Also by Alejandro Quiroga

Transcription

1 Making Spaniards

2 Also by Alejandro Quiroga LOS ORÍGENES DE NACIONALCATOLICISMO: Pemartin y la Dictadura de Primo de Rivera THE REINVENTION OF SPAIN: Nation and Identity since Democracy (with Sebastian Balfour)

3 Making Spaniards Primo de Rivera and the Nationalization of the Masses, Alejandro Quiroga

4 Alejandro Quiroga 2007 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act First published 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Quiroga, Alejandro, 1972 Making Spaniards : Primo de Rivera and the nationalization of the masses, / Alejandro Quiroga. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Primo de Rivera, Miguel, Spain--Politics and government Nationalism--Spain--History--20th century. I. Title. DP236.P7Q dc [B]

5 Contents List of Illustrations Foreword Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations vi viii x xi Introduction 1 1. The Roots of National-Catholicism 6 2. The Military Directory ( ): Discourse, Propaganda and Repression The Civil Directory ( ): National-Catholicism and the New State School of Patriots: the Army s Indoctrination of Soldiers The Apostles of the Fatherland: the Army s Nationalization of Civilians The Nationalization of Schools: Primary Education The Catholic Trap: Secondary Education and the Battle for Catalonia Somatén Nacional: Paramilitaries and Cheerleaders Unión Patriótica: the Official Party Conclusion: From Negative Integration to Negative Nationalization 183 Notes 189 Bibliography 215 Index 231 v

6 List of Illustrations Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. Figure 8. Figure 9. Spanish colonial troops with the heads of Rifean rebels ( DACS 2006) 19 Colonial troops parading in the streets of Madrid in October 1925 (photo by Alfonso Sánchez Portela, DACS 2006) 41 The statue of Eloy Gonzalo covered with primorriverista propaganda (photo by Alfonso Sánchez Portela, DACS 2006) 66 Soldiers exercising in public (photo by Alfonso Sánchez Portela, DACS 2006) 89 Military ceremony of the Oath to the Flag (photo by Alfonso Sánchez Portela, DACS 2006) 96 Girls from elementary schools attending a military parade (photo by Alfonso Sánchez Portela, DACS 2006) 118 Alfonso XIII and General Barrera inspect a formation of Exploradores (photo by J. Gaspar, DACS 2006) 143 Somatén Nacional concentrates in Barcelona to honour the King and the dictator (photo by J. Gaspar, DACS 2006) 147 Unión Patriótica parade in the streets of Madrid, 13 September 1928 (photo by Alfonso Sánchez Portela, DACS 2006) 174 vi

7 The Spanish masses will consent to be shaped, for they are a noble race (Lieutenant Colonel Emilio Rodríguez Tarduchy, member of the Junta de Propaganda Patriótica) You keenly personify the most dangerous trend for the preservation of national unity, which regionalisms and political autonomies are bound to destroy, for the masses ideas are simplistic and do not understand the subtleties of sharp minds (General Miguel Primo de Rivera to Francesc Cambó)

8 Foreword Authoritarian regimes such as the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera were widespread throughout Europe of the 1920s and 1930s. In most countries, they emerged, like fascism, as a result of the post-war collapse of old regimes. Yet they displayed an extraordinary degree of heterogeneity. Indeed, such is the complexity of the different manifestations of both authoritarianism and fascism that there has been a proliferation of explanatory models and ideal types. Like nationalism, no one model satisfactorily covers the multitude of forms they have taken. Nor do existing models account adequately for the shifting balance between conservatism and fascism typical of all regimes from fascist to authoritarian conservative. Nevertheless, the key to understanding their success is the historical context the aftermath of the First World War, the punitive Versailles settlement, the resentment of demobilized veterans, the cleavages within the new nations, economic recession, the crisis of liberalism, the contradictions of modernization and much else besides. It should also be remembered that at the end of the nineteenth century, liberal capitalism seemed to have triumphed. Most of Europe had embraced some form of representative government, as limited or diluted as it was in countries like Spain and Italy. Liberal values based on ideological pluralism, capitalism and individual rights were almost everywhere in the ascendant. Yet less than thirty years later, most of Europe had succumbed to authoritarian or totalitarian governments. To make sense of this extraordinary lurch to the far right, we need to distinguish authoritarianism from fascism, though both embraced a number of common features. Authoritarian regimes were repressive, anti-liberal, anti-marxist, pro-military and nationalist. They adopted corporatism, launched a cult of the leader, in some cases promoted a cult of violence and machismo, and often created single parties. But they differed fundamentally from fascist regimes in that they were largely, though not exclusively, anti-modern. Authoritarian regimes took power at a time of a liberal crisis of state mainly to defend the existing social and political order against revolution, not to transform it. They were not as heterogeneous as fascist movements, understandably so because they were defensive and reactive rather than revolutionary. No single party emerged with such a mass following as the Nazis and the Italian fascists. The key issue is that the state was dominated by traditional political, clerical and viii

