indonesia on the 17 th of July The occupation of East Timor was internationally condemned and Indonesia s claim to the territory remained unrecognised by the UN. Indeed, the only country to officially recognise Indonesia s actions was Australia. Under Indonesian rule, East Timor became a police state subject to a massive military presence, with at least 35,000 troops stationed in the territory at any one time. Indonesian military intelligence established a network of approximately 30,000 to 40,000 Informers paid around $12 per month, with freelancers gaining $1.50 per tip. It was forbidden to listen to foreign radio; literature was censored and talking to foreigners forbidden. In reaction to Indonesian oppression, Falintil confronted the Indonesian military with a long running war of resistance from 1975 to Approximately 200,000 East Timorese civilians were killed during this period along with 10,000 Indonesian soldiers. During its occupation of the territory, Indonesia invested $2.5 billion in East Timor, building roads, schools and hospitals. However, much of the money invested in the territory went to corrupt officials, and the military. Indonesia also sent thousands of migrants from other parts of Indonesia to East Timor to encourage the new province s integration. This tactic only served to further marginalise the people of East Timor, as the new Indonesian arrivals were granted exclusive access to the majority of government jobs and business opportunities (e.g., Timorese made up only 30% of Pub Public Servants and 10% of business people). Overall, after the Indonesian invasion, the East Timorese were marginalised in every aspect political and military life. In the 1990s, the situation in East Timor ceased being a forgotten tragedy. A number of separate issues led to this change: the collapse of USSR and the emerging nationalism of states previously subject to Soviet control combined with Gulf War rhetoric to renew international focus on the UN principles of national selfdetermination; massive media coverage of the massacre of unarmed demonstrators at Santa Cruz cemetery in 1991 and Bishop Belo s nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize brought international attention to the situation in East Timor; and ethnic cleaning in the former Yugoslavia highlighted the abuses suffered by citizens of subject states all over the world. International pressure, including a US threat of economic sanctions, encouraged Indonesia to accept a UN peacekeeping force in East Timor By 1998, Suharto had been replaced as Indonesian President by B.J. Habibie and Habibie was far more amenable to discussing the situation in East Timor. Portugal negotiated a provisional solution to the question of East Timor s autonomy by convincing Indonesia to allow a UN conducted referendum to take place in 1999 to settle the East Timor problem. It was decided that the UN would organise the Public Consultation, while the Indonesian Police would provide security. The 30 th of August 1999 was polling day for the Popular Consultation for East Timor, and 98% of the 451,792 43

38 people registered cast their vote. The establishment of a multinational force referendum asked whether East Timor in East Timor to take all necessary should become an autonomous region measures to end the killing and of Indonesia. There was considerable destruction. On the same day the UN violence in the lead up to the Secretary General asked Australia to referendum, some of it sponsored by lead this force: the International Force Indonesian police and there were for East Timor (INTERFET). warnings of dire consequences if the vote went against Indonesia. Despite the violence, the result of the referendum was an overwhelming rejection of the Indonesian proposal. The idea of special autonomy within Indonesia gained only 21.5% of the popular vote, with 78.5% of East Timor s population rejecting the idea. As a result of this outcome, East Timor exploded into violence as pro- Indonesian militia gangs went on the rampage. Random violence and looting was combined with concerted attacks on churches and centres of support for East Timor s independence. Approximately 200,000 people fled from their homes and gangs of thugs emptied Dili, looted it, and then set the city on fire. Martial law was imposed but the Indonesian military was incapable or unwilling to contain the violence. By the 8 th of September, much of Dili was destroyed and the city had been deserted by its civilian population. Deliberate destruction turned East Timor s cities and towns into ghost towns, and continuing uncontrolled violence left East Timor a virtual wasteland as all vital infrastructure was destroyed. Indonesian sponsored this antiindependence violence in order to make it as hard as possible to rebuild East Timor and also to send out a stern warning to other rebellious provinces within the archipelago. Information about the various missions was compiled in January 2001 by the Department of Veterans Affairs using sources cited in the Resource List on page 84 and with assistance from the Australian War Memorial and the Australian Defence Force Peacekeeping Centre. International pressure, including a US threat of economic sanctions, encouraged Indonesia to accept a UN peacekeeping force in East Timor. On the 15 th of September 1999, the UN Security Council authorised the 44

39 capacity, enabling them to become Australian self-sufficient and contribute to a sustained and lasting peace. Federal Police This commitment generally lasts well beyond the mandate of a peace operation. Australia has a proud history of service in times of war and conflict and Australian police officers have served in peacekeeping operations around the world. While thousands of Australian sons and daughters have served in peace operations overseas, not all have been in the defence forces. It has been over 40 years since the first police peacekeeping deployment arrived in Cyprus, and Australian police continue to serve there today in what has become the world's longest sustained policing commitment. Australian police have also served in Namibia and Angola, Thailand, Cambodia, Mozambique, Haiti, Somalia and Bougainville. As local capacity increases, the development of police-to-police programs ensures the local authorities continue to benefit from the support and training of Australian police. This valuable contribution made by Australian police in peace operations has been recognised through the formation of the International Deployment Group with the Australian Federal Police. This group means Australia is able to deploy well-trained, well-equipped police contingents in line with the Government s commitments to assist other nations, whether they are in our own neighbourhood or on the other side of the world. The International Deployment Group builds on the close working relationship between police and the military in peace operations. This partnership enables Australia flexibility to assist other nations, with either the military or police taking the lead, according to the needs of each operation. Currently there are around 340 police officers deployed on operations in East Timor, the Solomon Islands, and Cyprus. Australian police serve as a distinct and separate role to the Australian Defence Force in peace operations. Where the military s role is to end or prevent hostilities, the role of our police is to uphold or restore the rule of law and to preserve the rights of the individual within the community. Their aim is to assist local authorities in rebuilding their law enforcement Even though the, the police and the military have distinct roles in peace operations, the risk of operating in strife-torn nations is not restricted to the military. Like our servicemen and women, police officers risked their own lives in their service to Australia. 45