Human mobility: shaping vulnerability and resilience to disasters. Background paper to the HFA2 dialogue IOM OIM

Transcription

1 Human mobility: shaping vulnerability and resilience to disasters Background paper to the HFA2 dialogue IOM OIM

2 Photo copyright For more information IOM focal point for DRR and the HFA process: Transition and Recovery Division - trd@iom.int Cover: IOM/Nuno Nunes p.2: IOM/Brendan Bannon p.4: IOM p.5: IOM/Nathalie Bering p.6: IOM/Mark Turner p.7: IOM/ Celeste Hibbert p.8: IOM/David Lang p.11: IOM/Juliana Quintero p.13: IOM/Daniel Desmarais

3 Table of Contents Background and scope of the paper Integrating human mobility in DRR 1 Environmental drivers of mobility patterns 3 Risk as a driver of mobility 3 Moving to manage environmental risk 3 Environmental effects of human mobility 5 Mobility as a determinant of hazard exposure 5 Mobility as a driver of natural hazards 6 Effects of mobility on the resilience and vulnerability of mobile populations 7 Increasing the well-being of mobile populations 7 Mobile people s limited access to income opportunities and basic services 7 Mobile people s limited access to safe shelter 8 Social marginalization and conflict 9 Mobile people as a challenge for Disaster Risk Management systems 9 Effects of mobility on home communities 10 Economic and social remittances supporting the household s well-being 10 Economic remittances supporting the home economy 10 Social and cultural progress linked with mobility 11 Mobility increasing the household s socio-economic vulnerability 11 Mobility increasing the fragility of home societies 12 Effects of mobility on host communities 13 Mobile people stimulating and supporting the host economy 13 Population inflow pressuring local markets and services 13 Conclusions and recommendations 14 References 15

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5 Background and scope of the paper Integrating human mobility in DRR With% 740% million% internal% migrants% and% 214% million% interna5onal% migrants% in% the% world% (UNDP,% 2009),% and% many%more%moving%short% distances%and%on% a%temporary% basis% (Tacoli,% 2013),% human% mobility% is% today% a% fundamental% driver% of% social% and% demographic% change% (Black% et% al.,% 2011),% influencing% the% development% of% cultures,%socie5es%and%economies%at%the%global%and%local% levels.% Together% with% other% demographic% dynamics,% mobility% contributes% to% the% distribu5on% of% human% popula5ons;% the% loca5on,% size,% density% and% composi5on% of% communi5es;%and%people s% access%to% livelihood% op5ons% and% wellobeing%(schensul%&%dodman,%2013).%it%is%one%of% the% essen5al% features% of% the% con5nuum% of% human% interac5ons% with% the% environment% (Sanderson,% 2009),% contribu5ng% to% defining% a% spa5al% hierarchy% of% opportuni5es% and% risk,% including% risk% from% disasters,% among%different%loca5ons%and%actors%(skeldon,%2008). Mobility% and% disasters% are% profoundly% interlinked:% natural% hazards% and% environmental% change% can% be% drivers%or% 5pping%points%of%popula5on%movements,%and% can% influence% sociooeconomic% and% poli5cal% processes% that% induce% mobility% responses% (IDMC,% 2013;% IPCC,% 2012;% McLeman,% 2011;% Black,% 2011;% Foresight,% 2011;% Tacoli,%2009;%Kniveton%et%al.,%2009;%Renaud%et%al.,%2007;% Hugo,% 1996;% EACHOFOR).% More% fundamentally,% though,% how% much% people% and% groups% need% and% are% able% to% move% depend% on% the% same% environmental,% social,% economic% and% poli5cal% variables% that% define% hazard% exposure,% vulnerability% and% resilience% (Wisner% et% al.% 2012;%de%Haas,%2008a).%On%the%other%hand,%mobility%has% a% dis5nct% and% transforma5ve% effect% in% reducing% or% genera5ng% risk% for% different% individuals% and% groups,% which% creates% specific% concerns% and% opportuni5es% for% communi5es%and%socie5es. From%a%Disaster%Risk%Reduc5on%(DRR)%point% of%view,%it%is% essen5al% to% understand%both%sides%of%the%equa5on:%how% different% exposure,%vulnerability%and% resilience%result% in% different% mobility%decisions,%and% how%different% mobility% behaviors%result%in% different% resilience%and% vulnerability% outcomes.% This% requires% taking% into% account% how% DRR% and% development% interven5ons% expand% or% reduce% people s%capacity% to% move%and% alterna5ves% to%mobility,% and% how% different% mobility% management% op5ons% translate%into%increased%or%reduced%risk. The% Hyogo% Framework%for% Ac5on% (HFA),% in% its% current% formula5on,% does% not% give% adequate% considera5on% to% these% implica5ons.% It% refers% to% changing% demographic% condi5ons% as% one% of% the% main% drivers% of% disaster% risk,% along% with% a% number% of% elements% that% are% directly% influenced% by% human% mobility% (such% as% ecosystem% management,% adapta5on% to% climate% change,% food% security,%access%to% basic%services,%landouse%planning%and% inclusive% preparedness% mechanisms),% but% only% gives% explicit%recogni5on%to%displacement%(unisdr,%2005). 1 %In% addi5on,% forced% migra5on% and% displacement% are% men5oned% in% the% Chair s% Summary% of% the% Fourth% Session% of% the% Global% Plaform% for% Disaster% Risk% Reduc5on% among% the% root% causes% of% risk,% while% migra5on% is% iden5fied% as% one% of% the% issues% requiring% agen5on% for% sound% urban% planning% at% the% local% level% (UNISDR,%2013a). These% formula5ons,% by%looking% at% human% mobility%only% as%consequences%or% causes%of%disasters,%fail%to%recognize% mobility% as% an% integral% feature% of% past% and% current% development% of% communi5es% and% socie5es% (UNDP,% 2009;% World% Bank,% 2009).% Research% and% prac5ce,% instead,% show% that% mobility% should% be% taken% into% account% for% its% poten5al% to% produce% both% vulnerability% and%resilience,%and%that%the%concrete%outcomes%of%one s% movement% are% largely% determined% by% the% environmental,%social,%economic%and%poli5cal%context% in% which%it% takes%place%(mcgranahan% et% al.,%2013;%de%haas,% 2008).%DRR% and,%more% in%general,%development% policies% should% therefore% create% the% condi5ons% for% maximizing% the% benefits% and% minimizing% the% costs% of% mobility,% in% order% to% realize% its% development% poten5al% visoàovis% mobile%people%and%their%host%and%home%communi5es. 1 %Priority%for%Ac5on%4%(ii.i)%Endeavor%to%ensure,%as%appropriate,%that%programmes%for%displaced%persons%do%not%increase%risk%and%vulnerability%to% hazards. 1

