Unit 2: Towards Confederation

Transcription

1 Unit 2: Towards Confederation Coming Up in Unit 2 Unit 1 explored the diversity of peoples involved in the origins of Canada. Unit 2 covers key events that affected relationships among those peoples, and that shaped the agreement that eventually founded Canada: Confederation. What challenges of coexistence did these events provoke? How did the solutions to those challenges affect the future? Unit 2 at a Glance Chapter 5: War and British Conquest During the 1700s, Britain gained possession of Acadia and then all of New France. What impact did British rule have on Canadien and First Nations peoples in Canada? Chapter 6: The United States Breaks Away The Thirteen Colonies fought Britain and broke away to form an independent country. Many people who wanted to maintain ties to Britain fled to Canada as refugees. How did this migration affect the peoples already living in Canada? How did conflicts with the U.S. shape Canada? 137

2 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives Chapter 7: The Great Migration and the Push for Democracy During the 1830s, Francophone and Anglophone Canadians fought for more control over their own affairs, as waves of migrants from Britain changed the make-up of the colonies population. Francophone: a person whose first language is French Anglophone: a persone whose first language is English Chapter 8: Confederation Confederation was an agreement among four colonies of British North America to form a country. What motivated this agreement? What ideas of citizenship shaped it? What kind of foundation did it establish for Canada? 138

3 CHAPTER 5 War and British Conquest What s Chapter 5 About? The last chapter talked about the competition between France and Britain to control the fur trade. This chapter focuses on the competition between France and Britain to control all of North America. This struggle to control North America had two main geographic divisions. Part of the struggle focused on the Atlantic coast, where Britain and France had trade routes with their North American colonies. The other focused on the interior, where the best fur country lay. Britain eventually won this struggle, and this had important consequences for the people living in North America. FOCUS QUESTIONS How did competition between Britain and France to control North America shape Canada? What challenges of coexistence among British, Canadien and First Nations peoples did it lead to? How did people meet those challenges? The French and British fought each other to control North America. Here, French fire ships attack the British fleet stationed in the St. Lawrence River at Québec in National Maritime Museum, London 139

4 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives CHAPTER TASK Prepare an Inquiry Plan Spring Issue Canadian Heritage Digest LOOKING FOR SOMETHING TO DO THIS SUMMER? Why not become part of our research team? Britain took control of North America in 1763 in a treaty with France. This event la Conquête or Conquest is an important moment in Canada s past. Canadian Heritage Digest has decided to publish a special commemorative issue devoted to this treaty and the events leading up to it. The special magazine edition will also be accompanied by a CD. We are currently offering summer research assistant scholarships to Canadian students to join our research team as we prepare for this issue. To apply for one of these prestigious scholarships: Identify a key event that led up to this pivotal moment in Canadian history. Give the background to this event and provide reasons to support why you believe this to be an important event. Present a list of information sources. Provide an annotated list of sources, including websites, to represent diverse points of view on this event. Select and describe the presentation format that you would like to use to communicate this information, either through our magazine or accompanying CD. Explain why you think this format is the best way to engage our readers. Submit a summary of your experience with other research projects within the last year. Describe your strengths in the area of research and what you have done to improve your skills. Also highlight your skills in working as a member of a team. As this commemorative issue will be available to the public through both the magazine and the CD, your research proposal can also be delivered in written or digital format. You may also request an interview to present your proposal. Canadian Heritage Digest is proud to make history come alive for its subscription members. We look forward to having you join our team! 140

5 War and British Conquest The Struggle for Acadia GET READY The next pages will present information to answer these focus questions from the beginning of the chapter: How did competition between Britain and France to control North America shape Canada? What challenges of coexistence among British, Canadien and First Nations peoples did it lead to? As you read, look for: cause struggle for Acadia effects Examples of competition between Britain and France. Examples of the challenges this competition created for different peoples. Your examples will link to each other through cause (competition) and effect (challenges). What kind of organizer would help you take notes on information linked through cause and effect? Check out the instructions for graphic organizers in the Skills Centre at the back of this book. Why Did France and Britain Compete to Control Acadia? Who would control Acadia? During the late 1600s, this became an important question for France, Britain and the Mi kmaq. For France and Britain, Acadia represented a base for attacking each other, and for protecting their own colonies and trade routes. For the Mi kmaq, Acadia formed part of their homeland. 141

6 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives Mi'kma ki: C mee-gmaw-gy The Mi kmaq called their homeland Mi kma ki. They had established a trading partnership with the French, and allowed French people to settle on their lands. The Mi kmaq and the settlers generally got along well. The French settlers drained and farmed salt marshes areas the Mi kmaq did not traditionally use. The Mi kmaq became allies of the French, but they did not consider themselves conquered by the French. Did France consider them conquered? When France drew the map of North America, Acadia was French, but France had never fought the Mi kmaq or asked for their surrender in any way. How might France s ideas of imperialism have contributed to this situation? What might be the reason that France didn t resolve the issue with the Mi kmaq? How might the Mi kmaqs understanding of the land as part of Creation, without owners have affected this situation? How did the geographic position of Acadia make it a centre of conflict between Britain and France in North America? Look at the map and think about: Where supply ships would pass. Both France and Britain had ships travelling through the Atlantic Ocean to and from their colonies. Where military ships would pass. What if New France decided to attack the Thirteen Colonies? What if the Thirteen Colonies decided to attack New France? Acadia, 1700 NEW FRANCE THIRTEEN COLONIES A c a d i a 0 W N S E 100 km Atlantic Ocean AREA OF MAP 142

