Period 1: Technological and Environmental Transformations, to c. 600 BCE

Transcription

1 Period 1: Technological and Environmental Transformations, to c. 600 BCE Key Concept 1.1 Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth What is the evidence that explains the earliest history of humans and the planet? What are the theories that interpret this evidence? Where did humans first appear on Earth, and what were their society, technology, and culture? Describe earliest humans technology & tools What were the earliest humans religious beliefs and practices? How did the earliest humans society help them procure enough supplies to survive? Key Concept 1.2 The Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies What were the long-term demographic, social, political, and economic effects of the Neolithic Revolution? The societies that were founded in the Neolithic Revolution were the foundation of the River Valley civilizations. Look at the third question for more info. How did pastoral societies resemble or differ from early agricultural societies? Where did pastoralism persist even after the Neolithic Revolution? Differences: Pastoral societies were smaller and more mobile than early agricultural societies Pastoralism focused more on hunting and gathering, while early agricultural societies depended more on the same soil Pastoral societies adapted far better to their environment as they could move Similarities: Both developed animal husbandry Pastoralism persisted in areas that could not sustain long-term agricultural pursuits, such as areas with unfavorable climates and unreliable sources of pastures, food sources, and water. How did the Neolithic Revolution affect human societies economically & socially? The Neolithic Revolution began the era of permanent societies. Due to the closed nature of society, the demographic of farmers was less diverse than of the demographic of herders as they mostly mated within their population Gender roles became more prevalent The reliance on the limited amount of land they had gave way to political organization Less variety in terms of food which affected the overall health of the farming society s citizens Political organization caused social organization which was divided by amount of property and power. Why did the Neolithic Revolution start (at all)? There are many theories regarding the origin of Neolithic societies. need for a long-term reliable source of food to nourish a rapidly growing society rose because people experimented with plants out of their own free time the need for political and social organization

2 by accident Where did the Neolithic Revolution first transform human populations? (Plural answer) Asia east of the Zagros Mountains, Middle East regions Americas high Andes to Amazon River Basin Africa - Egypt, the Nile River Valley Pacific Islands New Guinea Europe - Northern Europe What various crops & animals were developed or domesticated during the Neolithic Revolution? The trinity: maize, beans, and squash Rye, wheat, barley Potato Teff Rice Quinoa Various marine animals, snails Sheep, goats, yaks, llamas What labor adjustments did humans make in order to facilitate the Neolithic Revolution? Increased reliance on female labor Had to produce more crops to make up for the energy used for farming What were the environmental effects of the Neolithic Revolution? Soil was overused. Deforestation occurred to make more land available for agriculture Overgrazing Animals became more suited to human needs due to animal husbandry What effects did pastoralism & agriculture have on the food supply? At first the food supply was unreliable due to a lot of energy devoted to crop production The food supply slowly became more reliable and created surplus In certain regions of the world, food options were limited What were the social effects of the increased food supply caused by increase of agriculture? Created class distinctions, the people with more land and therefore more food were on the higher end of the social hierarchy Increased population More leisure time Feasting increased loyalty to leadership What technological innovations are associated with the growth of agriculture? Preservation of food surplus, created granaries and storehouses Irrigation City planning Domestication/animal husbandry

3 Key Concept 1.3 The Development and Interactions of Early Agricultural, Pastoral, and Urban Societies What is a civilization, and what are the defining characteristics of a civilization? A civilization is a group of people that share a common leadership, culture or social structure. How did civilizations develop and grow more complex before 600 BCE? They did this by obtaining a food surplus. This would allow for specialization, which means there are people in society that are not involved in agriculture. Now it was possible to have soldiers, politicians, priests and artisans, and as a result, have a more complex society. What were the effects of this increasing complexity? This led to the formation of states, and specialization. This means there are people in charge of making sure there is enough food, fight wars, and do things not involved in agriculture, such as artisans. Where did the earliest civilizations develop, and why did they develop in those locations? They developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt, modern day Pakistan, and China. They were all located near rivers that flooded somewhat regularly. This allowed for easier farming as people did not have to work as much for food, and decided to settle down and lead sedentary lives. What is a state? Who ruled the early states, and which segments of society usually supported the ruler? A state is a group of governing bodies that come together to regulate food production and distribution. Early states were led by either military or religious leaders. Rulers were said to have connections to the spiritual world and be able to control nature. Why were some early states able to expand and conquer neighboring states? They had environment that were stable enough to support a food surplus. This allowed them to specialize and make an army. This allowed them to conquer other states. Other early empires used trade and industry to expand into other areas, but this was not conquering other societies as much as it was taking them in. Give four examples of early empires in the Nile & Tigris/Euphrates River Valleys. Egypt formed along the Nile River. Assyria and Babylon formed in Mesopotamia along the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys. What role did pastoral civilizations play vis a vis empires? Settling down into villages for farming and animal husbandry created permanent settlements that would unify into states. States had leaders who expanded the reach of their power, creating empires. What methods did rulers use to unify their populations? Populations were unified by a ruler who often claimed to have divine powers controlling the seasons and agriculture or be in communications with a set of gods. While times were good and people believed in this, they were unified. Other leaders led their people on constant conquests and created a loyalty to their state. The populations were also unified by the need for a ruler to distribute crops and make sure everyone was fed. What architectural forms did early civilizations produce?

