Study and Detroit Area Study. Near Northern Suburbs. City of Detroit. Near SW Detroit. Downriver

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1 Study and Detroit Area Study Northern Suburbs Oakland Macomb Eastern Suburbs Near Northern Suburbs Western Suburbs Wayne Near SW Detroit City of Detroit Downriver Source: Authors compilation.

2 Figure 2.1 Country of Origin Yemen 9% Other 7% Lebanon/Syria 37% Palestine/Jordan 12% Iraq 35% Source: Baker et al

3 Figure 2.2 Generation and Decade of Arrival in United States 100% % 8% 12% 65% Born in U.S. with One or Two Parents Born in U.S. (9.1% of Total Arab Population) 3% 4% 8% 7% 12% 17% 12% 9% 9% 36% 38% 33% Born in U.S. with Two Parents Born Abroad (16.5% of Total Arab Population) 38% 20% Born Abroad, Arrived in U.S. Before 1969 (7.7% of Total Arab Population) 44% 30% Born Abroad, Arrived in U.S to 1979 (17.9% of Total Arab Population) 28% 50% Born Abroad, Arrived in U.S to 1989 (16.8% of Total Arab Population) 43% 21% 7% 34% 32% 33% Born Abroad, Arrived in U.S to 1995 (16.4% of Total Arab Population) Yemen Palestine/Jordan Iraq Lebanon/Syria Born Abroad, Arrived in U.S. After 1995 (15.6% of Total Arab Population) Source: Baker et al

4 Figure 2.3 Religion Sunnis 15% Other 4% Muslim (42% of total) Catholics 42% Shi a 23% Christian (58% of total) Protestants 2% Orthodox 14% Source: Baker et al

5 Figure 2.4 Second Language at Home Arabic and Aramaic dialects 13% Arabic and another language 4% Aramaic dialects (not Arabic) 14% Arabic 69% Source: Baker et al

6 Figure 2.5 Education by Place of Birth 60% % 44% % 20% 20% 23% 19% 13% 10% 8% 0 U.S.- Born Non- U.S.- Born U.S.- Born Non- U.S.- Born U.S.- Born Non- U.S.- Born U.S.- Born Non- U.S.- Born U.S.- Born Non- U.S.- Born Less than High School High School Degree Some College College Advanced Degree Source: Baker et al

7 Figure 2.6 Total Family Income in Metropolitan Detroit 60% % % 18% 27% 30% 24% 25% 16% 10 0 Arabs General and Population Chaldeans Arabs General and Population Chaldeans Arabs General and Population Chaldeans Arabs General and Population Chaldeans Under $20,000 $20,000 to $49,000 $50,000 to $99,999 Over $100,000 Source: Baker et al

8 Figure 2.7 Percentage Accepting Arab American by Country of Origin and Religion 100% 80 30% 17% 55% 10% 19% 6% 32% % 83% 90% 81% 94% 68% 20 45% 0 Christians Muslims Christians Muslims Muslims Christians Muslims Lebanon/Syria Iraq Yemen Palestine/Jordan Do not accept Arab American label Accept Arab American label Source: Baker et al

9 Figure 2.8 Racial Identity 120% % 5% 3% 55% 68% 85% 23% 51% 14% 36% 73% 5% 68% % 41% 31% 25% Christians Muslims Christians Muslims Muslims Christians Muslims Lebanon/Syria Iraq Yemen Palestine/Jordan 51% Asian White Other 31% 27% Source: Baker et al Note: Percentages do not add up to 100 percent because some people chose more than one identity.

10 Table 2.1 Coefficients from Regression of English Fluency, Education, and Income on Immigrant Characteristics (Backdrop 1) and Incorporation Measures (Backdrop 2) English Fluency Education Income Less than (Immigrants High High Some College Less than $20,000 to $50,000 to Only) School School College Degree $20,000 $49,999 $99,999 Iraqi 1.17* 2.84*** 1.16* 1.39** (.535) (.800) (.576) (.530) (.546) (.569) (.442) (.413) Yemeni 1.52** 3.73*** 1.82* (.579) (1.085) (.919) (.899) (1.094) (.667) (.565) (.620) Palestinian ** (.633) (.872) (.652) (.611) (.620) (.637) (.484) (.447) Lebanese/Syrian ** (.548) (.792) (.553) (.503) (.513) (.570) (.436) (.404) U.S. Citizen ***.92**.28 (.508) (.510) (.496) (.529) (.309) (.307) (.347) U.S.-Born *** ***.83***.37 (.439) (.352) (.325) (.357) (.324) (.245) (.222) Muslim.86** ** (.292) (.409) (.388) (.364) (.392) (.309) (.271) (.267) Male.70***.98**.79**.64* (.206) (.317) (.304) (.287) (.313) (.227) (.205) (.202) Years in U.S..05*** (.010)

11 English fluency 17.76*** 15.99*** 15.28*** 14.9***.82** ** (.592) (.627) (.655) (.000) (.316) (.377) (.475) Income $50, *** 2.75*** 2.33*** 2.13*** (.494) (.486) (.655) (.496) College 2.00*** 1.04***.51* (.355) (.242) (.219) Constant 2.56*** 17.42*** 17.12*** 16.59** 16.56*** 1.57* (.638) (1.162) (1.051) (1.039) (13.29) (.738) (.640) (.713) R N Source: Authors compilation. Notes: English fluency is a dummy variable, 1 = speaking English well or very well, 0=speaking English not very well or not well at all. The coefficients result from a binary logit model. Results for reading English and writing English are similar, and thus not shown here. Because 99 percent of those born in the U.S. report speaking English well or very well, this analysis is performed only for immigrants. The coefficients result from a multinomial logit model, where the reference category is education = advanced degree (post-ba). The coefficients result from a multinomial logit model, where the reference category is total family income = $100, Years in U.S. is a continuous variable, measured by years since immigration to the United States. When used as an independent variable, income is measured as a dummy variable, family income >$50,000 = 1 and family income <$50,000 = 0. Results are consistent with income measured as a four-category variable (under $20,000, $20,000 to $49,999, $50,000 to $99,999, and $100,000 +). When used as an independent variable, education is measured as a dummy variable, BA or higher =1, less than a BA = 0. Results are consistent with education measured as a five-category variable (less than a high school diploma, high school graduate, some college, BA, and advanced degree). Nagelkerke R 2 *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05. Standard errors in parentheses.