7 War and British Conquest France had settlements in Acadia since So by the early 1700s, when the issue of controlling Acadia came to a head, several generations of Francophones had already called Acadia home. The Acadians, as they called themselves, had put down roots. They had built farms and planted orchards. They had formed a close association with the Mi kmaq, and marriages between Acadian and Mi kmaq people had taken place. Britain took control of Acadia in It had won a war in Europe against France the War of the Spanish Succession and gaining control of Acadia became part of the terms for peace. France and Britain set out these terms in an agreement they negotiated called the Treaty of Utrecht. Britain did not generally seek partnerships with First Nations. In the Thirteen Colonies, just south of Acadia, British settlers had pushed First Nations off the land. The Mi kmaq knew this, and fought British colonization of their homeland for almost forty years, from 1713 to The Mi kmaq war against Britain was the longest war against colonization in North America. Britain s takeover of Acadia did not end French and British conflict over the territory. In 1720, France built a huge fort and military base, called Louisbourg, on what is today Cape Breton Island. At the time, it was a piece of Acadia that France argued it still controlled. Britain responded with a military base of its own in 1749: Halifax. colonization: the process of one country establishing domination over a territory in another country or region RESPOND Think about the phases of the fur trade that you learned about in Chapter 4. In which phase does the struggle to control Acadia fall? To what extent does the history of the fur trade help explain the struggle for Acadia? 143

8 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives History Happens Eighteenth Century Edition Travel Section The newspaper from the past for today s reader. At Beautiful Belleisle, It s All About La Digue by Beatrix Chronos, your time-roving reporter ACADIA, 1754 I m here in Acadia, at the Belleisle marsh, visiting this land of small farms and friendly, hardworking people. People make me at home everywhere I go. Careful don t trip over la digue, jokes my amiable host, 38-year-old Acadian Henri-Philippe Brasseur. He has insisted that we take a walk out onto the marsh, the pride of his village. I m not likely to trip. The digue or dike stretches across the entire length of the marsh. It s almost two metres high, and wide enough for a horse and cart to travel along the top. The digue is an impressive structure, considering this tiny community has only about thirty houses. Yes, it took a lot of work to build it, smiles Brasseur. He adds, with his dry sense of humour, Lucky for me, my ancestors built it before I was born. There s still plenty of work for Brasseur and his community to do, though. The digue requires constant maintenance. Brasseur says the entire village works on it together, shoring up the walls and replanting sod whenever necessary. Few complain about the work, says Brasseur, because the entire community depends on the digue. Standing on top of it, I can understand why. On my right, towards the sea, there s nothing but swamp grass. To my left, stretching back towards the row of houses, lie crops of wheat, oats, flax, barley, corn and hemp. WHAT S A DIGUE? A digue (dike, C deeg) is a barrier, usually made of earth, that separates land from water. The Acadians built dikes to prevent the ocean from flooding marshes that they wanted to farm. A modern artist, Azor Vinneau, did this painting of Acadian life for the Nova Scotia Museum in Halifax. In this painting, Acadians repair a digue. You can see an aboiteau where water is draining out. C a-bwa-toe Brasseur explains the importance of the digue: Swamp grass is all that grew here when my ancestors first arrived. This marsh was regularly flooded with salt water from the tides. Swamp grass is fine for horses, cows and oxen, but it won t feed people. That s where la digue comes in. It keeps the tidewater off the land and lets us plant crops. And look at this, says Brasseur. He kneels in front of a channel leading under the digue. This is called an aboiteau. There s a hinged gate at the end here. It opens to let water drain through the digue towards the sea, but closes against the ocean tide. Once a digue is built, rainfall gradually flushes all the salt out of the soil, leaving behind lush, fertile farmland. The process takes several years. After that, the digue is all 144