6 In% order% to% beger% highlight% the% implica5ons% of% this% perspec5ve,% the% Interna5onal% Organiza5on% for% Migra5on% (IOM)% adopted% a% livelihood% approach% to% mobility% and% disaster% risk,% which% interprets% migra5on,% evacua5on,% displacement% and% return% as% op5ons% for% livelihood% protec5on% and% diversifica5on% (IOM,% 2013a).% Mobility% is% understood% as% one% of% the% strategies% households%can%pursue%for% their% wellobeing%in% a%context% of%more%or% less%significant%tradeooffs%and%limited%choices% (Wisner% et% al.,% 2004;% McDowell% and% de% Haan,% 1997;% Hugo,% 1996),%and% as% one% of% the% determinants%for% their% longoterm% welfare.%lack% of% mobility%(i.e.% the% incapacity% to% move%before,%during%and%aier% disasters)%is%ipso%facto% a%major%factor% of%vulnerability% %as%demonstrated%by%the% dispropor5onate%impact% of%natural% hazards% on% trapped% popula5ons% (for% a% discussion% of% the% issue:% Foresight,% 2011;% for% the% case% of% Hurricane% Katrina:% Landry% et% al.,% 2007).% With% the% present% paper,%iom%would% like% to% provide% an% overview% of% the% nexus% between% mobility% and% the% environmental,% social,% economic% and% poli5cal% dimensions%that%define%the% resilience%of% individuals%and% communi5es.% The% text% considers% first% mobility% as% an% outcome% of% the% interac5on% between% environmental% processes% and% human% socie5es% and% then% analyzes% mobility s% posi5ve% and% nega5ve% effects% on% human% and% environmental% wellobeing.% The% paper% considers% separately%the%effects% of% mobility%on% mobile% people%as% well% as% on% host% and% des5na5on% communi5es% and% socie5es.% Nonetheless,% these% three% groups% should% not% be% understood% as% homogeneous.% The% evidence% clearly% shows% that% mobility% has% different% effects% on% different% contexts,% and% within% given% contexts% on% different% stakeholder% groups% and% individuals,% depending% on% prevailing%ins5tu5ons%and%rela5ons.%drr,%resilience%and% vulnerability% represent% useful% conceptual% tools% to% interpret% the% characteris5cs% of% communi5es% and% socie5es% and% to% understand% both% the% drivers% and% the% outcomes%of%human%mobility. IOM% believes% that% the% dynamics% highlighted% in% this% paper% will% be% central% to% development% efforts,% and% in% par5cular%to%drr%policy%and%prac5ce,%in%the%increasingly% interconnected% and% mobile% global% society% of% the% next% decades.%mobility%is% and% will% be%a%fundamental% force% in% shaping% vulnerability% and% resilience.% Its% integral% role% in% global% development% should% not% be% overlooked% in% the% dialogue% leading% to% the% formula5on% of% the% successor% framework%to%the%hfa.% 2

7 Environmental drivers of mobility patterns Risk as a driver of mobility Environmental% shocks,% stresses% and% change% influence% mobility% pagerns% by% affec5ng% key% drivers% of% human% wellobeing.%people s%decisions%to%move%are%complex%and% mul5causal% and% are% based% on% the% considera5on% of% economic,% poli5cal% and% social% elements% (e.g.% the% availability% of% material% and% social% resources% and% opportuni5es% in% the% place% of% origin% and% of% des5na5on,% the% existence% of% alterna5ves% to% mobility)% (Walsham,% 2010),% which% are% profoundly%linked% to% the% features% of% local%ecosystems.%environmental% processes,%natural% and% manomade,% can% therefore% have% a% dis5nct% influence% on% mobility,% both% directly%(e.g.% loss%of% coastal% land% due% to% seaolevel% rise)% and% indirectly% (e.g.% decrease% in% agricultural% produc5on% and% water% availability% due% to% changes%in%weather%pagerns)%(foresight,%2011;%piguet%et% al.,%2010;%tacoli,%2009;%renaud%et% al,%2007;% EACHOFOR).% The% interac5on% of% environmental% processes% with% the% social,%poli5cal%and%economic%structures%of%socie5es%and% communi5es% creates% different% opportuni5es% and% hazards%for% different% individuals,%and%s5mulate%different% responses% (including% mobility% decisions),% as% people% pursue%wellobeing 2 %in%accordance%with%their%aspira5ons,% context%and%capabili5es%(wisner%et%al,%2004). Extreme% natural% events% % especially%destruc5ve,% rapido onset% ones%such% as% cyclones,%earthquakes%and% floods% % can% be%easily%iden5fied% as% immediate% 5pping%points%for% massive% popula5on% movements% (IPCC,% 2012).%Between% 2008% and% 2012,% over% 140% million% people% were% on% the% move% as% a% direct% consequence% of% natural% hazards,% of% which% 42.3% million% moved% in% 2010% alone%(idmc,%2013).% Movements% induced% by% these% events% tend% to% be% temporary,%as% most% people% leave% with% the% inten5on% of% coming%back%as%soon% as%the%condi5ons%for% return%are% in% place,% and% they% tend% to% move% on% as% the% shortest% possible% and% welloknown% routes%(mcleman,%2011).%as%a% consequence,% an% overwhelming% propor5on% of% popula5on% movements% induced% by% natural% disasters% take% place% within% na5onal% borders,% with% interna5onal% mobility%remaining% rela5vely%rare,%even% in% the% wake% of% the% most% catastrophic% events% (Foresight,% 2011;% Hugo,% 2008). Nonetheless,% the% environmentoriskomobility% linkage% is% not%a%simple% mager% of%cause%and% effect.%environmental% impacts% are% always% mediated% by% social% structures,% and% the%mobility%consequences% they% induce% are% profoundly% heterogeneous% (Tacoli,% 2009).% Environmental% shocks% and% changes% can% act% as% obstacles% to% popula5on% movements,% precluding% access% to% assets% and% resources% that% are% essen5al% for% mobility% (Kniveton% et% al.,% 2008;% Halliday,%2006;%Findley,%1994).% Reducing% the% impacts% of% natural% hazards% is% therefore% one%of%the%essen5al% components%of% policies%that% aim% to% mul5ply% the% welfare% op5ons% available% to% households,% minimize%forced%migra5on%and% expand%their%capacity%to% move. Moving to manage environmental risk Throughout% human% history,% mobility% has% been% an% integral% part% of% human% strategies% to% adapt% to% natural% cycles% and% to% manage% fragile% ecosystems.% Pastoralists% and% nomadic% communi5es% have% tradi5onally% used% transhumance% to% avoid% overuse% of% scarce% natural% resources%by%migra5ng%across%rural% landscapes,%allowing% for% the% recovery% of% the% different% ecosystems% they% exploit% (OterosORozas%et% al.% 2012;% Warner% et% al.,%2012;% UNEP,% 2011;% Wane,% 2006;% Morren,% 1983).% Similarly,% tradi5onal% fishing% and% hun5ng%systems%are%oien% based% on% seasonal% migra5on% to% different% grounds% (Cas5llo,% 2011).% RuralOrural% and% ruralourban% mobility% are% both% strategies%to%reduce%pressure%on%local% natural% resources% and% are% means% to%diversify%income%sources%for% households:%household% members% eat% the% dry% season % through% circular% labor% migra5on% schemes,% which% help% both%reduce%local%resource%consump5on%and%diversify% 2 %WellObeing%is%about%the%combina5on%of%our%love%for%what%we%do%each%day,%the%quality%of%our%rela5onships,%the%security%of%our%finances,%the% vibrancy%of%our%physical%health,%and%the%pride%we%take%in%what%we%have%contributed%to%our%communi5es.%most%importantly,%it s%about%how%these%five% elements%interact.%[...]these%are%the%universal%elements%of%wellobeing%that%differen5ate%a%thriving%life%from%one%spent%suffering%(rath%and%harter,% 2010). 3