9 Foreword ix economic elites acting through a strong man, whether a king or a general, rather than by the fascist party. The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera is a prime illustration of the heterogeneity of the authoritarian model. Although its sources of power and legitimacy lay in the traditional elites, the Dictatorship set out to transform Spain by modernizing its economy and society. Until recently, it was regarded by historians as a brief, six-year interregnum between the constitutional monarchy of the Restoration system and the Spanish Republic. No one questions the fact that the Dictatorship failed to replace the constitutional monarchy which it helped to destroy. On the other hand, there has been some recognition of the achievements of Primo de Rivera s programme of public works inasmuch as they helped to lay the basis for industrial modernization. Yet new studies have demonstrated the extent to which the dictator undertook a revolutionary path in seeking to indoctrinate the masses into a modern, nationalist ideology closely akin to fascism. Alejandro Quiroga s book is a lucid and innovative account of that effort to make the new Spaniard, examining the process of programming from above, as Primo de Rivera set out to create the structures and agencies to carry out the task of nationalization. The book analyses the discourse of this programme of indoctrination, its symbols, rituals and quasi-religious myths. It also evaluates the impact this programme had on society. His conclusion is a convincing one: far from garnering support for National- Catholic values among the masses, the dictator s programme mobilized and brought together opposition against the elites and their institutions, paving the way for the Second Republic. But equally, as Quiroga stresses, the Dictatorship established the ideological foundations of the Franco regime. Thus his book demonstrates the enormous influence this shortlived regime had on society. It also makes an important contribution to the study of the political phenomenon of authoritarian regimes in Europe of the 1920s and 1930s as a whole. Sebastian Balfour Professor of Contemporary Spanish Studies London School of Economics and Political Science

10 Acknowledgements This book has been a long time in the making and the volume of my debts is commensurate with the time scale. Along the way I enjoyed financial assistance from the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and the Government Department at the London School of Economics that enabled me to spend much needed time in the archives of Madrid, Alcalá de Henares, Barcelona and London. I am especially indebted to Professor Sebastian Balfour, for his trust and encouragement throughout the years. This book began as a PhD thesis under his supervision and his support has been unfailing at all stages. Goyo Alonso too has always been there to help. My debt to him goes a long way back for his constant help and extraordinary generosity as a scholar over the many years of our friendship. I should like to express my thanks to all those colleagues and friends in Britain and Spain who helped me in various ways. I would especially like to mention Rodney Barker, Marta Bizcarrondo ( ), Martin Blinkhorn, Gerald Blaney, Jaime Briones, Fergus Campbell, Martin Farr, Eduardo González Calleja, Helen Graham, Miguel Guerrero, John Hutchinson, Tim Kirk, Rudolf Muhs, Diego Muro, Paul Preston, Luc Racaut, Francisco Romero, Sandra Souto, Guy Theaker and Chiara Thumiger. My colleagues at the University of Newcastle provided a stimulating and stable environment in which to work, as well as always being ready to give their personal advice. My warmest gratitude is to Mari Carmen Fernández de Soto, whose support has made the completion of this book possible. x

11 List of Abbreviations ACNP AGM CEDA CNCA CNT CSG FCS FET y de las JONS JONS JPPC NCOs PCE PNV PSOE SNEFP SNEFCP TNE UGT UMN UP Asociación Católica Nacional de Propagandistas Academia General Militar Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas Confederación Nacional Católica Agraria Confederación Nacional del Trabajo Central School of Gymnastics Federación Cívico Somatenista Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas Ofensivas Nacional Sindicalistas Juntas Ofensivas Nacional Sindicalistas Junta de Propaganda Patriótica y Ciudadana Non-commissioned officers Partido Comunista de España Partido Nacionalista Vasco Partido Socialista Obrero Español Servicio Nacional de Educación Física y Premilitar Servicio Nacional de Educación Física Ciudadana y Premilitar Tiro Nacional de España Unión General de Trabajadores Unión Monárquica Nacional Unión Patriótica xi