9 War and British Conquest History Happens Eighteenth Century Edition These Acadians are cutting swamp grass for hay. You can see a digue in the background that protects the farmland, and crops, from tidal water. Acadian families will use the hay to feed their livestock. The farms also have vegetable gardens and orchards. (Thanks to Azor Vinneau for capturing this picture of Acadian life.) that stands between prosperity and starvation. That s why I thought we should start our tour here at la digue, says Brasseur. These digues make it possible for us to live here it s as simple as that. From the digue, we take a walk around the community. Daily life in Acadia focuses on work and family. The boys hunt, farm and do chores along with the men, and the girls work mainly in the house, spinning and weaving wool and flax, sewing clothes, cooking and cleaning. Everything our children need to learn, they learn by doing, observes Brasseur. Later, I join Brasseur and his family for dinner. They live in a small log building, about seven metres long by five metres wide. Inside, it s one large room, with a loft overhead, and ten little Brasseurs running around everywhere. Yes, it s pretty lively in here, especially in the evening, says Henri-Philippe s wife Élisabeth. But we have a good thatched roof over our heads, clothes on our backs, and always enough to eat. Life is good. After supper, Henri-Philippe cracks out his fiddle and plays a few tunes for me, while the youngsters all sing and dance. We make our own fun around here, says Henri-Philippe. If you can stay for a few days, there s going to be a wedding. That s when we really have fun. I ask Brasseur what he knows about the outside world. I know that England and France are always trying to find out whose side we re on, he laughs. But I m too busy to worry about such things. Speaking of which, I better get my family to bed. The rooster crows awfully early in the morning. Bonsoir, Belleisle! RESPOND 1. Many factors contribute to the identity of a people, including language and culture. The Acadian people spoke French and had developed a unique identity. Based on this article, what factors made them uniquely Acadian? Think back to the inquiry on surviving as a colonist that you did in Chapter 3. Why is colonybuilding important to some people? 2. The Acadians lived in a conflict zone between Britain and France, which pressured them to choose sides. How could the Acadians have responded to those pressures? What options lay open to them? Predict some outcomes for the Acadians based on the choices you identify. 145

10 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives BUILD THE BIG PICTURE The Treaty of Utrecht, that gave Britain control of Acadia in 1713, did not make the boundaries of Acadia clear, so France continued to claim Île St-Jean and Île Royale and much of what is now New Brunswick. What steps did France and Britain take to secure their new positions? Louisbourg and Halifax 1713 Britain takes control of Acadia through the Treaty of Utrecht France builds Louisbourg. Acadia, Britain captures Louisbourg France regains Louisbourg Britain builds Halifax Britain captures Louisbourg during the Seven Years War, a European war sparked by events in North America France cedes nearly all its claims in North America including Louisbourg under the Treaty of Paris, which ends the war. France maintains control of two small islands off Newfoundland: Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. M I K NOVA 0 W N S E M A 100 km ˆILE ST-JEAN ˆILE ROYALE SCOTIA French territory British territory Louisbourg Halifax Atlantic Ocean RESPOND The fortress of Louisbourg has been rebuilt as a National Historic Site. How does the history and location of Louisbourg and Halifax reflect the political competition between France and Britain to control North America? 1. Using the timeline, find at least one example of cause and effect that illustrates this competition. 2. Using the map, describe how competition influenced the positioning of Louisbourg and Halifax. Check pages 384 to 386 of the Skills Centre for tips regarding reading maps and timelines. 146

11 War and British Conquest FOCUS ON INQUIRY What makes an oath of allegiance such a powerful promise? The Topic In this chapter, you will learn about an oath of allegiance that the British required of the Acadians. This oath had impacts on the lives and identity of Acadian people. An oath can be a very powerful promise. What does an oath of allegiance look and sound like? Why is it such a powerful promise? Getting Started Work with other classmates to develop a plan for this inquiry, and to retrieve and process information. Search for examples of oaths of allegiance. You could search the term oath of allegiance on the Internet. You could contact government offices in your community and ask to see any oaths they require their employees to take before they begin work. Using your examples, and other information you find, try to answer questions such as: What is the purpose of an oath of allegiance? What words and actions add power to an oath of allegiance? Can a person alter the words in an oath of allegiance? FOCUS SKILLS Creating and Sharing Present and discuss a way to communicate what you learn. Your Goal On your own, create and share a way to communicate your conclusions. Be sure you answer these questions as part of your process: What is your message about the power of oaths of allegiance? What is the best way for you to communicate your message? Use your talents to engage other people in what you discover and in your message. Think about whether to use images, sound, writing or demonstrations. Finishing Up What have you learned about oaths during this inquiry? Why did oaths become a key issue in the struggle between France and Britain to control Acadia? Be prepared to discuss your conclusions in class. 147

12 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives GET READY The Great Deportation So far in this chapter, you have been keeping track of the conflict between France and Britain in Acadia, and the challenges it created for people living there. This section answers the following chapterfocus question: How did people meet those challenges? As you read this section, look for: Factors that shaped the decisions of Britain. Factors that shaped the decisions of Acadians. As you will see, the British and the Acadians were on opposite sides of a problem. What kind of organizer would keep good track of information about opposites? deport: to send out of a country What Was the Great Deportation? In 1713, when Britain took control of Acadia, it told the Acadians to leave within a year. The Acadians, however, didn t want to give up their farms and settlements, built with back-breaking work. So, most stayed. In 1730, the British required Acadians to take an oath. The oath required the Acadians to stay neutral, if a war between Britain and France broke out. The Acadians took this oath of neutrality. By 1755, a war seemed likely. The British required a new oath from the Acadians an oath of allegiance that said the Acadians would fight for Britain in a war against France. When the Acadians refused, Britain decided to deport them. Some Acadians escaped to New France and others found protection with the Mi kmaq. LANGUAGE LIVES! Today, there are Cajun communities in the United States, famous for their lively music and unique dishes, such as jambalaya and gumbo. Cajun is a short way of saying Acadian. These communities became established when Britain deported the Acadians. Some went to Louisiana, then a Spanish territory, which later became part of the United States. 148