8 the%household s%income%sources%(iom,%2012a;%de%moor,% 2011;%Brown,%2007;%Rain,%1999). Mobility% allows% households% to% manage% exis5ng%risk%by% diversifying% their% members % and% their% livelihoods % exposure% to% hazards% (Stark% and% Bloom,% 1985;% Taylor,% 1999).% In% the% face% of% slowoonset% events,% it% is% usually%a% complement% to% other% in%situ%strategies%that% maximize%a% household s% resilience% (McLeman,% 2011).% Even% in% the% case% of% suddenoonset,% disrup5ve%events,%mobility%helps% protect% the% affected% households % human% capital:% evacua5on% and% flight% (and% subsequent% displacement),% while% poten5ally% costly% in% both% human% and% economic% terms,%are%appropriate% responses% to% specific% condi5ons% of% risk%(schensul%&%dodman,%2013).%other% people%move% in% the% aiermath% of% disasters% to% be% able% to% access% addi5onal% resources% to% support% reconstruc5on% and% recovery% (Wisner,% 2003).% Having% distant% household% members% can% represent% an% important% resource% both% before% and% aier% the% event,% as% it% reduces% the% costs% associated% with% moving% and% therefore% facilitates% mobility% out% of% the% area% at% risk% (Crimella% &% Dagnan,% 2012;%Murray%&%Petrin%Williamson%2011). people% to% move% to% hazardoprone% loca5ons% or% prevent% them% from% moving% or% returning% to% areas% where% they% would%enjoy%beger%access%to%opportuni5es%and%services,% resul5ng%in% increased% vulnerability%(for% the% example% of% Katrina:%Stephens%et% al.%2009;%landry% et% al.%2007;%elder% et%al.%2007). Trapped% popula5ons,% those% with% limited% capacity% to% move% before,%during%or% aier% disasters,% lack%one% of% the% essen5al% components% of% resilience% (Foresight,% 2011).% Lack% of% physical% and% financial% resources,% legal% and% cultural% obstacles% (including% discrimina5ons% based% on% gender% or% ethnicity% or% mobility% status),% the% lack% of% suppor5ng% regional% or% transoregional% social% networks% and% the% absence% of% adequate% infrastructure% can% force% 4

9 Environmental effects of human mobility Mobility as a determinant of hazard exposure The% very% same% natural% features% that% make% loca5ons% desirable% for% human% seglement,%and% that% therefore% act% as% pull% factors% for% popula5on% movements% (such% as% fer5lity% of% floodplains% and% volcanic% slopes% or% the% strategic%or%economic%importance%of%hilltops,%coastlines,% river% crossings%and% estuaries),%are% also% those% that% oien% are% exposed% to%hazardous%natural%events.%a% large% share% of% the% current% demographic% growth% is% therefore% taking% place% in% hazardoprone% areas% (UN% HABITAT,% 2010,% Lall% and% Deichmann,% 2009).%Popula5on% movements% modify% the% distribu5on% of% people% and% capital,% and% redesign% global%and%local%risk%landscapes.% Mobility%can% expose% people%to% new% hazards:%this%is% the% case,% for% instance,% of% popula5on% flows% in% many% lowo income% countries,%where% people% from% marginal,% fragile% environments% such% as% drylands% and% mountain% areas,% move% towards% cyclone% and% floodoprone% regions;% or% in% the%case%of%northoamerica,%where%significant%popula5on% movements% are% directed% towards% droughtoprone% areas% (de%sherbinin%et%al,%2012).% individuals,% oien% insufficiently% aware% of% local% environmental% condi5ons,%that% is%incompa5ble%with% the% carrying%capacity%of%local%ecosystems%(de%sherbinin%et%al,% 2012).% The% increase% usage% % of% land% and% natural% resources% can% lead% to% environmental% degrada5on% and% create% the% condi5ons%for% more% frequent% and%intense%hazards,%such% as%landslides% and% floods% (Peduzzi,% 2010,%UNISDR,%2009;% Day%et% al.,%2007).%in%addi5on,%it% can%have% consequences% on% the%food%and%water%security%of%both%mobile%and%host% popula5ons,% as% well% as% on% their% overall% levels% of% wello being%(van%beukering%et% al,%2013;%iucn,%2008).%both% the% incidence%and% impacts%of%hazards%on% livelihood%pagerns% can% increase% levels% of% risk,% and% poten5ally% trigger% further%popula5on%movements.% While%it% is%not% the%predominant%factor% of%urban% growth% worldwide,%human%mobility%can%be%a%significant% driver%of% urbaniza5on% (UNDESA,% 2008),% especially% during% the% early% stages% of% the% urban% transi5on% process,% and% in% countries% that% oien% lack% the% ins5tu5onal% capacity% to% manage% significant% demographic% pressure,% thereby% resul5ng% in% the% reinforcement% of% another% main% global% risk%dynamic. Mobility as a driver of natural hazards Mobile% people% and% their% ac5vi5es% influence% the% ecosystems% in% their% place% of% des5na5on.% The% sheer% increase%in% numbers% due%to%popula5on%inflow% can% drive% up%demand%for%local%and%regional%natural%resources%such% as%land,%food,%water% and% fuel%(unep,%2011).%movements% to% urban% areas% can% pose% addi5onal% challenges,% as% newcomers% tend% to% take%on% a% more% resourceointensive% lifestyle% (Government% of% Malawi,% 2010).% In% other% instances,% it% is% the% tradi5onal% way% of% life% of% incoming% 5

10 Pressures% on% the% receiving% ecosystems% are% harder% to% manage%when% the%popula5on%movement%is%massive%and% takes%place%in% a% sudden% and% unexpected% manner,% as% is% oien% the% case% in% popula5on% displacement% resul5ng% from% conflicts% or% disasters.%deforesta5on,%for% example,% has% been% frequently%recorded% as%a%consequence% of% the% establishment% of% displacement% sites,% as% displaced% persons% access% local% wood% for% fuel,% construc5on% material% or% income% source% (UNEP,% 2002,% UNEP,% 2000,% Black%and%Sessay,%1996). 3 %Displacement%can% also%result% in% the% decline% of% soil% fer5lity% and% water% availability,% increased% levels% of% pollu5on% or% biodiversity% loss% (LassaillyOJacob%et%al.;%2006;%Jacobsen,%1997).% reducing% food,% water% and% livelihood% security% (GFMC,% 2010;% Rey%Benayas%et% al.,% 2007;%FAO,%2007;% Raj% Khanal% and%watanabe,%2006). Outgoing% popula5on% flows% can% also% have% nega5ve% environmental% impacts% in% the% areas% of% origin,% par5cularly% in% tradi5onal% landscapes% shaped% by% longo standing% human% interac5ons% with% the% natural% components%of%the%ecosystems.%as%land% is% progressively% abandoned,% available% human% capital% decreases,% which% hinders% the% maintenance% of% the% elements% that% contribute%to%preserving%and%improving%the%stability%and% produc5vity% of% the% landscape% (e.g.% terraces,% water% catchment% and% irriga5on% systems).% As% a% consequence,% the% ecosystem% undergoes% a% degrada5on% process% that% can%lead,%in%par5cular%in% dry%and% mountainous%areas,%to% biodiversity% loss% and% prolifera5on% of% invasive% species,% increased% incidence% of% landslides,% floods,% fires,% avalanches,%soil% erosion% and% deser5fica5on,% ul5mately% 3 %UNEP%(2002)%calculated%that%within%3%weeks%from%their%arrival%in%the%Kivu%Province%(DRC),%Rwandan%refugees%had%already%cleared%38%square%km%of% rainforest.%similar%pagerns%have%been%recorded%in%a%number%of%other%countries,%including%senegal%and%guinea. 6

11 Effects of mobility on the resilience and vulnerability of mobile populations Increasing the well-being of mobile populations People%move%for% the%prospect%of%a%safer,%beger%life,%and% for% most% mobile% people% movement% actually% results% in% overwhelmingly% posi5ve% outcomes.% The% majority% of% mobile% people% benefit% from% mobility%through% increased% access% to% improved% services,% food% security% and% opportuni5es% (UNDP,% 2009;% Dayal% &% Karan,% 2003).% Mobility% can% also% open% up% opportuni5es% for% the% mul5plica5on% of% one s% skill% and% human% capital% in% an% unfamiliar% professional% and% social% context% (De% Moor,% 2011),%and% can% allow%individuals%to%challenge%tradi5onal% social% roles% and% constraints,% poten5ally% leading% to% empowerment% and% reducing% a% structural% factor% of% vulnerability% (de% Haas,% 2008b).% Mobile% people% tend% to% have%higher%incomes%than%stayers,%regardless%of%the%kind% of% movement% they% engage%in%(internal% or% interna5onal)% and% of% the% kind% of% skills% they% possess% (UNDP,% 2009).% Increased% access% to% assets,% especially% for% the% poorer% segment% of% the% popula5on,% has% been% verified% even% in% displacement% situa5ons%(fiala,%2009,%ssewanyana%et% al,% 2007). Moving% also% tends% to% result% in% beger% access% to% health% care,% infrastructures% and% informa5on% as% compared% to% the% place% of% origin.% Mobile% households,% both% interna5onal% and% internal% ones,% are% on% average% healthier% than% the% ones% that% did% or% could% not% move% (UNDP,% 2009).% Moving% also% opens% up% educa5onal% opportuni5es,% a% fact% that% is% exemplified% by% the% steep% increase% in% the% numbers% of% interna5onal% students% (UNESCO).% Educa5onal% benefits% are% also% significant% for% families% moving% from% the% countryside% to% the% city% (Hashim,% 2006).% Once% established,% migrants% are% oien% more% likely% than% local% residents% to% join% unions% or% religious%and%other% groups,%which%creates%the%condi5ons% for%a%mul5plica5on%of%their%social%capital%(undp,%2009). Enjoying% higher% income% levels% and% beger% access% to% essen5al% services,% mobile% people% consistently% report% higher% rates% of% happiness% and% sa5sfac5on% in% places% of% des5na5on% than% in% places% of% origin,% despite% the% costs% and% the% adjustments% linked% with% moving% (Bartram,% 2012;%UNDP,%2009),%and% despite%evidence% that,%prior% to% their%departure,%people%wan5ng%to%move%tend%to%be%less% sa5sfied% than% people% willing% to% stay% (Graham% &% Markowitz,%2011).% While% influenced% by% their% living% condi5ons% in% their% community% of% des5na5on,% the% wellobeing% of% mobile% people% is% also% rooted% in% con5nued% exchange% with% the% community%of% origin.%people% at% home% can% take% care% of% dependents% lei% behind,% manage% investments% and% housing% construc5on% projects% for% the% distant% members% of% the% household,%deal% with% bureaucracy% or% send% local% goods% that% support% consump5on% and% increase% food% security%(long,%2008;%mazzuccato,%2008). Mobile people s limited access to income opportunities and basic services However,%movement% does%not%automa5cally%yield% good% results,% and% outcomes% are% not% distributed% equally.%the% place%of%origin% and% des5na5on%of% the%people% determine% the% capacity% and% willingness% of% markets% and% service% 7