12 Table 2.2 Coefficients from Regression of Arab American and White Racial Identity on Immigrant Characteristics (Backdrop 1) and Incorporation Measures (Backdrop 2) Arab American Identity White Racial Identity Iraqi 1.045** (.360).224 (.365) Yemeni.449 (.466).144 (.445) Palestinian 1.102* (.459).059 (.397) Lebanese/Syrian.053 (.369).427 (.366)

13 Table 2.2 (continued) Arab American Identity White Racial Identity U.S. citizen.281 (.221).410* (.208) U.S.-born.127 (.210).009 (.216) Muslim.739*** (.232).747** (.258) Male.044 (.166).219 (.164) English fluency.217 (.269).066 (.252) Family income Less than $20, (.268).728** (.261) $20,000 to $49, (.235).080 (.230) $50,000 to $99, (.233).620** (.238) Education Less than high school.136 (.361).627 (.378) High school.190 (.350).545 (.369) Some college.157 (.327).648 (.353) College degree.057 (.362).202 (.383) Dearborn resident.953*** (.226) Complexion Dark 1.406*** (.331) Medium.897*** (.169) Constant.777 (.571) 1.809** (.587) R N Source: Authors compilation. Notes: Arab American identity is a dummy variable, 1 = The term Arab American describes me and 0 = The term Arab American does not describe me. The coefficients come from a binary logit model. White racial identity is a dummy variable, 1 = white checked in answer to the question, What is your race? and 0 = white not checked. The coefficients come from a binary logit model. Family income is measured as a four-category variable; the reference category is income = $100,000+. Education is measured as a five-category variable; the reference category is education = advanced degree. Complexion is determined by the interviewer s assessment of the respondent s complexion in three categories: dark or very dark, medium, and light or very light. The reference category is complexion = light or very light. Nagelkerke R 2 *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05. Standard errors in parentheses.

14 Figure % 80 9/11 Backlash and Place of Birth U.S.-Born Foreign-Born Bad Experience Worry** Give Up Civil Liberties* Bad Experience** Worry** Give Up Civil Liberties** Metro Detroit National Source: Authors compilation. Note: *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p < 0.5.

15 Figure % 80 Backlash and Religion Muslim Christian Bad Experience** Worry*** Give Up Civil Liberties*** Bad Experience*** Worry*** Give Up Civil Liberties*** Metro Detroit National Source: Authors compilation. Note: *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p < 0.5.

16 Figure 3.3 Participation in Ethnic Associations 100% Not Participate Solidarity (Yes/No) Participate*** Not Participate*** Not Participate*** Not Participate*** Participate Participate Participate Confidence in Government Institutions (High/Low) Source: Authors compilation. Note: *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p < 0.5. Yes/High Written Letter to Government (Yes/No) No/Low Ability to Obtain a Fair Trial (Yes/No)

17 Table 4.1 Religious Attendance and Religious Commitment Attend Attend Religious Religious Religious Religious Commitment Commitment Institutions Institutions (Low-High) (Low-High) (Christians) (Muslims) (Christians) (Muslims) Gender (female) 0.348** 0.534*** 0.171** (0.131) (0.164) (0.069) (0.078) Education (0.059) (0.070) (0.029) (0.035) Income (0.072) (0.090) (0.037) (0.045) Immigrant ** cohort (0.105) (0.134) (0.060) (0.070) Citizen 0.451* (0.219) (0.203) (0.133) (0.096) Constant 3.595*** 3.036*** 0.957*** 1.400*** (0.390) (0.459) (0.229) (0.229) Observations R Adj R Source: Detroit Arab American Study Note: Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

18 Table 4.2 Political Participation Among Christians Vote Petition Protest Contribute Written Church attendance (0.092) (0.100) (0.165) (0.128) (0.119) Religious ** commitment (0.195) (0.213) (0.396) (0.245) (0.308) Gender (female) (0.251) (0.262) (0.407) (0.326) (0.337) Education 0.548*** 0.450*** *** 0.573*** (0.110) (0.103) (0.125) (0.127) (0.140) Income *** *** 0.359** (0.127) (0.140) (0.161) (0.195) (0.172) Immigrant 0.656*** 1.355*** *** 1.090*** cohort (0.192) (0.244) (0.377) (0.248) (0.275) Citizen 3.512*** (1.029) (0.654) (1.157) (1.092) (1.090) Constant 4.568*** 2.644*** 3.747* 6.648*** 3.929*** (1.176) (0.982) (1.961) (1.630) (1.303) Observations Source: Detroit Arab American Study Note: Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05

19 Table 4.3 Political Participation Among Muslims Vote Petition Protest Contribute Written Mosque *** 0.480*** 0.358* attendance (0.129) (0.200) (0.136) (0.177) (0.305) Religious *** commitment (0.247) (0.324) (0.251) (0.307) (0.439) Gender (female) (0.305) (0.425) (0.357) (0.509) (0.665) Education *** 0.273* 0.628*** 0.834*** (0.136) (0.180) (0.124) (0.167) (0.238) Income 0.437** 0.575** *** (0.170) (0.217) (0.169) (0.266) (0.367) Immigrant *** cohort (0.237) (0.303) (0.284) (0.337) (0.481) Citizen (0.894) (0.490) (0.887) (1.184) Constant *** (0.936) (1.270) (1.031) (1.752) (1.428) Observations Source: Detroit Arab American Study Note: Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