13 War and British Conquest Between 1755 and 1763, during the Great Deportation, Britain captured and shipped eleven thousand Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies, to England and to France. The deportation also affected Mi kmaq people. Acadians and the Mi kmaq had a history of alliance, friendship and intermarriage. So, Mi kmaq people lost friends and family in the deportation. Great Deportation: the removal of eleven thousand Acadians from Acadia by Britain, starting in Britian took the Acadians land, homes and other possessions. Removed from this Province A Story about the Expulsion of the Acadians Based on Historical Events At three o clock in the afternoon, I enter the church with my brothers, father and grandfather, and I can see that all the men of Grand-Pré are here, and all the boys, too. Four hundred of us, I estimate. I catch the eye of one of my little cousins, who is only ten. A British colonel sits at a table at the front of the church, flanked by armed guards. He watches as we come in and sit down, but he doesn t move a muscle. We have come here at the request of the colonel, to hear an important announcement from the governor. We expect it has something to do with the oath of allegiance. All of my family, and all of the men of Acadia, have refused to take the new oath of allegiance. Our people have lived under British rule for forty-two years. We took an oath of neutrality years ago and we have lived by that oath. But now the British want us to promise to fight the French, who share our blood and religion. This is too much. Our oath of neutrality must stand. This painting depicts British Lieutenant-Colonel John Winslow reading the expulsion order to the Acadian men and boys of Grand-Pré. Charles William Jeffreys painted this scene more than one hundred years after it took place. Why do you think this moment in history remained important for so long? Why do people still find it important today? 149

14 Gr7SS-Ch5.QXP5 4/12/06 10:25 AM Page 150 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives grievous: difficult to bear Perhaps the British have called us here because they have decided to accept our position. Or perhaps they have thought of some way to try to force us to take the oath of allegiance. The colonel stands. He doesn t look at us. Stiffly, he reads from a paper, as an interpreter delivers the news. Gentlemen I have in my hand the King s commission, from his Excellency Governor Lawrence, by whose orders you are gathered to hear His Majesty s final resolution regarding the French inhabitants of Nova Scotia. The duty I must perform today is very disagreeable to my nature and temperament, and I know it must be very grievous to you who are human like me. Alfred Sandham ( ) painted this image of the deportation of the Acadians. Sandham was an Englishspeaking artist who lived in Montréal. 150 But it is not up to me to question my orders. I obey the orders I receive, and therefore I shall without hesitation deliver you His Majesty s instructions, as follows:

15 War and British Conquest That your lands and houses, cattle and livestock, now belong to the Crown, along with everything else you own, except your money and household goods. That you yourselves be removed from this province. That all the French inhabitants of these districts be removed. You may take your money and as many household possessions as you can, without overloading the ships that are coming for you. I shall do everything in my power to make this business as easy as possible. I know that it must give you a great deal of trouble and I hope that in whatever part of the world you may fall, you may be faithful subjects, a peaceful and happy people. I must also inform you that, as of this moment, you are the King s prisoners.* I rise to my feet and find myself shouting. Our farm is more than one hundred years old! We have family buried here! This is our land, our home. Everyone is shouting. The guards stand at attention, guns ready. *Adapted from the orders of Lieutenant-Colonel John Winslow, September 5, 1755, in Philip H. Smith, Acadia: A Lost Chapter in American History. New York: Pawling, 1884, pages RESPOND This story, like all stories in this textbook, tells about real historical events with an element of imagination. It imagines how an Acadian person, hearing Lieutenant-Colonel John Winslow give his order, might have felt. John Winslow and the order are real. 1. What is Lieutenant-Colonel Winslow s perspective on the order to deport the Acadians? What words suggest he disagrees with the order? 2. Why do you think he followed the order? What aspects of his identity may have factored into his decision? 3. How would you have acted if you were in his shoes? Why? 151

16 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives strategic position: a place whose physical location makes it important or valuable, often for military reasons prejudice: a negative generalization about a group of people based on uninformed judgements Conflict and Identity What factors contributed to Britain s decision to deport the Acadians? Which of the following points would you say is the most important? If France and Britain went to war, Acadia would certainly be drawn into the fighting, because of its strategic position. The Acadians were Catholic and spoke French. They had lived peacefully under British rule since 1713 more than forty years. But they had more in common with the culture of France than with British culture. In 1755, Acadia had Acadian settlers and British settlers. Acadians outnumbered the British two to one. The Acadians refused to promise to fight against France in a war, but they did promise to remain neutral. What does this suggest about the way Acadians thought of their own identity? The British assumed they could not trust the Acadians, because they were people of French descent. RESPOND During conflicts, people sometimes jump to conclusions about others. The British, in 1755, jumped to conclusions about the Acadians. The Great Deportation is an example from Canada s past of how conflict can draw out prejudices towards other people. Conflicts happen today, and they carry the same risk. Assuming that getting to know people well is a way to break down prejudices, what steps could you personally take to get to know people of diverse cultures in Canada? Henri Beau, an Acadian, did this painting in In what way does this painting communicate a perspective on the Great Deportation? How does this perspective compare to that of the painting on page 150? 152