4 Early architectural forms included grain houses to distribute food and religious buildings used in ceremonies. Rulers created lavish palaces for themselves. Which social strata encouraged the development of art in ancient civilizations? Once farmers were able to produce more than enough food to sustain their family, some members of society were able to specialize in tasks other than agriculture, thus creating different social strata. These people became artisans and made products like pots and other art forms. What forms of writing developed in ancient civilizations? Cuneiform developed in Mesopotamia, and it consisted of lines and dashes rather than an alphabet. Egypt had its famous hieroglyphs, many of which still survive today. The Phoenician alphabet originated on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. This simplified the language down to a small set of letters and spread literacy to a somewhat larger portion of the populace. Many other independent languages or dialects of widespread ones arose as well, though much less remains given their limited usage. What was the relationship between literature and culture? Though literature was usually limited to a small, elite portion of the populace, it serves as a guide when understanding ancient cultures. The stories and epics combine mythical exaggerations of the people s environment, religious beliefs and fears, and values of the society. Literature was no doubt a symbol of high culture and education in the ancient civilizations. What pre-600 BCE religions strongly influenced later eras? Judaism, Buddhism, Jainism, Taoism, Confucianism, Legalism, and Guardianism. How big were the pre-600 BCE trading regions? Some notable trading regions included trade up and down the Nile, trade through Mesopotamia (a pivot point between Mediterranean, Egypt and the Indus Valley), and trade throughout the Mediterranean via the Phoenicians. How did social and gender identities develop pre-600 BCE? Broadly speaking, women were inferior to men in society. This status extended to everyday freedom, hierarchical opportunity, legal rights, and property ownership. Still, there were a fair amount of expectations. In early foraging and farming groups, men and women did different tasks, but both were valued in the society for their contributions. As rulers commanded civilizations, kings wives, advisers, and harem members could influence the decisions. Key concept 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions How did religions help strengthen political, economic, and cultural ties within societies? Political: Leaders who adopted religions were able to use certain codes of that religion to advance their personal agendas, such as justifying wars Religion had a role in determining status in a society. A Pagan in a Christian civilization would be of lower status. Economic:

5 A person who adopted the civilizations main religion had economic benefits, such as not having religious taxes. People who didn t convert to the civilizations religion were discriminated against in the form of taxes Establishing places of worship in undeveloped territory increases the chance for colonization Cultural: A strong religion resulted in the construction of places of worship, which had architectural value, for example: the Hagia Sophia Adopting the same religion would unite cultures, for example the Roman empire and European barbarians How did religions promote a sense of unity? When outside lands, or barbarians, were brought into a civilization the adoption of the main religion unified the people. Also, when leaders adopted a single religion a set of codes, which was based on religious principles, was enforced on the people. Religion s overall effect on a civilization s political, cultural and economic aspects strengthened the civilization s sense of unity. What are the characteristics and core teachings of Judaism? Secular religion that focused on worldly benefits, such as prosperity, material goods and successes. Through a covenant with God, followers of Judaism who abided by the Law, were promised deliverance There were two different types of Jews: the original Jews, who believed in the promise of deliverance from God known as a covenant, and Jesus s followers, who believe that God s grace is not guaranteed and is based on God s will. What are the characteristics and core teachings of Hinduism(s)? Believed in a caste system, which states that people s place in society is predetermined and unmovable Brahmans, or priests of the highest caste, were considered to garner the most respect Enforced traditions, such as the sanctity of cows and the belief that a widow should be burned on her husbands funeral pyre (sati) What is a universal religion? Where did universal religions exist by 600 CE? A universal religion is a religion that is not restricted to a certain area (such as Manicheanism in the Uighur society) but is prevalent (enough to be considered a prominent religion amongst the population) in many different areas and environments. By 600 CE, the most prominent religions would be Buddhism (China, Southeast Asia, Japan, Korea) Christianity (Eurasia, Turkey, Ethiopia), Islam (Middle East, Northern Africa, Spain/Italy), and, to a lesser extent, Hinduism (India, Southeast Asia, Middle East). Note that there were communities of religious activity in various ports. What are the characteristics and core teachings of Buddhism? Humans are inherently evil, through meditation, prayer, and unselfish behavior they can reach nirvana (true happiness) o Nirvana: ultimate extinction of all sense of self in a mystical state o If nirvana is not achieved, the soul is reborn (reincarnation) o A persons reincarnation is based upon their past actions. For example a person who is evil would be born as a lesser being, a person who is good would be born with higher status in society Two offshoots of Buddhism: o Theravada Buddhism: Buddhism influenced by Indian moral disciplines where the soul can advance to nirvana through tiny increments, which can transcend lifetimes