20 Table 4.4 Arab and Religious Identity Among Christians and Muslims Arab Arab Religious Religious Identity Identity Identity Identity (Christians) (Muslims) (Christians) (Muslims) Religious *** 0.152*** 0.192*** attendance (0.042) (0.041) (0.034) (0.036) Religious commitment *** (Christians) (0.097) (0.065) Gender * *** (female) (0.109) (0.096) (0.089) (0.094) Education (0.041) (0.044) (0.040) (0.038) Income (0.051) (0.059) (0.042) (0.048) Immigrant cohort 0.214* (0.094) (0.075) (0.069) (0.071) Citizen (0.199) (0.124) (0.135) (0.108) Religious commitment 0.225*** 0.435*** (Muslims) (0.078) (0.083) Constant 2.484*** 2.566*** 3.242*** 2.355*** (0.417) (0.324) (0.278) (0.298) Observations R Adjusted R Source: Detroit Arab American Study Note: Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

21 Table 4.5 Worry, Discrimination, and Bias Among Christians Media Bias Media Bias Worry Fair Trial Against Arabs Against Muslims Church 0.208** *** attendance (0.097) (0.086) (0.088) (0.090) Religious commitment (0.198) (0.177) (0.196) (0.180) Gender (female) (0.253) (0.219) (0.230) (0.226) Education (0.106) (0.092) (0.097) (0.095) Income *** (0.123) (0.112) (0.121) (0.115) Immigrant ** 0.676*** cohort (0.205) (0.177) (0.202) (0.193) Citizen (0.422) (0.373) (0.483) (0.425) Constant *** (0.871) (0.749) (0.838) (0.764) Observations Source: Detroit Arab American Study Note: Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

22 Table 4.6 Worry, Discrimination, and Bias Among Muslims Media Bias Against Arab Media Bias Worry Fair Trial Americans Against Muslims Mosque * attendance (0.131) (0.107) (0.103) (0.116) Religious 1.017*** ** commitment (0.270) (0.219) (0.208) (0.234) Gender (0.314) (0.265) (0.272) (0.287) Education 0.466*** 0.328*** 0.484*** 0.593*** (0.152) (0.117) (0.112) (0.129) Income *** 0.322** 0.516*** (0.207) (0.158) (0.137) (0.157) Immigrant ** cohort (0.286) (0.236) (0.233) (0.234) Citizen (0.382) (0.328) (0.326) (0.331) Constant 3.773*** 3.421*** ** (1.157) (0.985) (0.894) (0.960) Observations Source: Detroit Arab American Study Note: Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

23 Figure 5.1 Two Dimensions of Values, Arab Americans and Other Americans 1.5 Traditional Secular-Rational Values Estonia Confucian Japan West Germany China East Germany Protestant Sweden Europe Norway Denmark Netherlands S. Korea Czech Republic Russia Bulgaria Slovenia Lithuania Ukraine Belarus Finland Montenegro France Switzerland Latvia Taiwan Slovakia Greece Luxembourg Serbia Catholic Belgium Moldova Iceland Bosnia Armenia Israel Macedonia Europe Austria Hungary Spain Italy New Zealand Ex-Communist Croatia Uruguay Great Britain Australia Georgia Kyrgyz English Romania Albania Canada Poland Speaking Azerbaijan India U.S.A. Portugal N. Ireland Turkey Chile DAS Ireland South Asia Vietnam Argentina Philippines Dominican Republic Middle East Indonesia South Brazil Bangladesh Africa Peru DAAS Mexico Uganda Iran Malta Latin America Zimbabwe Algeria Jordan Pakistan Egypt Colombia Venezuela Morocco Tanzania Nigeria Africa Puerto Rico El Salvador Source: Authors compilation. Survival Self-Expression Values

24 Figure 5.2 Effects of Place of Birth Traditional Secular-Rational Values Georgia Romania Albania Ex-Communist Azerbaijan Poland India Portugal English Canada Speaking U.S.A. N. Ireland DAS Turkey South Asia VietnamChile Argentina Ireland PhilippinesDominican Republic Indonesia Brazil South Africa Bangladesh Peru Middle East DAAS Mexico Uganda Iran Jordan Malta Latin America Zimbabwe Algeria Pakistan Egypt Colombia Venezuela Morocco Tanzania Nigeria Africa Puerto Rico El Salvador U.S.-born Foreign-born Source: Authors compilation. Survival Self-Expression Values

25 Figure 5.3 Effects on Religion Traditional Secular-Rational Values Georgia English Romania Albania Canada Poland Speaking Ex-Communist Azerbaijan India U.S.A. Portugal N. Ireland Turkey Chile DAS Ireland South Asia Vietnam Argentina Philippines Dominican Republic Indonesia Brazil South Africa Bangladesh Peru Mexico Middle East Uganda Iran Jordan DAAS Latin America Zimbabwe Algeria Malta Pakistan Egypt Colombia Venezuela Morocco Puerto Rico Nigeria El Salvador Tanzania Africa Christian Non-Christian Survival Self-Expression Values Source: Authors compilation. Note: Line for DAAS shows Arab Christians versus Arab Muslims.

26 Figure 5.4 Comparisons on Justifiability of Abortion and Importance of God Sweden Justifiability of Abortion E. Germany Denmark France Iceland Netherlands Switzerland Finland Great Britain Canada W. Germany Italy Spain Portugal Ireland U.S.A. DAS Poland Turkey DAAS Egypt Iran Morocco Jordan Importance of God Source: Authors compilation. Notes: Ten-point response scale for justifiability of abortion, where 1 = can never be justified and 10 = can always be justified. Ten-point response scale for importance of God, where 1 = not at all important and 10 = very important. Each dot represents the average scores for a given population. Diagonal line represents best linear fit between two items (correlation =.900).