17 War and British Conquest IDENTITY THEN AND NOW Remembering the Deportation An Interview with Nicolas Landry Question: Who are the Acadians in the Maritimes today? Professor Landry: They are the old families. Their family trees are rooted to the pioneers who sailed from France to Canada in the early 1600s. Most live in New Brunswick today. Thirty-seven percent of the population of New Brunswick is Francophone. There are also Acadian populations spread across Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. Question: Is there pride in being Acadian? Professor Landry: Yes. The Acadian pioneers worked hard. They devised ingenious dike systems so they could cultivate the marshlands. They had surplus supplies of grain and animals, and traded with New England merchants for goods such as tools, guns and fancy clothes. They were successful, contented people, who were neutral in war. Question: Does Acadian identity get recognition today? Professor Landry: In New Brunswick, yes. For example, New Brunswick is an officially bilingual province. Question: Is this important to Acadians? Professor Landry: To some more than others. Acadians are culturally diverse. For example, on the north shore of New Brunswick there is great influence from Québec. To the south, there is a strong American influence. Question: Do most Acadians know their history? Professor Landry: Many do. I teach about the deportation in my classes at the university. When they hear the details, many students cry genocide cultural genocide! It s an emotional thing. But I tell them it was not an isolated tactic to punish the French. I say this was another case of land changing hands, as so often happened in history. Great empires were continually removing populations from conquered lands to protect themselves against uprisings. Maritimes: the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island officially bilingual: having rights in law that establish equality between two languages genocide: a policy to eliminate people of a particular cultural identity Nicolas Landry is an Acadian and a professor of history at the University of Moncton, Shippagan Campus, in New Brunswick. 153

18 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives Acadians Seeking Queen s Apology Question: Is the deportation important to Acadians? Professor Landry: For many people, it is important. Some Acadians have lobbied for, and received, an apology from the Canadian government and the Queen for damages resulting from the deportation. The Queen has acknowledged the wrongdoing. For many people, though, it doesn t matter. They don t see the need. They have moved on. I also think that, in the twenty-first century, young people are not so interested in nationalism. More than ever, they are part of global culture. MONCTON, NEW BRUNSWICK After more than a decade of trying to get Queen Elizabeth II of England to apologize for the ethnic cleansing brought about by the deportation of the Acadians from Grand Pré, Nova Scotia, in 1755, the apology is being made This is a Royal Proclamation, and it involves two very important things for Acadians everywhere, Euclide Chiasson, president of Canada s Société Nationale des Acadiens, based in Moncton, New Brunswick, said Thursday afternoon. This is important because it makes historic records a fact, and the Crown is admitting it caused irreparable damages to the Acadian people. This is formidable. This is what Acadians have been seeking for years, he concluded. It is symbolic, it is important, much like a flag for a country. Excerpted from the Daily News (Bangor, Maine), 5 December ethnic cleansing: a policy to remove people of a particular cultural identity The Acadian people of Canada adopted this flag in It displays the colours of France. The star is the Stella Maris (Star of the Sea), which represents the guidance of the Virgin Mary and the connection of the Catholic faith to Acadian identity. RESPOND 1. This section presents two sources of information on the Great Deportation and Acadian identity: Professor Landry's interview and a newspaper article. Find examples of emotional language in each. Why do you think the Great Deportation evokes strong emotions? 2. In what way does apologizing for the past reflect an idea of citizenship in the present? 3. The Queen of England has apologized for many events in the colonial history of Britain, including the colonization of New Zealand during the 1800s and the Amritsar massacre in India in In your opinion, should there be a time limit on responsibility for the past? Why or why not? 154

19 War and British Conquest The British Conquest of North America GET READY As you have learned, Britain gained control of Acadia from France in 1713, in a treaty to end a war. As you will see in this section, Britain gained control of all of New France in 1763, in a treaty to end another war. This section presents information about the British conquest that answers: How did competition between Britain and France to control North America shape Canada? As you read, look for: Key events. Perspectives on key events from the point of view of First Nations, French and British peoples. What Was the Seven Years War? In 1754, fighting broke out between Britain and France to control the Ohio Valley, along the western boundary of the Thirteen Colonies. The dispute quickly expanded into a fight for the entire continent. In 1756, the war went global. Britain aimed to destroy the French navy and establish worldwide domination of the seas. Before long, a total of nine European countries had chosen sides. In 1760, Britain seized Québec. It was a key victory, but it didn t end the war. The war continued in other parts of the world for example in the Caribbean, where Britain took the French colony of Guadeloupe. The war ended in 1763, when France signed a treaty with Britain the Treaty of Paris. Under the treaty, France kept the colony of Guadeloupe and a small base in North America for its cod fishery the islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon but gave up its other claims in North America to Britain and Spain. Treaty of Paris: the 1763 agreement between Britain and France that ended the Seven Years War, in which France gave up nearly all its claims in North America in favour of Guadeloupe 155