6 o Mahayana Buddhism: Buddhism influenced by Chinese principles, where the soul could reach nirvana in one single lifetime How and where did Buddhism spread by 600 CE? Silk Road activity (ex. Traders and missionaries) Buddhist rulers, such as Asoka, through conquests of other civilizations, forcibly converted conquered peoples to Buddhism Buddhism trickled down from higher levels of societies, for example Empress Wu used Buddhist clergy to gain popularity, which caused her people to convert to Buddhism Buddhism spread to areas along the Silk Road, i.e. China, India, Tibet, Middle East, Turkey Buddhism also spread through naval trade routes in places such as Korea, Malaysia and Japan What are the characteristics and core teachings of Confucianism? Man is born good. World is morally neutral i.e. the world does not decide on the consequences of man s actions. Human nature is inherently good, therefore people should have political rights, such as the right to protest however, Confucians still advocate a single ruler What are the characteristics and core teachings of Daoism? Similar to Buddhism in the belief of detachment from the world in order to reach immortality Human ritual has the ability to change nature. If one can control it, there is power to be had in nature, however if one does not know enough, there can be detrimental effects Led to the beginning of scientific methods such as observation, experimentation, description and classification Daoist rulers should enforce morals and virtues upon his/her people What are the characteristics and core teachings of Christianity? Divine love Importance of faith Important figure = Jesus Christianity is monotheistic God is all-knowing All people are sinners, which separates us from God How and where did Christianity spread by 600 CE? Rulers, such as Charlemagne, converted the conquered peoples Christianity trickled down from rulers to civilians Christianity was spread along the silk road through the use of monasteries; however, compared to Buddhism, it was less successful Roman Empire (especially the Holy Roman Empire), Ethiopia, Armenia, Kiev, the Franks What are the main characteristics of Greco-Roman philosophy and science? Used logic and objective questioning to solve problems, as opposed to the use of gods and religion The scientific method developed from Greco-Roman philosophy as a way to investigate the workings of nature Attempted to view the universe as parts of a whole; philosophers developed the concept of atoms as building blocks of matter

7 How did religions affect gender roles in their respective societies? Women became the teachers of religion inside the home In Buddhist cultures, nunneries were used as places of education for women as well as nurseries In Islamic cultures, men practiced polygamy, and women s rights were often limited. What other religious and cultural traditions were common by 600 CE? Christianity: Christian societies were regulated by having houses of work, study, and prayer. Hinduism: Enforced traditions, such as the sanctity of cows and the belief that a widow should be burned on her husband s funeral pyre (sati) Muslim: Women s rights included initiating divorce, owning property, and conducting their own business Fasting and meditation Once Muhammad died, a split occurred between the Islamic communities regarding the successor of his throne. The Sunni believed that any member of his tribe could take office, while the Shia believed it should by Ali or a decendant Buddhism: Fasting and meditation Respect towards all living creatures How did humans reliance on the natural world influence religion? Communities questioned the cause of natural disasters and natural phenomenon. People looked towards religion to provide the answers to these questions. In Ancient Greece, mythology was developed as a means of explaining such things as the origin of the world and seasons. These people offered meals to these gods as worship and partook in religious ceremonies and rituals involving the twelve deities. In Christianity (and other religions), rulers bent the principles of their religion for their own agendas which can include justifying wars and conquering territories. In Judaism, religion was based off of worldly needs such as prosperity and successes. How did humans relate to their deceased ancestors? -reincarnation/nirvana: ancestors were with either among them or were in the state of nirvana -decorated tombs -passed oral traditions from generation to generation How did art and culture develop to 600 CE? -Religion (ex. Sculptures of gods ) -based on worldly needs and events (ex. Paintings of travel along the Silk Road) What literary works influenced later eras? Marcus Aurelius Meditations: Influenced Stoic philosophy Ban Gu Book of Han: History of China during 206 BC to 25 AD Books of the New Testament How did different societies architectural styles develop? -environment factors -natural resources available for building -wealth -religion