27 Table 5.1 Human Development Index for Selected Nations, 2003 Western Nations Middle Eastern Nations 1 Norway 44 Qatar 2 Iceland 46 Kuwait 3 Sweden 48 United Arab Emirates 4 Australia 73 Saudi Arabia 5 Netherlands 79 Oman 6 Belgium 83 Lebanon 7 United States 90 Jordan 8 Canada 96 Turkey 10 Switzerland 98 Occupied Palestinian Territories 11 Denmark 106 Iran 12 Ireland 107 Algeria 13 United Kingdom 110 Syria 14 Finland 120 Egypt 15 Luxembourg 126 Morocco 16 Austria 148 Yemen 17 France 18 Germany 19 Spain 20 New Zealand 21 Italy 23 Portugal Average Human Development Average Human Development Rank = 11.7 Rank = 91.6 Source: United Nations Development Programme 2003.

28 Table 5.2 Statistical Results, Arab Americans and General Public Arab Americans (DAAS) General Population (DAS) Survival Survival Traditional- Self- Traditional- Self- Secular Expression Secular Expression Independent Variables Values Values Values Values Cultural membership U.S. citizenship * (.066) (.079) U.S.-born ***.334*.446** (.067) (.126) (.127) (.122) Language (English) ** (.063) (.075) Religion (Christian) *.306**.020 (.080) (.067) (.095) (.083) Residence (outside * enclave, DAAS; (.072) (.068) (.099) (.075) outside Detroit, DAS)

29 Table 5.2 (continued) Arab Americans (DAAS) General Population (DAS) Survival Survival Traditional- Self- Traditional- Self- Secular Expression Secular Expression Independent Variables Values Values Values Values Experiences related to 9/11 Bad experience * (.069) (.064) Received support *** (.044) (.057) Harassment in last two years Type 1 (verbal insults, ** threatening gestures) (.069) (.065) (.085) (.092) Type 2 (vandalism,.211* loss of employment, (.096) (.090) (.118) (.120) physical attack). Sociodemographics Education.084*** ***.004 (.023) (.023) (.031) (.037) Household income *** ** (.031) (.032) (.048) (.048) Working now (.050) (.071) (.098) (.074) Youth (18 to 25) *.256 (.083) (.089) (.144) (.116) Middle age (26 to 54).176** (.061) (.095) (.080) (.087) Gender (male) *.199* (.042) (.053) (.077) (.074) Race (white).142** * (.048) (.063) (.131) (.098) (Table continues on p.146.)

30 Table 5.2 (continued) Arab Americans (DAAS) General Population (DAS) Survival Survival Traditional- Self- Traditional- Self- Secular Expression Secular Expression Independent Variables Values Values Values Values Marital status.184* (married) (.075) (.081) (.082) (.084) Birth or ancestry Lebanon-Syria * (.075) (.085) Palestine-Jordan (.080) (.089) Other country * (.092) (.082) Constant.898**.536*** 1.095***.082 (.174) (.155) (.210) (.167) Adjusted R N of observations Source: Authors compilation. Notes: U.S. citizenship is a dummy variable, 1 = U.S. citizen, 0 = not citizen (DAAS only). Because 96 percent of the general population are U.S. citizens, this variable is not included in the analysis for the DAS. Language is a dummy variable, indicating the language of the interview, 1 = English, 0 = Arabic. This variable is not applicable to the DAS because all interviews were in English. Gender is a dummy variable, 1 = male, 0 = female. Religion is a dummy variable. For DAS, Christian = 1, 0 = other. For DAAS, 1 = Christian, 0 = Muslim. Residence is a dummy variable. For DAS, 1 = other, 0 = Detroit. For DAAS, 1 = outside enclave, 0 = Dearborn Dearborn Heights (enclave). Omitted category for country of birth-ancestry is Iraq. Comparable questions were not asked in the DAS. Race is a dummy variable. For DAS, 1 = non-black, 0 = black. For DAAS, 1 = white, 0 = nonwhite. Total sample size for 2003 Detroit Area Study = 508. Total sample size of DAAS = These results reflect adjustments for complex design features, sampling weights, and imputation of missing data. Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

31 Table 5.3 Statistical Results, Immigrant Arab Americans Immigrant Arab Immigrant Arab Americans (with Americans Length of Stay Included) Survival Survival Traditional- Self- Traditional- Self- Secular Expression Secular Expression Independent Variables Values Values Values Values Cultural Membership U.S. citizenship * (.065) (.088) (.108) (.141) Language (English) ** * (.068) (.075) (.079) (.096) Religion (Christian) (.067) (.079) (.072) (.070) Residence (outside enclave, DAAS; (.079) (.080) (.078) (.079) outside Detroit, DAS) Experiences related to 9/11 Bad experience ** ** (.081) (.064) (.081) (.083) Received support *** *** (.058) (.074) (.056) (.072) Harassment in last two years Type 1 (verbal insults, threatening (.077) (.078) (.077) (.078) gestures) Type 2 (vandalism, loss of employment, (.101) (.090) (.101) (.090) physical attack). (Table continues on p.148.)

32 Table 5.3 (continued) Immigrant Arab Immigrant Arab Americans (with Americans Length of Stay Included) Survival Survival Traditional- Self- Traditional- Self- Secular Expression Secular Expression Independent Variables Values Values Values Values Sociodemographics Education.085*** ***.037 (.024) (.027) (.025) (.027) Household income *** ** (.031) (.034) (.033) (.038) Working now (.050) (.081) (.049) (.080) Youth (.100) (.140) (.092) (.168) Middle age.150** *.086 (.055) (.108) (.073) (.136) Gender (male) (.047) (.055) (.047) (.057) Race (white) (.056) (.064) (.057) (.067) Marital status.195** **.056 (married) (.076) (.112) (.068) (.103) Lebanon-Syria birth (.080) (.086) (.083) (.081) Palestine-Jordan birth (.084) (.092) (.087) (.079) Other country birth.141*.269***.147*.257*** (.066) (.080) (.071) (.073) Length of stay in United States (.048) (.071) Constant.840***.596***.887***.704*** (.139) (.155) (.130) (.181)