20 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives History Happens Eighteenth Century Edition International News Section The newspaper from the past for today s reader. It Only Lasted an Hour by Beatrix Chronos, your time-roving reporter General Wolfe died in the battle. PLAINS OF ABRAHAM, QUÉBEC, Friday, September 14, 1759 The long-anticipated showdown at Québec finally arrived yesterday morning, and it was over before lunchtime. British forces, led by General James Wolfe, launched a surprise assault on the Plains of Abraham, just southwest of the city. They quickly overwhelmed the French defenders, led by the Marquis de Montcalm. Although the smoke has barely cleared from the battlefield, some experts are already calling it an event that will alter the future of North America. Battle Recap General James Wolfe has been trying to capture Québec for nearly three months. On June 23, Wolfe laid siege to Québec. He has been pounding the city with big guns stationed along the river. Fortress Québec, however, withstood this barrage, although the shelling severely damaged the city and took many lives. Yesterday, in a surprise move, the British attacked Québec from the rear. They had slipped upstream under cover of darkness, then climbed a steep cliff up onto the plains. We didn t see that coming, admitted a member of the local militia. But when the sun came up, there they were. The Marquis de Montcalm is not expected to survive beyond today. Montcalm launched an immediate counterattack, hoping to stop the British before they were fully organized. The armies seemed evenly matched about on each side but the experienced British soldiers proved too much for the determined French and Canadiens, who were mostly local volunteers. This global war has required French soldiers to fight in many parts of the world, other than Québec. In the fray, both Wolfe and Montcalm were hit by bullets. Montcalm s horse brought the wounded, unconscious French general back within Québec s walls, but Wolfe died where he fell. Today, Britain has lost her greatest hero, said a British spokesman. General Wolfe s valour on the battlefield, and the brilliant strategy he showed this morning, assures him a place in history. What Will Happen Next? With this latest triumph, some of the British soldiers seem sure of victory. Québec is so well fortified, and so difficult to win, surely this battle will end the war. We haven t given up,. countered a Canadien militiaman, when told of the prediction. This is our homeland, and we re not going anywhere. We ll be back. 156 siege: surrounding a fortified place to force its surrender

21 War and British Conquest MOMENT IN HISTORY The Battle of the Plains of Abraham Think about why people might have different perspectives on the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Because of the battle, the British captured Québec, the capital and military stronghold of New France. This was a difficult task, because Québec was a well-fortified city. After the battle, the French army retreated to Montréal. A few months later, in April 1760, the army returned to Québec and defeated the British at the Battle of Sainte-Foy. The British retreated into the city of Québec, where the French surrounded them. The British began to run out of supplies. When the St. Lawrence cleared of ice, both sides began watching the river. What ships would arrive first, French or British? A ship approached and unfurled its flags as it neared Québec. It was British, carrying supplies and troops. What if French ships had arrived first? France had sent ships, but bad weather had turned them back. decisive: producing lasting change The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, depicted here as a series of events, has become a symbol in Canadian history of the British conquest of North America. But how decisive was the battle really? RESPOND 1. Canadian histories sometimes present the Battle of the Plains of Abraham as a decisive battle a battle that gave Britain control of North America. What evidence on this page supports this perspective? What evidence does not? 2. The Battle of the Plains of Abraham is better known among Englishspeaking Canadians than the Battle of Sainte-Foy. Among Francophone Canadians, both battles are well known. Why, in your opinion? 157

22 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives GET READY Britain s Victory: Change and Challenges The challenges of coexistence that the Acadians and the Mi kmaq faced when Britain took control of their lands in 1713 now confronted Francophones and First Nations peoples in all of New France. You will be focused on the same questions as before. Do you think they will play out the same way? How did competition between Britain and France to control North America shape Canada? What challenges of coexistence among British, Canadiens and First Nations peoples did it lead to? As you read this time, look for: Examples of challenges faced by the Canadiens. Examples of challenges faced by First Nations peoples. retaliate: to get revenge What Was the Treaty of Paris? The Seven Years War ended with the Treaty of Paris. France gave up almost all its claims to North America under the treaty. Where did this leave First Nations allies of the French, and the thousands of Canadiens who called the St. Lawrence home? France negotiated guarantees in the treaty that Britain would not retaliate against French allies, and that it would allow the Catholic people of New France to practise their religion. Britain s victory, however, made the future uncertain. How would Francophone Catholic subjects and Anglophone Protestant rulers fit together? What about the diverse peoples involved in the fur trade of New France, such as the Kichesiprini and the Anishinabe? What kind of society did Britain want to build? Who would belong to that society? 158

23 War and British Conquest The Visit from Pontiac A Story from a Haudenosaunee Perspective This representation of historical events was written with the advice and assistance of Brenda Davis, Cayuga First Nation. When Noondam hears the news, she thinks again of that day, and of everything that still hangs in the balance. Pontiac had come that day to speak to her village as a leader of the Odawa an Anishinabe nation and longtime ally of the French. The village had received secret word of his visit long before he arrived. They had known why he was coming, too. Everywhere Noondam went, she had heard people talking it over. Pontiac had spoken urgently, but carefully, so the interpreter could follow him. His voice had filled the longhouse. The First Nations of the land must join together and fight the British, he had said. Think of the words of Minweweh, the silver-tongued: Englishman, although you have conquered the French, you have not conquered us! We are not your slaves. These lakes, these woods, and mountains were left to us by our ancestors. They are our inheritance; and we will part with them to none. Who Were Pontiac and Minweweh? Pontiac was a leader of the Odawa Nation. After Britain took possession of French claims in North America in 1763, he organized an alliance of First Nations to oppose Britain s takeover. Minweweh, an Anishinabe leader, was one of his allies. The opposition organized by Pontiac led to a series of agreements between First Nations and the British. Pontiac signed an agreement in 1765, in which the British acknowledged that their defeat of France did not give them rights to First Nations land. C.W. Jeffreys created this image of Pontiac and Minwehweh negotiating with British officials more than one hundred years after this meeting took place. 159