12 providers% in% receiving% communi5es% to% integrate% newcomers,% as% well% as% the% barriers% mobile% people% will% encounter% (IOM,% 2013b;% de% Haas,% 2008).% Cultural,% economic% and% poli5cal% obstacles% can% reduce% the% people s% access% to% income% opportuni5es% and% essen5al% services,% exposing% people% to% new% hazards% and% greatly% undermining%their%resilience.% Most%of% the%people%on% the%move% at% the%global% level% are% low%skilled%(dumont% et%al.%2010)%and% increasingly%arrive% in% their% place%of% des5na5on%without%jobs%(oecd,%2007).% They% undergo% frequent% deoskilling% (Iredale,% 2001),% and% are% more% likely%to% be% underemployed% and% unemployed% compared% to%na5ves%in% their% host%communi5es,%as%well% as% less% sa5sfied% of% their% professional% posi5on% (IOM,% 2013b).% They% also% face% cultural% and% ins5tu5onal% segmenta5ons%of%local%labor%markets,%which%oien%result% in% discrimina5on,% informality,% lack% of% security% and% exploita5on% (UNDP,% 2009).% As% a% consequence,% their% financial% situa5on%is% on%average% worse% than%that% of% the% na5veoborn,% and% they%are%less% able% to% secure% sufficient% food%and%to%meet%other% basic%needs%(iom,%2013b).%they% also% encounter% more% obstacles% in% accessing% social% security%systems%(undp,%2009),%as%well%as%in%transferring% the%contribu5ons%they%have%made%to%insurance%schemes% in%their%host%countries%upon%return%(iom,%2012). Migrant% students% are% found% on% average% to% be% disadvantaged% in% terms%of%enrolment% in% type%of%school,% school% agendance% and% dropout,% level% of% achievement% and% diploma% agained% in% comparison% to% na5ves% (Grayson,% 2009;% NESSE,% 2008).% Access% to% educa5on% is% especially%difficult%for% undocumented% and% discriminated% children% (UNDP,%2009),%as% well% as% for% people% forced% to% move% by% crises,% due% to% limited% resources,% congested% schools,% untrained% teachers,% cultural% and% language% barriers% and% limited% funds% for% scholarships% (BHER,% 2011). Vega,% 2003;% Harris,% 1999).% In% the% case% of% massive% popula5on% movements,% limited% access% to% water,% sanita5on% and% health% services,% poor% nutri5onal% status% and% excessive% crowding% can% create% the% condi5ons% for% the% spreading% of% waterorelated,% vector% borne% and% communicable% diseases% (Watson% et% al.% 2007).%Mobility,% in% par5cular%following%trauma5c% events,%also% has%severe% mental% health% consequences% (Murray% et% al,% 2008;% Adams%et%al.,%2010). Mobile people s limited access to safe shelter Mobile% people% are% also% likely% to% encounter% significant% challenges%in%achieving%sa5sfactory%standards%of%living%in% des5na5on%communi5es,%and%are%consistently%less%likely% than% locals% to% access% adequate% housing%(iom,% 2013b).% Lack% of% access% to% shelter% opportuni5es% has% been% recognized% as% one% of% the% factors% pushing% people% into% unsafe% structures% in% marginal,% hazardous% loca5ons,% which% represent% the% immediate% driver% of% all% natural% disasters% (Wisner% et% al.,% 2004).% This% is% in% par5cular% an% issue% in% lowoincome% urban% areas,% where% the% rapid% growth% of% urban% popula5on,% partly% fuelled% by% p o p u l a 5 o n% mi gra 5 o n% f ro m% ru ra l% a rea s,% h a s% overwhelmed% local% ins5tu5onal% capacity% to% provide% formal%shelters,%leading% a%significant% propor5on% of%lowo income% households% to% acquire% land% in% informal% or% irregular% ways% (UNISDR,% 2013b;% de% Sherbinin% et% al,% 2007). 4 Mobile% people% can% also% have% limited% access% to% health% services,% par5cularly% if% they% are% undocumented% (IOM,% 2013b;% Ku% and% Jewers,% 2013;% Ku,% 2006).% Health% condi5ons% do% not% necessarily% improve% for% those% longo stayers,%who%suffer%the%consequences%of%marginaliza5on% through% environmental% hazards,% risky% behaviors,% poor% nutri5onal% status,% anxiety% and% depression% (Finch% &% 4 %For%instance,%over%the%last%decades,%migra5on%from%the%Brazilian%Northeast%into%the%country s%major%urban%centers%has%fueled%the%encroachment%of% mudslideoprone%hillsides.%immigrants%in%india,%pakistan%and%malaysia,%live%in%seglements%spa5ally%segregated%from%the%rest%of%the%city.%the%1995% Great%Hanshin%Earthquake%affected%dispropor5onately%internal%and%interna5onal%immigrants%to%Kobe,%who%lived%and%worked%in%old,%wooden% buildings%in%the%old%town,%especially%vulnerable%to%fires. 8

13 Access% to% safe% shelter% is% especially%challenging% in% crisis% situa5ons.% Lack% of% planning% can% result% in% the% construc5on% of% unsafe% emergency% and% temporary% shelters% (CNN,% 2013;% Los% Angeles% Times,% 2008)% or% in% displacement% sites%being%located%in% hazardous% loca5ons% (TBC,% 2011).% Massive% popula5on% influx% linked% with% humanitarian% crises% can% also% disrupt% the% host% communi5es %housing%market,%by%driving%up%rental%rates% and% reducing% the% availability% of% affordable% op5ons,% leading%to% overcrowding%and% on% occasion% to% evic5on% of% original%residents%(mercycorps,%2012). Social marginalization and conflict Na5onal% and% regional% social% policies% regularly% discriminate% mobile% people% based% on% their% na5onality% and% on% their% sociooeconomic% background,% favoring% individuals% who% are% expected% to% be% more% able% to% integrate% in% the% host% community% (Manole% &% Schiff,% 2004).%Mobile%people,%even%those%that%are%economically% successful% and% welloestablished,%tend% to% face% a%number% of% discrimina5ons,% when% interac5ng% with% host% ins5tu5ons% and% popula5ons,% which% reduce% their% opportuni5es% and% wellobeing% (Campbell,% 2006;% Berry,% 1997;%Aycan% and%berry,%1996).%this%oien% results%in% loss% of% social% status% and% reduced% personal% and% physical% security% of% mobile% people% in% host% communi5es% (IOM,% 2013b). The%percep5on%of%mobility%as%a%threat% to%social%cohesion% is% widespread.% Mobile% popula5ons% oien% have% lower% levels%of%in%situ%social%networks%and%resources%compared% to% their% receiving% community% (GrimOFeinberg,% 2007),% and% their% arrival% can% have% a% nega5ve% impact% on% the% community s% levels% of% collabora5on% and% cohesion% (Freire% &% Xiaoye,% 2013).% In% extreme% cases,%the% lack% of% integra5on%of%mobile%popula5ons,%oien% in%combina5on% with% increased% social% tensions% and% specific% trigger% events,% can% translate% into% viola5ons% of% human% rights,% xenophobic% stances% and% scapegoa5ng% of% immigrants% (both% interna5onal% and% internal),% and% intercommunal% violence%and%conflict%(kokkali,%2011;%unep,%2011;%koser,% 2010;% Gagnon% et% al.,% 2011;% Hammer,% 2006;% Campbell,% 2006). 5 Mobile people as a challenge for Disaster Risk Management systems As%a%consequence%of%the%aboveOmen5oned%factors,%nonO na5ve% individuals% also% have% specific% needs% and% vulnerabili5es% before,% during% and% aier% disasters% that% are% not% always%adequately%taken% into% account% by%crisis% management% ins5tu5ons.% Language% and% cultural% barriers,%reduced% knowledge% of% hazard% condi5ons% and% of% evacua5on% and% emergency%procedures,% and% lack% of% networks% and% financial% means% can% result% in% impediments%in%accessing%preparedness,%assistance%and% protec5on%systems%(iom,%2012).% Legal% barriers% and% discrimina5ons% can% further% reduce% mobile% people s% access% to% lifeosaving% assistance,% in% par5cular% in% the% case% of% stateless,% undocumented% and% exploited% migrants% (Crimella% &% Dagnan,% 2012;% Bolin% &% Stanford,% 1998).% Lack% of% registra5on% might% result% in% migrants% being% unaccounted% for% by% assistance% ins5tu5ons% in% home% and% host% countries.% Lack% of% legal% en5tlements% to% stay,% to% move% freely% or% to% return% can% also% have% nega5ve% impacts% on% their% capacity% to% evacuate% from% the% hazardoaffected% area% (IOM,% 2012;% Koike,%2012).% Mobility% itself,% of% both% na5ve% and% nonona5ve% popula5on,% can% become%an% obstacle% to% iden5fying% and% addressing% the%needs% of% the% affected% popula5on% in% the% aiermath% of% natural% disasters%(rodriguez% et% al.,%2006).% Interna5onal% mobility% poses% addi5onal% poli5cal% and% opera5onal% challenges% to% na5onal% disaster% management% and% relief% authori5es,% requiring% them% to% prepare% and% assist% their% na5onals% involved% in% crises% while%overseas%(iom,%2012). 5 %Financial%crises%have%resulted%in%the%expulsion%of%nonOna5ve%individuals,%in%par5cular%of%undocumented%migrants%(Koser,%2010).%In%the%aiermath%of% the%1923%great%kanto%earthquake,%fires%and%water%contamina5on%were%blamed%on%the%immigrant%minori5es,%resul5ng%in%the%lynching%of%thousands% of%immigrants%in%tokyo%and%yokohama%(hammer,%2006).%in%south%africa,%persistent%unemployment%led%to%an5oimmigrant%riots%in%2008%and%with%the% expulsion%of%hundreds%of%thousands%of%zimbabweans%(gagnon%et%al.,%2011).%increased%pressure%on%natural%resources%and%livelihood%opportuni5es%is% also%a%poten5al%driver%of%interocommunal%conflict%(unep,%2011). 9

14 Effects of mobility on home communities Economic and social remittances supporting the household s well-being Mobile% people% contribute% to% the% wellobeing% of% their% home% communi5es% through% financial% and% social% remigances.% The% targeted% inflow% of% resources% has% the% poten5al% to% support% the% receiving% households % consump5on% levels,% freeing% up% resources% for% ac5vi5es% that% build% human% capital.% Households% receiving% remigances% fare% beger% than% comparable,% nono remigance% receiving% ones% in% all% health% and% educa5on% indicators% in% a% number% of% different% geographical% contexts%(undp,% 2009;%Anyanwu% and% Erhijakpor,%2009,% ValeroOGil,% 2008;% Hildebrandt% and% McKenzie,% 2009;% de% Janvry%et%al.,%2005;%Adams,%2005). Households% receiving% remigances% have% higher% overall% incomes,% consump5on% levels% and% food% security,% and% lower% incidence% of% extreme% poverty% (Ratha,% 2013,% Anyanwu% and% Erhijakpor,% 2010,% San% Vincente% Portes,% 2009).% They% have% higher% propensity% to% save,% which% means% they% have% a% buffer% to% cope% with% unexpected% events,% including% with% the% impacts% of% natural% hazards% (Mohapatra%et%al,%2009;%Yang%&%Choi,%2007).%In%addi5on,% they%have%beger% access%to%credit%and%more%resources%to% invest% in% produc5ve% assets% to% strengthen% their% livelihoods;% in% beger% housing% to% reduce% their% vulnerability%to% health%hazards%and%to%a%series%of%natural% extremes;% and% improved% access% to% informa5on% and% communica5on%networks%to%support%economic%ac5vi5es% as% well% as% to% access% early% warning% and% emergency% informa5on% before% and% during%disasters%(mohapatra% et% al,% 2009;% de% Haas,% 2006;% Woodruff% &% Zenteno,% 2001).% Remigances% tend% to% rise% following% crises% and% shocks,% helping%to%support% consump5on%and%investments%in% the% relief,%reconstruc5on% and% recovery%phases%(agzs,%2008;% Fagen,%2006). Economic remittances supporting the home economy The%total%amount% of%remigances%sent% back%from%mobile% popula5ons% in% 2012% accounted% for% a% total% of% USD% 410% billion% (World% Bank,% 2013b).% Developing% countries% received% three% 5mes% more% resources% through% remigances% than% via% Official% Development% Assistance% (ODA)% (Ratha,%2013),%with%lowOincome%countries% receiving% less% than% middleoincome% ones% (Page% &% Plaza,% 2005).% As% remigance% flows% are% expected% to% further% expand% over% the% next% years,% agen5on% has% grown% on% their% poten5al% for% poverty% reduc5on:% a% research% in% Nepal% has% shown% that,% between% 1995% and% 2004,% their% inflow% might% have% contributed% to% a% reduc5on% of% as% much% as% five%percent% in% the% amount% of% poor% residents% (World%Bank,%2006).% Mobile% people,% their% organiza5ons% and% ins5tu5ons% in% the%receiving%communi5es%have%on%occasions%leveraged% the% resource% inflow% to% promote% community% development% ini5a5ves% (Delgado% Wise% and% Marquez% Covarrubias,% 2008).% Nonetheless,% remigances% have% limited% poten5al% to%support% systemowide%development:% they% are% neither% sufficient% in% amount,% nor% adequately% targeted,%to% counter%the%root%causes%of%vulnerability%(de% Haas,%2008.%They%can% significantly% increase% the% income% levels% of%the%receiving%households,%in% par5cular% if% poor% (Jongwanich,%2007),%and% can%have% a%mul5plier%effect% on% the% economy% of% the% receiving% communi5es% and% s5mulate%local% labor%markets,%with%spilloover% benefits%to% nonoreceiving%households%(glystos,%1993).%the%presence% of%mobile%people%can%further%support%the%local%economy% by% s5mula5ng% or% strengthening% commercial% rela5ons% between%their%communi5es%of%origin%and%of%des5na5on% (Lucas,%2005). Remigances% have% also% shown% to% be% a% more% resilient% source%of%financing%than%any%other% economic%flow:%while% Foreign% Direct% Investment% (FDI)% and% ODA% were% greatly% reduced% by%economic% and% poli5cal% instability%over% the% last% years,% flows% of% remigances% kept% growing% (Ratha,% 2013).%The%financial%resources% of%the%diasporas%have% on% occasions% been% leveraged% to% issue%specific% bonds%in% the% country% of% origin,% while% flows% of% remigances% were% indicated% as% a% collateral% for% reques5ng% credit% from% interna5onal% financial% ins5tu5ons% (World% Bank,%2013b;% Akkoyunlu% &% Stern,% 2012;% Delgado% Wise% &% Marquez% Covarrubias,%2008). 10

15 Social and cultural progress linked with mobility The% par5cipa5on% in% translocal% communi5es% by% mobile% people% and% their% sending%households% has%the%poten5al% to% bring% about% profound% social% change% in% the% home% community,% tackling% some% of% the% most% fundamental% condi5ons% of% vulnerability.% Through% their% exposure% to% different% living% condi5ons,%mobile% people% can% increase% their% household s% human% capital% and% can% become% development% agents% for% their% family% as% well% for% their% host% community.% Brain% circula5on% helps% transfer% skills% and% technologies,% such% as% disaster% management,% sustainable% resource% use% or% health% improvement% prac5ces,% experience% and% entrepreneurship% (Rinke,% T.,% 2012;% UNDP,% 2009;% de% Haas,% 2006;% see% also% IOM s% ac5vi5es% for% the% return% of% qualified% na5onals).% The% prospect% of%increased%opportuni5es%linked%with%mobility% has% also% the% poten5al% to% s5mulate% interest% in% higher% educa5on,% promo5ng% communityowide% brain% gain% (World%Bank,%2006b;%Panescu,%2004). Mobile% people,% in% par5cular% through% hometown% and% migrants% associa5ons,% have% a% significant% role% in% suppor5ng%community%development% and% infrastructural% projects%as%well%as%ini5a5ves%to%conserve%local%tradi5ons% and% culture% (Delgado% Wise% &% Marquez% Covarrubias,% 2008;% Asis,% 2008).% They% also% have% the% poten5al% to% influence% ins5tu5ons% back% home,% s5mula5ng% cultural% and%poli5cal%change%(ibid.). Mobility% can% also% be% a% factor% in% challenging% tradi5onal% gender,%class%and% ethnic% roles% in% sending% communi5es,% leading% formerly% subaltern% groups% to% escape% from% constraints% embedded% in%their% tradi5onal% socioocultural% context%(de%haas,%2008).%male%stayers%are%more%likely%to% engage% in% careotaking% ac5vi5es% and% female% stayers% to% take% a% more% prominent% role% in% household% decisiono making%and% economic% management%(king%&% Vullnetari,% 2006;%Deshingkar%&%Grimm,%2005).%In% addi5on,%mobility% oien% leads%to% the% reconfigura5on% of% tradi5onal% family% pagerns% which% can,% on% occasions,% lead% to% the% strengthening%of%social%capital% through%the%enlargement% of%social%networks%(asis,%2008). Mobility increasing the household s socio-economic vulnerability With% the% excep5on% of% people% moving% between% developed% countries,% men% are% more% likely% to% migrate% than% women% (IOM,% 2013b).% Mobile% people% have% a% stronger%overall% presence%in%the%age%groups%between%25% and% 49% compared% to% the% host% popula5ons% (ibid.).% In% addi5on,% mobile% people,% at% least% in% the% case% of% migra5on,% have% proven% to% be% healthier% than% average% individuals%of% their% host% and% home% communi5es% % the% soocalled% healthy%migrant%effect %(Razum%et%al,%2000). These% factors% result% in% a% dispropor5onate% loss% of% healthy,% produc5ve% individuals% for% the% communi5es% of% origin% and% in% the% consequent% growth% of% dependency% rate% and% of% the% number% of% split% households% and% of% 11

16 singleoparent% (and% in% par5cular% womenoheaded)% families%(ratha% et% al.% 2010).%Mobility% has% the% poten5al% to% greatly% reduce% the% effec5veness% of% kin% and% communityolevel% caregiving% and% the% strength% of% social% networks,% crea5ng% seglements% overwhelmingly% populated% by% old% and% infirm% people% (Bernhard% et% al.% 2009;% King% &% Vullnetari,% 2006).% Separa5on% from% the% parents%can%result%in% lower%educa5onal%againments%and% involvement% in% risky%behaviors%by% children% lei% behind,% despite% the% increased% accessibility%of% means%of% remote% communica5on%(asis,%2008;%d Emilio%et%al.,%2007).% In% addi5on% to% having% significant% impacts% on% the% psychological%wellobeing%and%on%the%personal%security%of% the% individuals% lei% behind% (Dreby,% 2010;% Borraz% et% al.,% 2007),%outward% mobility%can%also% lead% to% a%reduc5on% in% the% livelihood% security% of% the% rest% of% the% household,% especially% in% the% short% term% (Edward% &% Scog,% 2003).% Tradi5onal% livelihood% pagerns% can% be% reodimensioned,% modified%or%disrupted%as%the%ac5ve%popula5on%leaves,%in% par5cular% in% the% case% of% massive% popula5on% ouflows% (Bukuluki% et% al.% 2008).% As% a% consequence,% households% might%find%themselves%overly%dependent%on%the%transfer% of%resources%from%distant%breadwinners%and%run%the%risk% of% suffering% dispropor5onate% nega5ve% consequence% when% remote% hazards% affect% their% distant% members% (IOM,%2012).% Remigances%can%s5mulate%change%in% the%lifestyle%of% the% individuals% lei% behind% in% ways% that% reduce% their% selfo reliance,% s5mula5ng% voluptuary% consump5ons% to% an% unsustainable% level% (Zachariah% &% Rajan,% 2004)% or% reducing% their% incen5ves% to% work% or% to% study% (Levig,% 1996).%The%investment%of%remigances%can% also%drive%the% distribu5on% of% popula5on% and% capital,% and% therefore% hazard% exposure:% on% occasions,%remigances% have% been% observed% to% lead% to% environmental% degrada5on% by% fuelling% rapid% urbaniza5on% processes% in% small% and% mediumosized% urban% areas% in% low% and% middleoincome% countries%(klaufus,%2010). Fiji,% Guyana,% Hai5% and% Jamaica% have% moved% to% OECD% countries% (Dumont% &% Lemaitre,% 2004).% In% the% shorto term,%this% leads% to% a% reduc5on% in% the% average% level% of% educa5on% and% exper5se% in% the% home% communi5es% (Docquier% &% Marfoulk,% 2005),% which% can% affect% the% quality% and% access% to% essen5al% services,%such% as%health% and% educa5on,% of% the% popula5on% staying% behind% (Docquier%et%al,%2010;%Marchal%&%Kegels,%2003). The%massive%loss%of%popula5on%can% also% lead% to% reduced% produc5vity% of% labor% and% lower% returns% of% public% educa5on% investments,% nega5vely% affec5ng% the% prospects% of% economic% growth.% It% can% have% direct% and% indirect% impacts% on% the% amount% of% available% tax% revenues% as% well% as% on% the% capacity% of% governing% ins5tu5ons%(farrant% et% al.,%2006).% In% the% most% extreme% cases,% loss% of% popula5on% can% undermine% the% selfo reliance%of%whole%socie5es,%as%in%the%case%of%montserrat% aier%the%1995%volcanic%erup5on%(mcleman,%2011). As% mobility% is% a% costly% op5on% not% available% to% all% households,% remigances,% par5cularly% from% individuals% living% abroad,% have% the% poten5al% to% increase% income% inequali5es% between% poorer% and% richer% groups% in% the% community% of% origin% (Adams,% 1991).% The% inflow% of% foreign% currency% through% remigances% can% lead% to% currency% devalua5on% and% infla5on,% which% becomes% a% par5cularly% pressing%issue% to% nonoreceiving% households% (Rathia,%2013;%Narayan%et%al,%2011).%In%addi5on,%the%shii% in% economic% balance% linked% with% the% inflow% of% remigances% can% poten5ally% create% resentments% and% tensions% against% the% newly% enriched% households% (Zachariah% &% Rajan,% 2004).% Similar% pagerns% are% observed% at% the%interna5onal%level,%with%middleoincome% countries% having% higher% emigra5on% rates% and%therefore% receiving%more%remigances%(farrant%et%al.,%2006). Mobility increasing the fragility of home societies Developing% countries% are% increasingly% providing% the% workforce% to% sa5sfy%the%advanced% economies % demand% for% both% cheap% and% skilled% labor.% Skilled% workers% are% more%likely%to%move%across% borders%(skeldon,%2008):%up% to% 75%%of%all%skilled%workers%na5ve%to%countries%such%as% 12