33 Table 5.3 (continued) Immigrant Arab Immigrant Arab Americans (with Americans Length of Stay Included) Survival Survival Traditional- Self- Traditional- Self- Secular Expression Secular Expression Independent Variables Values Values Values Values Adjusted R N of observations Source: Authors compilation. Notes: U.S. citizenship is a dummy variable, 1 = U.S. citizen, 0 = not citizen. Language is a dummy variable, indicating the language of the interview, 1 = English, 0 = Arabic. Gender is a dummy variable, 1 = male, 0 = female. Religion is a dummy variable, 1 = Christian, 0 = Muslim. Residence is a dummy variable, 1 = outside enclave, 0 = Dearborn Dearborn Heights (enclave). Length of stay is a single discrete variable representing five cohorts of immigration. No alternative measure of length of stay is significantly associated with the dependent variables. Omitted category for country of birth-ancestry is Iraq. Race is a dummy variable, 1 = white, 0 = nonwhite. Total sample size for size of DAAS = 1016, 73 percent of which are immigrants. These results reflect adjustments for complex design features, sampling weights, and imputation of missing data. Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

34 Figure 6.1 Average Number of Days Per Year for Socializing Arab Americans General population Interracial socializing Interneighborhood socializing Have friends to home Source: Authors compilation. Note: DAS sample size = 508; DAAS sample size = 1016.

35 Figure 6.2 Levels of Generalized and Racial Trust 90% Generalized trust Racial trust 22% 63% 38% 78% 0 Arab Americans General Population Source: Authors compilation. Notes: Generalized trust is the percentage of a population who say that most people can be trusted versus those who say that one can t be too careful or it depends. Racial trust is the average of how much a person trusts whites, blacks, Hispanics, and Arab Americans, where trust for a specified group equals 1 when a persons trusts members of the group a lot or some, and trust for the group equals 0 when a person reports only a little or not at all. DAS sample size = 508; DAAS sample size = 1016.

36 Figure 6.3 Frequent Contact Outside the United States 60% 50 Arab Americans General Population 55.6% % % 9.1% 11.6% 14.6% 0 Business Friends Family Source: Authors compilation. Notes: Business is the percentage of a population that has business contacts outside the United States and has monthly communication with them; friends is the percentage of a population that has friends outside the United States and has monthly communication with them; family is the percentage of a population that has family outside the United States and has monthly communication with them. DAS sample size = 508; DAAS sample size = 1016.

37 Table 6.1 Comparison of Local Social Capital Dimensions Arab General Americans Population Dimensions (DAAS) (DAS) Generalized trust (1 = people can be trusted; = you can t be too careful or it depends.) (.01) (.02) Racial trust (average trust of Arab Americans, whites, blacks, Hispanics, 1 = trusts all races; (.02) (.02) 0 = distrusts all races.) Civic participation (4-point scale, 0 = does not sign petition, vote, contact government official, (.04) (.04) or protest; 4 = does all four.) Faith-based engagement (frequency of attendance at religious services, excluding weddings (1.41) (1.92) and funerals.) Associational involvement (count of membership in secular organizations: sports/recreation, art/ (.13) (.10) music/cultural, labor union, parents association, professional/business. Excludes religious organizations.) Attended club or organizational meeting (number of times in the past twelve months, excludes (.65) (1.20) meetings for work.) Interracial socializing (number of times in the past twelve months that you have been in the (1.29) (2.44) home of a friend of a different race or had them in your home.) Interneighborhood socializing (number of times in the past twelve months that you have been in (1.63) (3.08) the home of a friend of a different neighborhood or had them in your home.) Have friends over to home (number of times in the past twelve months.) (2.12) (4.68) Source: Authors compilation. Notes: Values are mean score on each indicator. Standard errors are in parentheses. These indicators are based on the Social Capital Benchmark Survey short form (2002).

38 Table 6.2 Civic Participation and Informal Networks Interneighborhood Civic Participation Have Friends to Home Socializing Interracial Socializing Arab General Arab General Arab General Arab General Independent Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Variables (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) Education.200***.220*** ** ** (.025) (.036) (1.62) (4.00) (1.03) (2.43) (.959) (3.93) Age.172**.287*** 9.42** 33.61*** 9.85*** 10.11* 10.49*** 18.52* (.048) (.067) (3.68) (8.33) (2.67) (4.66) (2.56) (7.74) Gender * (.059) (.079) (3.92) (7.36) (2.96) (5.22) (2.57) (5.40) Income.151***.101* (.031) (.047) (2.48) (4.51) (1.70) (3.38) (1.10) (3.16) U.S. citizen.442***.832*** * 5.45* (.058) (.227) (4.35) (18.33) (3.53) (8.85) (2.43) (10.64) U.S.-born.630***.488** * * *1.33 (.092) (.188) (6.65) (10.22) (4.89) (7.32) (3.85) (6.99) Language.218** 15.30** (.075) (4.91) (3.21) (2.57) (Table continues on p. 176.)

39 Table 6.2 (continued) Interneighborhood Civic Participation Have Friends to Home Socializing Interracial Socializing Arab General Arab General Arab General Arab General Independent Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Variables (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) Religion.228** (.088) (.086) (5.01) (8.74) (4.56) (5.23) (3.74) (6.41) Residence (.088) (.104) (4.98) (11.49) (3.98) (7.09) (3.55) (6.70) Constant 1.32*** 1.21*** *** 26.94** 50.32*** 26.60*** 48.25** (.1799) (.223) (13.39) (26.92) (9.59) (13.29) (7.60) (17.04) R N Source: Authors compilation. Notes: U.S. citizenship is a dummy variable, 1 = U.S. citizen, 0 = not citizen. Language is a dummy variable, indicating the language of the interview, 1 = Arabic; 0 = English. This variable is not applicable to the DAS because all interviews were in English. Gender is a dummy variable, 1 = male, 0 = female. Religion is a dummy variable. For DAS, Non-Christian = 1, Christian = other. For DAAS = 1 Muslim, 0 = Christian. Residence is a dummy variable. For DAS, 1 = Detroit, 0 = other. For DAAS, 1 = Dearborn Dearborn Heights (enclave), 0 = outside enclave. Total sample size for 2003 Detroit Area Study = 508. Total sample size of DAAS = These results reflect adjustments for complex design features, sampling weights, and imputation of missing data. R 2 for OLS models is adjusted R 2. For logistic models (generalized trust), it is estimated Nagelkerke pseudo R 2. Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

40 Table 6.3 Trust, Faith-Based Engagement, Associational Involvement, and Attendance at Club or Organizational Meetings Attend Club or Associational Organizational Faith-Based Generalized Trust Racial Trust Involvement Meetings Engagement Arab General Arab General Arab General Arab General Arab General Independent Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Variables (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) Education.334***.282**.023*.063***.225***.321*** 1.08** (.079) (.111) (.011) (.017) (.057) (.077) (.346) (1.66) (.627) (1.02) Age.312*.561**.079*** ** 4.83** (.156) (.209) (.022) (.030) (.110) (.132) (.661) (2.81) (1.194) (1.60) Gender (.181) (.235) (.027) (.034) (.134) (.157) (.931) (2.84) (1.421) (2.12) Income ** * ** (.095) (.141) (.013) (.022) (.070) (.101) (.539) (1.49) (.787) (1.42) Citizenship *** (.272) (.887) (.037) (.125) (.174) (.480) (.800) (3.92) (1.885) (8.47) Place of birth.515* **.744* 3.18* (.222) (.585) (.034) (.070) (.180) (.333) (1.56) (2.39) (1.949) (5.14) Language * (.242) (.037) (.173) (1.07) (1.863) Religion ** *** 7.58*** (.248) (.256) (.038) (.038) (.180) (.171) (1.55) (3.09) (2.02) (2.21) (Table continues on p. 178.)

41 Table 6.3 (continued) Attend Club or Associational Organizational Faith-Based Generalized Trust Racial Trust Involvement Meetings Engagement Arab General Arab General Arab General Arab General Arab General Independent Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Variables (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) (DAAS) (DAS) Residence.659**.861* **.537** 1.31*** * 8.05** (.262) (.398) (.039) (.060) (.179) (.257) (1.718) (3.29) (2.05) (3.12) Constant 3.62*** 2.87**.714*** ** *** 17.35* (.698) (.941) (.087) (.145) (.429) (.512) (2.45) (10.16) (4.76) (8.47) R N Source: Authors compilation. Notes: U.S. citizenship is a dummy variable, 1 = U.S. citizen, 0 = not citizen. Language is a dummy variable, indicating the language of the interview, 1 = Arabic, 0 = English. This variable is not applicable to the DAS because all interviews were in English. Gender is a dummy variable, 1 = male, 0 = female. Religion is a dummy variable. For DAS, Non-Christian = 1, Christian = other. For DAAS, 1 = Muslim, 0 = Christian. Residence is a dummy variable. For DAS, 1 = Detroit, 0 = other. For DAAS, 1 = Dearborn Dearborn Heights (enclave), 0 = outside enclave. Total sample size for 2003 Detroit Area Study = 508. Total sample size of DAAS = These results reflect adjustments for complex design features, sampling weights, and imputation of missing data. R 2 for OLS models is adjusted R 2. For logistic models (generalized trust), it is estimated Nagelkerke pseudo R 2. Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

42 Table 6.4 Global Social Capital Monthly Monthly Extent of Contact with Contact with Has Satellite TV Contact with Friends Family Independent and Watches Transnational Outside the Outside the Variables Arabic Programs Ties United States United States Education.221**.142***.152*.127 (.074) (.036) (.075) (.075) Age.570*** (.143) (.069) (.159) (.145) Gender (.167) (.081) (.176) (.168) Income.275**.140***.339***.258** (.092) (.043) (.094) (.093) U.S. citizen * * (.235) (.111) (.233) (.242) U.S.-born 1.509***.839*** 1.103*** 1.522*** (.229) (.113) (.276) (.233) Language.917***.426*** *** (.214) (.107) (.227) (.218) Religion.889***.422*** ** (.229) (.113) (.238) (.239) Residence.683** (.253) (.116) (.244) (.255) Constant.922* 3.392*** 2.919***.038 (.459) (.231) (.162) (.473) R N Source: Authors compilation. Notes: U.S. citizenship is a dummy variable, 1 = U.S. citizen, 0 = not citizen. Language is a dummy variable, indicating the language of the interview, 1 = Arabic, 0 = English. Gender is a dummy variable, 1 = male, 0 = female. Religion is a dummy variable, 1 = Muslim, 0 = Christian. Residence is a dummy variable, 1 = Dearborn Dearborn Heights (enclave), 0 = outside enclave. Coefficients are from logistic regression for Arabic TV, monthly contact with friends, and monthly contact with family; OLS regression for extent of contact with transnational ties. R 2 for logistic models is Nagelkerke pseudo R 2. Total sample size for DAAS = Parentheses contain standard errors. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

43 Table 6.5 Summary of Main Effects of Sociodemographics Characteristic Local Social Capital Global Social Capital Immigrant + Not a U.S. citizen + Arabic speaker + Residence in enclave + Muslim /+ + Education (higher) + /+ Income (higher) + + Age (older) + Source: Authors compilation. Notes: A minus sign ( ) indicates an inverse relationship between a characteristic and all or most indicators of local (or global) social capital; a plus sign (+) indicates a positive relationship for all or most indicators. A mixed sign ( /+) indicates that a characteristic has an inverse relationship with some indicators of local (or global) social capital and a positive relationship with other indicators of local (or global) social capital. Signs represent significant coefficients in the multivariate analyses (tables 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4).

44 Figure 7.1 Perspectives on Civil Liberties 70% % 55% 56% 52% 49% 27% 31% Arabs and Chaldeans General Population 47% 41% % 8% 23% 19% 12% 0 Trade Some Civil Liberties to Curb Terrorism Support Increased Surveillance of U.S. Citizens Support Increased Surveillance of Arab Americans Support More Police Stop and Search Powers for Anyone Support Increased Police Powers to Stop and Search Support Detention of Suspicious Individuals Support Detention of Suspicious Arabs/Muslims Source: Baker et al

45 Figure 7.2 Citizenship and Restrictions on Civil Liberties 25% 20 21% 15 14% 10 9% 11% 5 4% 5% 0 Citizens Noncitizens Citizens Noncitizens Citizens Noncitizens Surveillance Stop and Search Detain Without Evidence Source: Authors compilation. Notes: Surveillance significance =.002; stop and search significance =.02; detain without evidence significance =.005.

46 Table 7.1 Religion, National Origin, and Accepting Restrictions on Arab American Civil Liberties Increased Detain Surveillance Stop and Search Suspicious Iraqi Christians 32%** 18%** 23%** Iraqi Muslims Lebanese Christians 18** 6** 15** Lebanese Muslims Palestinian Christians Palestinian Muslims Source: Author s compilation. Totals: Iraqi Christians by column: 301, 304, 300; Iraqi Muslims by column: 39, 39, 37. Lebanese Christians by column: 121, 125, 125; Lebanese Muslims by column: 231, 235, 231. Palestinian Christians by column: 98, 99, 98; Palestinian Muslims by column: 20, 22, 22. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

47 Table 7.2 Views on Restricted Rights Identify Feel at Home as Arab in America Proud to Be American American No or Not Very Scale/Item Yes Neutral Proud Proud Proud Yes No Willing to yield 48% 40% 28% 41% 51%*** 43% 55%*** your rights Surveillance of 51 45** *** all citizens Stop and search 30 11*** *** 22 37*** any person Detain suspects 20 9*** *** 13 31*** Surveillance of 19 4*** *** 11 30*** Arab Americans Stop and search 9 2** ** 3 18*** Arab Americans Detain Arab Americans 13 4** *** 5 28*** and Muslims Is a fair trial 56 20*** *** 46 60*** possible? Totals Source: Author s compilation. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

48 Table 7.3 Enhanced Fear and Views on Restricted Rights Bad Experience 9/11 Shook Safety Media and Arabs Item/Scale Yes No Yes Some No + 0 Willing to yield 38% 48%** 48% 46% 42% 44% 51% 38%* your rights Surveillance of 44 58** ** all citizens Stop and search 17 29** ** any person Detain suspects 10 21*** ** Surveillance of 8 18** ** Arab Americans Stop and search 4 8* ** Arab Americans Detain Arab Americans and 7 13* *** ** Muslims Is a fair trial 43 52* * ** possible? Totals Source: Author s compilation. *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

49 Table 7.4 Acceptance of Civil Liberties Restrictions General Arab Rights Rights Surveillance Surveillance Surveillance, Scale/Item Index Index None Both But Not Us Education (1 < HS; 2 = HS; 3 = HS+; 4 = BA; 5 = BA+) 2 versus * 3 versus versus versus * * * Age (1 = 18 to 25; 2 = 26 to 54; 3 = 55+) 2 versus * versus * * Male Christian 2.03** 2.206* * Conservative Republican * Arab American? 0.666* 0.283*** **** 2.144*** Proud to be American 3.387* 3.514* * Arabs do all * 0.545** Fair trial possible? 2.019** 1.666* 0.525*** 2.047** 1.356* Memberships 1 versus versus * versus ** versus * *** ** 5 versus Active in congregation Information Index 1 versus versus * Conflict of values 2.309*** 2.339* 0.616* 1.861* Extremists 0.633* 2.053* (Table continues on p. 212.)

50 Table 7.4 (continued) General Arab Rights Rights Surveillance Surveillance Surveillance, Scale/Item Index Index None Both But Not Us Media hostile 1 versus * 0.483** * versus *** 0.441* 2.672**** ** Bad experience? * Trust people 2 versus ** versus Hostile to immigrants None or some * Source: Author s compilation. Notes: Reporting logistic coefficients from regression of five indices on Education, Age, Memberships, Information, Media hostile, Trust people, Hostile to immigrants. Dummy variables (1 = yes, 0 = no) are Male, Christian, Conservative, Republican, Consider self Arab American, Feel at home in America, Arabs doing all to stop terrorism, Fair trial possible, Active in congregation, American values attacked on 9/11, Extremists behind attacks, Bad experience after September 11. Arab American Rights Index accepts restrictions on H14d, H14E, H14f. Categories are 1 = none and 2 = 1 or more. General rights index accepts restrictions on H14a, b, c. Categories are 1 = none, 2 = 1, and 3 = 2 or 3. Media hostility index: C36b (3) + C36c (b), none = 0, 1 or 2 = 1. Immigrant hostility index: F7 (4 or 5) + F8 (1 or 2), none = 0, some = 1 or 2. Memberships report total affiliations on C 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. Results based on 857 valid responses. **** p <.0001, *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

51 Table 8.1 Attitudes on Middle East Related Issues Scale/Item General Public Arab Americans 9/11 shook sense of safety Great deal 34% 33% Not much U.S. Iraq War shook sense of safety Great deal Not much Confidence in UN Great deal or a lot Not much Support Palestinian state? Yes Oppose 8 3 Don t know U.S. involvement stabilizing Middle East Yes No No opinion 4 9 American media Very reliable Somewhat reliable Not reliable 6 19 Coverage of Israelis Biased in favor Balanced Biased against 25 3 Coverage of Palestinians Biased in favor 9 1 Balanced Biased against Coverage of Islam and Muslims Biased in favor 12 4 Balanced Biased against 41 50

52 Table 8.1 (continued) Scale/Item General Public Arab Americans Follow war on terrorism Very closely or closely 77% 63% Little or not much Follow war in Iraq Very closely or closely Little or not much Source: Author s compilation.

53 Table 8.2 Source of Foreign Policy Attitudes Clash of Conflict of Scale/Item U.S. Stabilizing Policy Index Palestinian State Civilizations Values Independent Variables p-est. p-est p-est. p-est. p-est. Education (1 < HS; 2 = HS; 3 = HS+; 4 = BA+) 2 versus * versus ** versus * Political information (C37 + C38, 0 = none; 1 = one; 2 = two) 1 versus **** 2 versus *** *** Conservative * Republican * * Christian Zionism *** 1.662* Community engagement (0 = none; 1 = medium; 2 = high) 1 versus versus Identify as Arab American 1.328* 1.501** Supporting Palestine Central 0.418* 0.481**** 9.617**** Proud to be American (0 = not; 1 = proud; 2 = very proud) 0 versus versus *** 1.985* * (Table continues on p. 236).

54 Table 8.2 (continued) Clash of Conflict of Scale/Item U.S. Stabilizing Policy Index Palestinian State Civilizations Values Independent Variables p-est. p-est p-est. p-est. p-est. Citizen * * 0.501* Media hostile index (0 = low; 1 = medium; 2 = high) 1 versus ** 0.581* 1.049* 2.369** versus **** 0.570* 1.897*** 1.984** 0.395** Worry about future 0.660* 0.605* * Male Iraqi ** Palestinian-Jordanian Enclave *** Muslim * *** 0.458* Source: Author s compilation. Notes: Reporting logistic coefficients from regression of foreign policy issues on Education, Political information, Community engagement, Identity as an Arab American, Supporting Palestine central value, Proud to be American, Media hostile index, Worry about the future, and dummy variables (1 = yes, 0 = no) on conservative, Republican, Christian Zionist, Identify as Arab American, Palestine central to identity, Citizen, Male, Iraqi, Palestinian-Jordanian, Live in enclave, Muslim, Worry about the future (1 = yes on H8, responses 1 or 2). n = 788. The Media hostility index contains two items (C36b and C36c) on whether the media are friendly, balanced, or hostile to Muslims and Islam and Arab Americans and Chaldeans. Respondents got one point for each perception of hostility. Community engagement: total memberships on C16, 17, 18, 19, 20, = none; 1 = 1 or 2; 2 = 3 or more. The Policy index gives one point each for thinking U.S. policy toward Israel or U.S. policy toward the Gulf might have been a cause of the September 11 attacks. **** p <.0001, *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

55 Table 8.3 Factor Analysis of Eight Middle East Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Item Palestine Central Culture Clash U.S. Israeli policy cause of 9/ U.S. Gulf policy cause of 9/ Supporting Palestine important Supports Palestine state U.S. stabilizing the region Conflict of values cause of 9/ Clash of civilizations cause of 9/ Christian Zionism Source: Author s compilation. Notes: percent of all variance is explained by these two factors. Factor 1 explains percent. Factor 2 explains percent. This is a varimax rotation.

56 Table 8.4 Possible Causes of 9/11 Attacks Gulf Clash of Conflict of Scale/Item Policy Civilizations Values Extremists Israel policy General population Arab Americans Gulf policy General population Arab Americans Clash of civilizations General population Arab Americans Conflict of values General population.224 Arab Americans.170 Source: Author s compilation.

57 Table 8.5 Source of Concealed Opinions Support U.S. Stabilizing Causes Scale/Item Palestine State Middle East? of 9/11 Independent Variables p-est. p-est. p-est. Age (1 = 18 to 25; 2 = 26 to 54; 3 = 55+) 2 versus **** versus **** * Education (1 < HS; 2 = HS; 3 = HS+; 4 = BA+) 1 versus * * 2 versus ** 3 versus * * 4 versus Male 0.686* Information index (low, medium, high, see table 8.2) 1 versus ** * 2 versus War news attentive index (0 = low; 1 = medium; 2 = high) 1 versus versus * 0.500* Trust D.C. government 2.618*** Fair trial possible * Trust legal system (C27, 1 = low; = medium; 3 = high) Group memberships 1 versus versus * Muslim 0.630* 2.291* 2.177** Proud to be American (2 = very; 1 = proud; 0 = not proud) Nervous during interview? (4 = not; 3 = little; 2 = some; 1 = lot) 2 versus * versus * 0.217** 4 versus ** 0.268*

58 Table 8.5 (continued) Support U.S. Stabilizing Causes Scale/Item Palestine State Middle East? of 9/11 Independent Variables p-est. p-est. p-est. Worry about future (1 = low; 5 = high) 2 versus versus ** 4 versus ** * 5 versus * Source: Author s compilation. Notes: Reporting logistic coefficients from regression of absent opinion on Age, Education, Political information, Trust, Group memberships, Nervous, Worry about the future, Proud to be American. Dummy variables (1 = yes, 0 = no) are Male, Trust government in Washington, Fair trial is possible, Muslim. War news index includes one point for each positive answer on H5 and H19. Group memberships: includes activity on C16, 17, 18, 19, 20, = none; 1 = 1 or 2; 2 = 3 or more. **** p <.0001, *** p <.001, ** p <.01, * p <.05.

59 Figure 9.1 Confidence in Public Institutions 100% 86% % 62% 71% 66% 47% 53% 51% Arab General Americans Population Public Schools Arab General Arab General Arab General Americans Population Americans Population Americans Population Local Police U.S. Legal System U.S. Government Source: Authors compilation.

60 Table 9.1 Confidence in Public Institutions Public Local Legal Federal Scale/Item Schools Police System Government Country of origin-ancestry Iraq 68% 85% 67% 59% Yemen Palestine-Jordan Lebanon-Syria Time in United States Born in U.S., one or two parents born in U.S Born in U.S., parents born abroad Arrived before Arrived 1970 to Arrived 1980 to Arrived 1990 to Arrived 1996 or later Religion Christian Muslim Household income Under $20, $20,000 to $49, $50,000 to $99, $100, Education Below high school High school Some college BA BA Race Arab-other White Arab American Describes me Does not describe me Bad experience after 9/11 No Yes Source: Authors compilation.