24 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives whiskey traders: people who traded alcohol with First Nations, which disrupted First Nations societies The clan mothers and Hoyaneh had already talked about the troubling peace that the end of the war had brought. The Thirteen Colonies, in particular, caused them to worry. The British settlers in the Thirteen Colonies seemed to think that they could expand west without limits, now that the French were no longer there to fight them. The Haudenosaunee had been allies of the British during the war, but this seemed to count for little now. Britain did nothing as settlers and whiskey traders from the Thirteen Colonies pushed into Haudenosaunee land. It seemed that the British no longer needed the Haudenosaunee to fight the French, and so no longer valued the goodwill of the Haudenosaunee. It was a hard truth, but truth all the same. Only weeks later, Noondam s village heard that Pontiac had surrounded Fort Detroit, trapping the British soldiers inside. Nothing was getting in or out. Then, news came that Minweweh had captured Fort Michilimackinac with a daring tactic. He had persuaded the fort to open its gates for a game of lacrosse, and then had overwhelmed the fort s troops. Today, the village received word that, in all, nine British forts had fallen to First Nations. The resistance to British rule is spreading. Noondam wonders where it will lead. RESPOND 1. Look at the words of Minweweh. How does he see the relationship of his people to the French and the British? Draw a graphic representation of this relationship, or restate it in your own words. 2. In what way did the actions of Pontiac and Minweweh to control British forts express this perspective? 3. If you were trying to explain this perspective to someone who did not know about Canada s past, what would you say? Choose three key points from your knowledge of First Nations history. No image of Pontiac exists from his lifetime. Why would artists want to imagine what he looked like, in your opinion? 160

25 War and British Conquest The Last Governor of New France recover: to get back Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil de Cavagnial, Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil de Cavagnial finishes reading the Treaty of Paris. He closes his eyes and rubs his forehead, slowly, as he thinks. He had hoped that France would try to recover New France during the negotiations to end the Seven Years War. Britain, however, has forced France to make a difficult choice. Vaudreuil can understand why France has chosen to keep Guadeloupe instead. Guadeloupe produces sugar, a very valuable commodity even more valuable than furs. But he worries about the future of the sixty-five thousand Canadiens now under British rule. The colony is cut off, now, from France. If the colony is to survive as a French society, it will have to survive on its own. Many of the colony s wealthy merchants and officials, like Vaudreuil, have left to live in France. Vaudreuil knows British merchants and officials will now take their places. What kind of pressure for change will they bring? Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil de Cavagnial was the last governor of New France. Vaudreuil was the one who surrendered to the British in When the British supply ships arrived at Québec after the battle of Sainte-Foy, Vaudreuil decided further fighting was pointless. He felt that France couldn t win and that the population of the colony had already suffered enough. The British had shelled Québec for three months, and had burned to the ground more than one thousand farms up and down the St. Lawrence River. Vaudreuil took steps to protect the Canadiens and the allies of France as he prepared to leave them in British hands in He negotiated terms that eventually ended up in the Treaty of Paris, such as allowing Canadiens to practise their Catholic faith. Vaudreuil was the first and only governor of New France born in the colony. How might this have influenced his sensitivity to the plight of the Canadiens? 161

26 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives secure: to get, to make sure of scenario: a possible outcome assimilate: to become part of a different cultural group bicultural: giving official recognition to two cultures The surrender of Québec angered the king. When Vaudreuil arrived in France after the defeat, the king arrested him. Vaudreuil spent several weeks in prison. France withdrew from Québec after Britain s victory. But for the Canadiens, Québec was home. They had lived there for generations, and had built farms and towns and businesses. They could not just withdraw. They had to endure, as France and Britain came to an agreement that set their lives on a new path. A British painter, Richard Short, created this image of Québec, after British troops took the city in How do you think a Canadien painter s work might have differed? RESPOND Britain s victory put new pressures on First Nations and Canadiens in North America, and it also put new pressures on Britain. Britain had won the Seven Years War, but it had cost a lot of money and lives. Britain needed peace. What was the best way to secure it in North America? If you were an advisor to Britain in 1763, what solutions would you suggest? In small groups, brainstorm scenarios that will accomplish all of the following priorities: End First Nations resistance to British rule. For example, Britain could stop the westward expansion of the Thirteen Colonies. Or it could decide to fight First Nations after all, and try to defeat them. Or it could negotiate with First Nations to allow the expansion of the Thirteen Colonies. Prevent a rebellion among Canadiens against British rule. For example, Britain could choose to deport the Canadiens, just as it had deported the Acadians. Or it could pressure the Canadiens to assimilate by restricting the use of their language, and abolishing French laws and institutions. Or it could establish a bicultural society that valued and accepted Canadiens. Predict outcomes for your scenarios. How do you think key groups would have viewed them? Which would lead, in your opinion, to a lasting peace? Check page 392 of the Skills Centre for ways to make decisions as a group. 162