17 Effects of mobility on host communities Mobile people stimulating and supporting the host economy Popula5on% inflows% have% overall% posi5ve% effects%on% the% host% communi5es.% Mobile% people,% overrepresented% in% the% economically% produc5ve% age% groups,% increase% available% labour% supply% without% costs% to% the% receiving% society% (Carter,% 2008).% Their% arrival% translates% into% increased% consump5on% of% goods% and% services,% which% s5mulates% produc5on% and% supports% employment% (Ortega%&%Peri,%2009).% As% a% consequence,% incoming% popula5on% flows% mostly% have%posi5ve,%rapid% effects% on% local% employment% rates% and%wages%(carter,%2008;%gog%&%johnston,%2002),%which% also% help% maintain% func5oning%fiscal% systems% as% well%as% social% insurance% and% caregiving% arrangements% % an% effect% that% is% especially% important% for% countering% increasing% dependency% rates% in% ageing,% advanced% economies.% Mobility% also% leads% to% interna5onal% and% intraona5onal% labor% division% and% specializa5on,%allowing% for% increased% economic% specializa5on% and% thereby% to% efficiency%and% economies%of%scale%(farrant% et%al.,%2006).% The% presence% of% mobile% individuals% has% also% been% related% to%increased% translocal% cultural% and% commercial% exchange,% and% to% increased% capacity% for% poli5cal,% technological% and% cultural% innova5on% in% receiving% socie5es%(ratha%et%al.%2010). Mobile%people%can%fill% the%receiving%socie5es %skill% gaps,% comple5ng% the% available% human% capital% stocks% and% leading% to% increased% efficiency% of% the% local% labor% markets% (Manole% &% Schiff,% 2004).% This% can% be% par5cularly% important% in% the%aiermath% of% major% crises,% including%natural%disasters,%when% incoming%workers%can% support% relief,% reconstruc5on% and% recovery% efforts% (Hugo,%2008).% Population inflow pressuring local markets and services income% opportuni5es% and% basic% services% that% are% essen5al% for% wellobeing% and% resilience.% The% incoming% people% oien% compete% with% the% weaker% groups% of% the% host% community% for% services% and% opportuni5es% (including% income),% which% can% have% dispropor5onately% nega5ve% impacts% on% the% wellobeing% of% women,% youth% and% unskilled% workers%(world% Bank,%2013;% MercyCorps,% 2012;% UNDP,%2009).% By%straining%labor% markets,%health% and% educa5on% systems% as% well% as% water% supply,% sanita5on% and% waste% management% infrastructures,% the% popula5on% inflow% can% induce% growth% in% the% fiscal% cost% for% service% providers,%as% well% as% reduce% the% quality% of% the%services%provided.%insufficient% access%to% health% care% by% the% incoming% popula5on,% in% par5cular,% has% been% iden5fied%as%a%serious%public%health% issue,%as%it%acts%as%a% health% risk% mul5plier% for% the% whole% community% (Kullgren,%2003). Despite% these% posi5ve% impacts,%unmanaged% popula5on% inflows,%in%par5cular%when% sudden%and%unexpected,%can% strain%the%integra5on% capaci5es% of% host%ins5tu5ons%and% markets,% and% poten5ally% reduce% people s% access% to% 13

18 Conclusions and recommendations It% is% through% mobility% decisions% that% individuals,% households% and% communi5es% access% opportuni5es% for% wellobeing% and% shape% their% risk% landscapes.% Human% mobility%is% therefore%both% a%product%and%a%determinant% of% the% socioonatural% context% people% live% in,% and% an% integral%part% of%the%human% development% processes%that% determine%hazard%exposure,%vulnerability%and%resilience% pagerns.% Mobility% is% linked% to% a% series% of% other% processes% that% shape% disaster% risk% at% the% global% and% local% levels,% including% environmental% change,% urbaniza5on,% economic% growth% and%demographic%evolu5on.%it% should% therefore% be% integrated% in% the% holis5c% perspec5ve%that% characterizes% the% work% on% DRR% and% resilience,% and% in% par5cular% in% the% ac5ons% targeted% at% reducing%the% root% causes% of% risk,% but% should% also% be% analyzed% and% understood% as% a% dis5nct% process,% which% poses% specific% challenges%and%offers%specific%opportuni5es.% Mobility% can% be% both% a% livelihood% diversifica5on% and% a% lifeosaving%strategy%in%the%face% of% natural% hazards.%it% can% improve% mobile% people s% access% to% income% opportuni5es% and% essen5al% services,% and% support% the% wellbeing% and% the% resilience% of% the% people% staying% behind.% It% can% strengthen% both% the% home% and% the%host% economies%and%socie5es.%at% the%same%5me,%moving%can% expose% people% to% a% whole% array% of% new% hazards,% including%segrega5on%and%discrimina5on,%and% represent% a% factor% of% specific% vulnerability%in% disaster% condi5ons.% Popula5on% flows% can% also% have% nega5ve% systemic% consequences% on% communi5es% of% origin% and% of% des5na5on,%increasing%economic%and%social%fragility.% mobile% people% and% their% communi5es% of% origin% and% of% des5na5on% have% only% limited% capacity%to% influence% the% structural% features% of% their% socioonatural% context.% Ac5ons% aimed% at% maximizing% the% posi5ve% impacts% of% mobility%on% lives% and% livelihoods% can% only%be%successful% if% the% contextospecific% condi5ons% of% vulnerability% are% addressed,%and%people s%freedom%of%choice%expanded.% In% order% to% ensure% the% adequate% considera5on% of% mobility% as% an% increasingly% fundamental% feature% of% disaster% risk% landscapes% at% the% local% and% at% the% global% levels,% IOM% would% like% to% propose% the% inclusion% of% a% dedicated% paragraph% in% the% body% of% the% successor% instrument% to%the% Hyogo% Framework%for% Ac5on,%on% the% following%lines: Tackle'the'factors'pushing'people'out'of'their' homes'and'strive'to'maximize'the'long8term' resilience8building'effect'of'mobility'on'mobile' popula<ons'and'their'host'and'home' communi<es. Environmental,% social,% economic% and% poli5cal% factors% and%processes%define%the%context%in%which%moving%takes% place,% largely% determining% the% heterogeneous% risk% outcomes%movement%produces%for%different%people%and% groups,% including% mobile% people% themselves% and% their% communi5es% of% origin% and% of% des5na5on.% Whether% a% specific% individual% actually% benefits% from% a% specific% mobility% decision% in% terms% of% increased% resilience% depends% largely% on% the% rela5ons% and% ins5tu5ons% prevailing% in% a% specific% society.%it% should% be% noted% that% 14