8 What examples of syncretism reflect the Classical Era to 600 CE? -the integration of barbarians in the Western Roman Empire -the adoption of Christianity by barbarian rulers (ex. Franks, Kiev) -Arabian conquests caused conquered people to adopt Islam Key Concept 2.2 The Development of States and Empires What is an empire, and what were empires common characteristics during the Classical Era? An empire is a large collection of peoples across a broad geographic range that lives under a common rule. Common characteristics included long trade routes across land and coastline, levied taxes on subjected peoples, enforced religion, threats from attacking barbarians, a system of central and local governments to maintain order, and armies to defend borders and maintain peace. How did the number & size of Classical empires compare to the Ancient Era? The most influential Classical empires were fewer in number than those of the Ancient Era. The states in nearby areas gradually consolidated, by their own choice or by force, to form these large empires. Thus, the Classical empires were also much greater in size. The populations could easily reach tens of millions, compared to a few hundred thousand in smaller states. The empires also stretched across huge tracts of land while civilizations such as the River Valley civilization were constrained to areas surrounding rivers and riverbanks. Rome went across Europe to the Middle East. China spanned most of present day China. What were the most influential of the Classical Era empires? The Roman, Persian, and Chinese empires were the most influential. Other smaller empires included the Gupta empire of India and the Mayan empire of South America. What techniques did Classical empires create to administer their territories? China developed the best communication lines throughout the kingdom messages could be easily sent and received. Rome built the greatest infrastructure, consisting of roads, aqueducts, and cities. All three empires relied on violence and military threat to maintain order to some degree, Persia most notably. Standardized taxes were levied on citizens to raise revenue. What new political methods were created in order to rule the larger empires in the Classical Era? Many times, a central ruler would command from a capital city, leaving localized rulers to direct smaller regions or towns. This sometimes led to insubordination and small rebellions. Dynasties were set up to create successive lines of imperial rule, as seen in Chinese families, the Roman emperors, and Persian kings. In Rome, there was also an influential senate and imperial advisory counsel. How did imperial governments let their population know that the government was in charge? Imperial governments asserted their power by claiming to have divine connections. In most empires,one common religion was enforced. While governments allowed citizens to keep their respective religion, they were often taxed and vulnerable to religious persecution. They also taxed citizens and their conquered territories reminding them that they were the subjects of the government. What role did trade play in creating and maintaining empires?

9 Trade enabled states to gather wealth and increase in size and influence. States that produced high demand products like silk could trade them and become wealthy. Empires like Persia which controlled major trade routes could also profit by taxing goods that passed through their territory. Amassing money was important for empires to stay in control. Wealth was needed to build armies. What unique social and economic characteristics existed in empires? Empires contained a wide variation in social and economic levels. In Rome, members of the senate had a higher social position than average citizens and there were varied levels of citizenship. There were also slaves. In China, classes ranged from upperclass nobles and scholars to farmers and artisans to the less respected merchants. Persian classes included kings and nobles of various regions, high class military leaders and clergy, then artisans, tradesmen, and peasants. What function did imperial cities perform? Imperial cities were centers of trade and government. In cities, especially those placed on key trading routes, many merchants could come together and exchange goods. Rulers also positioned themselves in cities, where they could display their power. What social classes and occupations were common in empires? Empires had a single ruler called an emperor. Since empires were spread over so much area, they also needed governors for each region. There was also a large number of people employed in keeping the empire going including local and military officials. Other occupations included farmers and artisans. Social class was often determined by which area of the empire you were from, especially where empires spanned multiple cultures. What labor systems provided the workers for Classical Empires? The Romans provided workers by enslaving the people they conquered. Although it was outlawed by Cyrus the Great in Persia, it was still present there as a source of labor. The Han dynasty also utilized slavery as a source of labor. Describe the gender and family structures of Classical Era empires. In China, family structures were based on Confucianism, which was based on relationships within a family. Typically fathers were at the top of the family, their sons were second, mothers were third and the son s wives were the lowest in the family. For the most part, men dominated in the family structure in China. In China, loyalty to the family was considered to be very important. In Persia and Rome, gender played a greater role than family structure. Men performed jobs and left the home to earn wages. Women stayed home and took care of family and chores. Women married at a young age, some in their teens to men who were in their twenties. What caused Classical Empires to decline, collapse, or transform into something else? Several factors combined to lead to the fall of the Classical Empires. External forces, like the Germanic tribes and steppelanders outside of the Han dynasty, were jealous of Classical Empire wealth. This led them to invade these empires to gain the benefits of being a Roman, Persian or Hani. Empires also declined to due to moral decline, as empires grew comfortable with their lives of luxury. This created weakness that could not hold up against outside forces. The Classical Empires also deviated from their core beliefs from when they were growing. For example, Roman soldiers lost pride in fighting for Rome, and only cared about money, resulting in weaker defenses from external forces. What were the environmental and social weaknesses of Classical Empires?

10 Social weaknesses are the moral declines that Classical Empires went through. This includes Roman emperors that became materialistic and increased tax pressure on the poor while the rich evaded taxes. Environmental causes for the decline of the Classical Empires included the external forces that resulted from lack of inclusiveness and over extension on the part of the empires. This made the empires harder to defend and more money had to be put towards excluding outsiders. This hurt the economy and helped create even more weaknesses in the Classical Empires. What external weaknesses contributed to the end of Classical Empires? For the Romans, Germanic tribes jealousy of their wealth led to invasions that the Romans could not fend off due to preoccupation with wars against the Persians. The Han faced steppelanders from the west were absorbed into the Han dynasty, which resulted in the weakening of the Han dynasty. Persians were taken down by a unified Greece that banded together when Persia invaded to take over trade in the region. Eventually, Alexander the Great conquered Persia. Key Concept 2.3 Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and Exchange How did Classical era trade networks compare to Ancient era networks? Classical era trade networks spanned larger distances and encouraged the trading between peoples of many different ethnicities, as large empires had brought many peoples in contact with each other. Many luxury items or raw materials, manufactured or native to a specific population, was traded along these routes. The eastern hemisphere contained many land and water routes, while the American trade routes did not develop until much later. Such examples of larger trade routes include the Silk Road, trans- Saharan Caravan routes, and Indian Ocean sea lanes. What forces contributed to the changes between the two eras? The new contact between peoples and larger empires of the Classical era caused a demand of foreign goods. With new contact also came the motivation to spread religion and exchange technology. What was commonly traded along these trade networks? Food crops, luxury items (such as silk, dyes, spices, sugar, tea, incense, etc.), animals (cows, oxen, horses, pigs, camels, etc.), were all tangible items traded along these networks. What technologies enabled long-distance overland and maritime trade? Long-distance overland trade was enabled by the invention of yokes, saddles, and stirrups, which allowed long caravans of goods and people to travel. Maritime trade was enabled by the invention of dhow ships, lateen sails, and a new knowledge of cartography and an weather currents. Besides the physical goods, what intangibles also traveled along trade networks? Many different ideas and technology were exchanged along these networks, such as farming or navigation techniques. In addition, many religions were spread along these networks. Yet another intangible object that traveled along these networks was disease. What crops spread along Classical Era trade networks? Rice, cotton, sugar, and many various fruits spread from the Southern part of Asia to the Middle East and Europe, while some wheat was spread back towards southern Asia.

11 What effects did diseases have on Classical empires? Disease caused urban populations to decline; it also helped contribute to the decline of the (West) Roman and the Chinese empires. How did religions spread along trade networks, and how did the trade networks affect the religions? Religions were spread along the trade networks through missionaries as well as traders bringing their beliefs with them on caravans. These religions included Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Daoism. These trade networks affected the religions by creating new customs within the religion to match the mesh in with local customs. Period 3: Regional and Transregional Interactions, c. 600 to c CE Key Concept 3.1 Expansion and Intensification of Communication and Exchange Networks How did trade networks in the post-classical Era compare to the Classical Era? What new technologies, governmental policies, and merchant activities accompanied these developments? What role did pastoral and nomadic groups play in these trade networks? How did the physical size of post-classical trade networks compare to the previous era? What Classical era trade networks continued during the post-classical era, and which new cities were added during the post-classical era? What new technologies enabled the growth of inter-regional trade networks? What factors encouraged commercial growth in the post-classical era? How did trans-eurasian trade as a whole develop during the post-classical era? What were the effect of migration in the post-classical era? What basic understandings of environment and technology did post-classical traders need to conduct their business? What were the environmental effects of migration in the post-classical era? What were the linguistic effects of migration in the post-classical era? How did trade networks as a whole develop in the post-classical era? Why and where did Muslim trade networks change in the post-classical era? What institutions did merchants create to foster both trade and cultural diffusion in the postclassical era? How well did post-classical societies know and understand each other? How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions? How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions? What were the biological effects of post-classical trade? What new foods, crops, and agricultural practices diffused in the post-classical era? What diseases and pathogens also spread via post-classical trade networks?

12 Key Concept 3.2 Continuity & Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions How did state formations develop in the post-classical era? The Byzantine Empire developed out of the remains of the Roman Empire, maintaining the legacy associated with Rome but with a changing culture, including the adoption of Christianity, and shifting from Latin to Greek. The Muslim world was united under the Caliph. How did post-classical states avoid the mistakes of classical empires in the regions where classical empires collapsed? The main goal of post-classical states was to reestablish the strong central control that classical empires had lost through nomadic invasions. What new forms of governance emerged in the post-classical era? New empires were centered around major rising religions. Religion affected the values of the government and served as a unifying force among the people. Examples include Christianity in the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim world unified under the caliph, and Buddhism in China. How & where did governmental diffusion occur in the post-classical era? New governments drew on older traditions. For example, the Muslim empire followed some Persian tradition. Mongol leadership also diffused across Asia under the conquest of Genghis Khan. How did states in the Americas develop in the post-classical era? The Mayans had a system based on monumental building, wars, and ritual blood-letting. Many city-states existed. The Incas and Aztecs developed long-distance trading networks. What technological and cultural exchanges did states encourage in the post-classical era? States exchanged knowledge of mathematics and inventions like paper for writing. They also exchanged religious ideas. Key Concept 3.3 Increased Economic Productive Capacity and Its Consequences What were the overall worldwide economic trends in the post-classical era? Trade was increasing and expanding during the post-classical era, influenced by increasing productivity and interconnectedness. What new innovations affected agriculture in the post-classical era? New techniques such as irrigation and forest-clearing made more land suitable for farming. In Japan, a new heavy plow allowed for increased production. How and why did crops migrate during the post-classical era? The Chinese began to use Vietnamese rice because it was easier to cultivate.

13 How did textile and porcelain production develop in the post-classical era? Textiles were a main product of India and silk and porcelain were important exports in China. Production was high during this period for prosperous Indian Ocean trade. In China, production entered a preindustrial era, with porcelain, silk, and steel overseen by the state. Why did some post-classical urban areas decline? Some urban areas were weakened by enemy invasion or deadly plagues. Decreases in agricultural production also caused some areas to decline. Why did some post-classical urban areas prosper and grow? Areas with high productivity who took part in trade were able to prosper and expand. What roles did cities play in their societies during the post-classical era? Trading cities on the Indian Ocean brought wealth and prosperity to their societies. Cities were centers of trade and cultural exchange. How did social and labor systems develop during the post-classical era? In China, the forced laborers became free peasants who provided most of the labor for the empire. What pre-existing labor systems continued through the post-classical era? Slaves had been used widely in the Roman and Greek Empire and slavery continued in the Muslim Empire. In India, the Caste system of labor classification continued. How did social and gender hierarchies develop in the post-classical era? In the Byzantine Empire, women often held important government positions but were still considered inferior to men. In China, women were considered subordinate to their husbands and were involved in household chores and silk production. During this period, women did gain more independence. In many societies, the social order became a feudal system with lords and laboring peasants. What new labor forms developed in the post-classical era? In the Ottoman Empire, the use of Janissaries began, Christian children recruited to become soldiers. In Egypt, the mamluks were a class of slave soldiers. Who did some gender roles and family structures change in the post-classical era? Although the new state religions declared spiritual equality for women, they were not always treated equally. In Islam, women had no active role in religion or government. Period 4: Global Interactions, c to c Key Concept 4.1 Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange Describe the degree of global interconnection after 1500 CE compared to before 1500.

14 By the year 1500, many discoveries in Europe allowed them to travel further, connecting them to the Indian Ocean trade routes as well as to the new world. This was a major increase in global interconnectedness, as these regions had been previously relatively isolated. What were the overall effects of this change in global interconnectedness? The main effect was the connection between Europe and Asia and between the existing world and the Americas. These connections allowed for trade, exchanges of ideas, and the formation of colonies. How did the global trade network after 1500 CE affect the pre-existing regional trade networks? (Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, trans-saharan, Silk Routes) The European presence in the Indian Ocean trade did not greatly influ ence the other participants. There was very little European involvement compared to the existing trade and the Europeans did not provide any new or valuable products to the trade system. What technical developments made transoceanic European travel & trade possible? Some navigation innovations included the astrolabe to determine latitude and the use of the compass to determine directions. A major development in the ships used was the triangular sail. Triangular sails allowed sailors to sail into the wind, encouraging voyages further and further from home. Where did those developments originate? Most of these innovations originated in Asia but were adopted and spread by the Muslim Empire, eventually reaching Europe. What were the major notable transoceanic voyages between CE? 1492: Christopher Columbus discovered the Caribbean on a Spanish funded voyage. Vasco de Gama sailed around Africa into the Indian Ocean. Where did Zheng He and the Chinese Treasure Fleets travel? Why did Portugal begin longer maritime voyages ca CE? What effect did Columbus travels have on Europeans? What originally motivated Europeans to travel across the northern Atlantic? How did the new global connections affect the peoples of Oceania and Polynesia? What new financial and monetary means made new scale(s) of trade possible? What previously established scale(s) of trade continued? Describe European merchants overall trade role c What role did silver play in facilitating a truly global scale of trade? What new mercantilist financial means developed to facilitate global trade? What were the economic and social effects of the Atlantic trading system? What were the unintentional biological effects of the Columbian Exchange? What foods were transferred to new geographic regions as part of the Columbian Exchange, and what were labor systems made this transfer possible? What plants/animals were deliberately transferred across the Atlantic as part of the Columbian Exchange? What effects did American food crops have on the diet of Afro-Eurasians? How did settlers action affect the Americas environmentally? How did the Columbian Exchange affect the spread of religions? Where did the universal religions of Buddhism, Christianity & Islam spread? How did the Columbian Exchange affect religion(s)?

15 How did the arts fare during this period? How did public literacy as well as literary and artistic forms of expression develop during this period? Key Concept 4.2 New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production How did agriculture s role change between ? Prior to 1492, there was minimal contact between the new world and Eurasia and Africa. Once Columbus made contact with North and South America the exchange of crops, slaves, and diseases began, known as the Columbian exchange. Agriculture became a way of exploiting underdeveloped nations. Europe used the raw materials of the America s to make themselves wealthier. Before, agriculture was primarily used as a food source for a population. Afterwards, agriculture was also used to produce commodities such as tobacco and sugar cane (meaning agriculture also became more important in global trade). What pre-requisite conditions made these changes possible? -Advancements in maritime technology (such as compass, ships, sails, etc.) -Discovery of the New World -Initial monetary investments in plantations/exploration -Source of labor (slaves, indentured servants) -Initiative to attain more raw materials through expansion How did labor systems develop between ? As imperialism picked up speed there was a growing need for labor. Europe began to exploit what they thought of as the inferior races. Forced labor included natives and African Americans. How was peasant labor affected between ? In regards to the end of industrialization, peasant labor shifted from farms to factories. In the Americas, indentured servants began to decrease as more slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. Also, in Europe here was a shift in the control of peasant labor. Tighter control and less freedom for the laborers emerged. How did slavery within Africa compare to the pre-1450 era? Slavery within Africa increased to match demands of the slave trade. Cities also grew along the eastern border of Africa. These towns became hubs of the salve trade. Slavery enabled towns to grow in Africa. Slavery became a source of income for African towns. How did the Atlantic slave trade affect both African societies and the economy of the Americas? The Americas benefited from the slave trade because the increase in labor allowed for an increase in productivity. This also helped the economies of European nations because they reaped the benefits of the American colonies. How did labor systems develop in the colonial Americas? There was a need for labor force in the New World to work the tobacco and sugar cane plantations. Initially, indentured servants were sent to the New World. These servants were promised a headright of 50 acres after 7 years of service. Indentured servants became more risky because they were prone to rebellion. As a greater need for labor arose, slaves also were forced to migrate from Africa to the New World.

16 How did the post-1450 economic order affect the social, economic, and political elites? It directly benefited the merchant class due to the increase in trade. The gap between the powerful elite (plantation owners) and the indentured servants and slaves increased as well as the rich became richer but the lower class did not change in economic status. 2 How did pre-existing political and economic elites react to these changes? Due to the rise of aristocracy, power shifted from the important members of social groups to smaller family units who were wealthy and well-connected. Therefore, these important members lost their social status. How were gender and family structures affected to these changes? There was an increase in women rulers during the 16 th century, For example Mary Queen of Scots of Catherine de Medici, Regent of France. These women were often more respected s rulers during these times; however, women were still seen as their husbands property. Since aristocracy became increasingly favored by society, the family unit became more prevalent. How did societies in the Americas reflect the post-1450 economic order? Due to the insurgence of slaves and immigrants, new societies and social standings developed in the Americas according to race. Native American societies withered as European elites continued to conquer their land and exploit their natural resources. At the same time, European conquest enabled new leaders to arise in the Americas, such as powerful Native Americans. Key Concept 4.3 State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion How did empires attempt to administer the new widespread nature of their territories? European powers tended to install officials in the areas that they ruled who were of European descent. For example the Spanish appointed creoles to political offices in Latin America and some parts of South America. How did the role of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe develop in this new -world-wide political order? -Africa supplied the labor force (slaves) for empires in some colonies -the Americas became the site of new colonies of the Spanish and British Empires -Asia-In the seventeenth century Chinese and Japanese citizens participated in the growing opportunities as colonists. Site of European trading empires. -Europe- Great Britain and Spanish civilizations had empires. Portugal and the Netherlands had more of a trading empire in Southeast Asia., How did the people of various empires react to their government s methods? These people either accepted the new rulers and complied with new leadership or they resisted the new rule. Some colonies attempted to remain neutral as well. How did political rulers legitimize and consolidate their rule? They appointed officials that were of their own descent, hired translators in order to negotiate with the locals, and attempted to assimilate the locals into their culture and religion. What role did religion play in legitimizing political rule?

17 Religion became a way for empires to justify their actions. These powers believed it was their duty to civilize and spread their religion to those they deemed uncivilized. Religion was part of a greater scheme of cultural assimilation of the natives. For example, converting the Native Americans into Christians alleviated the tension between them and the British Empire, allowing for easier trade between them. How were ethnic and religious minorities treated in various empires? -Blacks were considered inferior in the Americas as they were slaves. This means that they were exploited as a labor force and had less rights. -Native Americans were considered to be savages by the Europeans, which led to conflicts between the two. -Cults in Mexico convulsed the Church. Missionaries attempted to convert the cults through peaceful and violent methods How did rulers make sure that their governments were well run? Empires appointed rulers of their own descent to run the colonies. When empires felt that their power was in jeopardy of being overthrown they used violence to decimate the opponents. For example, in the Americas the local government destroyed the rebellious indentured servants in their fight for power, known as Bacon s rebellion. How did rulers finance their territorial expansion? -Joint-stock company: the costs were divided amongst shareholders -ex. Dutch East India Company -paid for by government What was the relationship between imperialism and military technology? As military technology increased imperialism as a result increased and also vice-versa. For example machine guns and rapid-firing rifles made imperialism possible. How did Europeans go about creating new global empires and trade networks? -Maritime trade routes (i.e. the discovery of the easterly winds that connect the New World to Asia) -advancements in technology (i.e. better stream-lined ship design) -creation of joint-stock companies which we used to finance such explorations How did pre-existing land-based empires and new empires during this era compare to previous era s empires? New land empires became arenas of global trade. There was a greater connection between empires. Technology, culture, religion, art, and political ideas were easily spread and shared across great distances. There also was more diversity in animal and plant life across the globe because of the new connections made during imperialism. What obstacles to empire-building did empires confront, and how did they respond to these challenges? -hostile natives- usually dealt with by force -changing climates -disease-natural selection -competing empires-attempted to find more natural resources and grow more cash crops

18 Period 5: Industrialization and Global Integration, c to c Key Concept 5.1 Industrialization and Global Capitalism How did Industrialization affect seemingly unrelated fields like social structures, culture, the economy? -Industrialization solidified the positions of the upper and lower class factory workers did not earn enough to better their social standings and factory owners became very wealthy. There were some exceptions such as successful entrepreneurs (such as Carnegie) but they were rare. - Streets were paved with gold Immigrants came to America looking for opportunities to better their social status and financial standings -Women and children became important in bringing money for the family and as a labor source. -Steel and oil industries fueled the growth of the American economy. What combination of factors were necessary to begin the Industrial Revolution? -labor sources from immigrants, women, and children -growth of cities (shifted from rural areas) -initial investments from entrepreneurs -new technology -reliable sources of raw materials (ex. Cotton for textiles, iron for steel) -a need for the product What fueled (both literally and metaphorically) the Industrial Revolution? -competition -labor, raw materials -Same as the last question How did factories change the nature of labor itself? -shift from agricultural labor to industrial labor -jobs became less diversified (e.g. a laborer would always do the same task in a factory) -more women and children in the workforce -decreased sanitary/ safety conditions, frequent abuse to the workers in the workplace -sometimes unfair practices were enacted (very low wages, long hours) -usually based on a strict time schedule Where did factories start, and where/how did the factory system spread? Factories were introduced in Britain, specifically factories that specialized in textile and iron production. The factory system spread to other regions of Europe and to America. The concept of factories spread to regions that had raw materials available to them. There was also an increasing need (due to rapid population growths and increasing global trade) for certain products, so factories, places that can produce those products reliably and quickly, were necessary to meet that demand. What was the 2 nd Industrial Revolution?

19 The second industrial revolution (which occurred during the late 19 th century) was based around the many scientific innovations that occurred during the time (Bessemer steel, electricity, internal combustion engine, new chemicals). The rapid increase in demand for these types of products caused the need for new methods of fast production such as mass production and the assembly line. These changes occurred mostly in the United States and continental Europe. How did the Industrial Revolution affect the role of science in larger society? Scientific methods became more accepted by factory owners. New ways and techniques to better improve production started to have a scientific framework. Accepting scientific practices slowly trickled down to the lower class. It also caused a dispute between religion and reason. How did the Industrial Revolution influence world trade overall? It created new markets, demand was met by increased production, the importation of raw materials became more prevalent. New technology such as railroads and steam power lowered transit time (therefore, exportation of perishable food products became possible) Overall, global trade increased. What raw materials were commonly exported to industrialized areas? Coal, iron, cotton, food (wheat or livestock for butchering purposes), labor, wood As industrial production rose, what type(s) of production declined? Products that were made by artisans or were handmade (ex. made-by-order furniture, pottery, etc.) What new markets did industrialized states look for/create for their exports? Easily exploitable natives (such as those in imperial colonies) who can monopolized by their products What role did monetary and precious metals play in the Industrial Revolution? -Iron became an essential material for steel production -Silver, gold, and copper were exported faster due to the introduction of faster transportation (steam power and railroad) -Important raw materials, so there was an increase in exports in these materials -Gold and silver became important in developing economies (to back up paper money), so they were important exports What financial institutions facilitated industrial production? -Banks loaned money to entrepreneurs -Governments (particularly the U.S) funded industrial developments such as railroads or canals which aided in transportation of raw materials and exports How did the Industrial Revolution affect the scale of businesses and overall economic activity? - Trusts and big businesses became more prevalent -Monopolies overtook the market which made it more difficult for smaller businesses to survive -Businesses grew to a national scale -Money was concentrated with the rich How did industrialists legitimize the economic changes of the Industrial Rev?