27 War and British Conquest How Did Britain Establish Control? GET READY You have learned about the challenges that Britain, First Nations and Canadiens faced as Britain took control of North America. As you read this section, think about this chapter-focus question: How did people meet those challenges? As you learn about the solutions, consider whether they were good solutions. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 Britain s attempt to establish lasting peace in its North American colonies took shape in the Royal Proclamation of Britain issued the proclamation a statement of law and policy just a few months after Pontiac began to organize First Nations resistance to British rule. The proclamation aimed to assimilate the Canadiens by: Establishing the Province of Québec, with a British-style government similar to the governments in the Thirteen Colonies. The colony would have a governor and an appointed council. It was also promised an elected assembly, but Britain didn t follow up on this for almost thirty years. Disallowing Catholics from holding positions in government. Abolishing French civil law. This was the body of law that defined the relationships between seigneurs and habitants, and the taxes tithes that supported the Catholic church. Encouraging settlers from the Thirteen Colonies to move into the province of Québec. Britain did this by declaring that settlers could no longer freely move west. The proclamation aimed to make peace with First Nations by: Establishing a proclamation line separating the Thirteen Colonies from Indian Territory. No settlement could occur in Indian Territory until First Nations peoples had come to an agreement about these lands with Britain. elected assembly: representatives elected by voters. In British colonies, elected assemblies could advise, but not direct, the governors and councils appointed by Britain. tithe: a payment to support a church, based on one-tenth of a person s income Indian: Many First Nations people prefer not to use the word Indian to describe themselves, except to identify those people recognized by Canada s Indian Act. We include the word here because the Royal Proclamation of 1763 used it. 163

28 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives North America according to the Royal Proclamation of 1763 N E Hudson Bay W NEWFOUNDLAND S RUPERT S LAND (HUDSON S BAY COMPANY) QUEBEC NOVA SCOTIA SAINT-PIERRE and MIQUELON COLONIES INDIAN TERRITORY Atlantic Ocean THIRTEEN Territory claimed by Britain Territory claimed by Spain Territory claimed by France Proclamation line Gulf of Mexico km 164

29 War and British Conquest RESPOND 1. Who might make comments like these about the Royal Proclamation of 1763? What part of the map would they come from? Comment #1 Britain is trying force this colony to become British. It s hoping more British people will move here, and that we will choose to give up our identity. Why would we do that? British culture is not superior to our own, although the British may think so. The proclamation has cut off expansion of settlement to the west, because Britain wants settlers from the Thirteen Colonies to move north, into our towns and cities. Comment #2 The Royal Proclamation is an extremely important step. It recognizes our rights to our land. This is the first time any European colonial power has done this. Maybe the proclamation will help us control the flood of settlers coming from the Thirteen Colonies. Comment #3 We should have the freedom to expand west, now that our old enemy France is out of the way. Why does Britain use the Royal Proclamation to prevent this? Shouldn t we be on the same side? 2. In the activity where you acted as Britain s advisors, on page 162, what advice did you give Britain? How does the Royal Proclamation of 1763 compare to your advice? 3. Some historians say the Royal Proclamation tried to achieve a compromise among First Nations peoples, Canadiens and British peoples in North America. In a compromise, everybody gets something they want, and nobody gets everything they want. To what extent was the Royal Proclamation a compromise, in your opinion? What kind of graphic organizer could help you analyze this issue? 165

30 Canada: Origins Peoples Perspectives This painting dates from 1787, and shows Canadien farms along the St. Lawrence River. Québec, though a British colony, did not become British. Québec remained Canadien. The Québec Act of 1774 During the 1770s, Britain and the Thirteen Colonies came into increasing conflict. By 1776, the Thirteen Colonies were at war with Britain, fighting to become an independent country, free of British rule. This war was called the American war of independence, or the American Revolution. You will learn about it in the next chapter. Once again, conflict brought issues of identity into sharp focus, just as it had with the Acadians. But this time, Britain adopted a different attitude towards its Catholic, French-speaking subjects. Compare Britain s treatment of the Acadians on the eve of the Seven Years War with their treatment of Canadiens in Québec on the eve of the American war of independence. What accounts for the differences? The Royal Proclamation of 1763 had made it clear that Britain expected the Canadiens to assimilate. Britain hoped the Canadiens would choose to become British on their own, once they had become familiar with British institutions. What attitude on the part of Britain does this suggest? Britain also hoped that, by establishing British laws and government in the colony of Québec, British people would choose to move to Québec. Québec, however, did not become a popular destination for British colonists, and the Canadiens did not give up their language, customs or religion. 166 A View of the Chateau Richer, Cape Torment, Thomas Davies, #6275, National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa