THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION FROM 1715 TO 1815 The Rise of Liberalism and Capitalism History of Politics and Economy: Book IV

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1 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION FROM 1715 TO 1815 The Rise of Liberalism and Capitalism History of Politics and Economy: Book IV CONTENTS To the Readers vii-viii Contents, List of Tables, Figures, Photos and List of Maps ix-xvi Introduction to Book IV. The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution 1 Chapter I. Politics and Religion 5 1. The European States in the Eighteenth Century 2. International War and Imperialism 3. The American and the French Revolutions 4. The Age of Napoleon Bonaparte 5. Religion and Politics in Europe Chapter II. Economy and Society Population and Agriculture 2. The Industrial Revolution and Technology 3. Commerce and Transportation 4. Finance and Banking; 5. The Change of Society by State Chapter III. Political Philosophy: The Rise of Liberalism The French Enlightenment The Age of Reason 2. The Theory of Revolution The Two Revolutions 3. History and Politics, and Law and Constitutionalism 4. Immaterialism, Empiricism-Skepticism, and Conservatism 5. German Idealism and British Utilitarianism Chapter IV. Economic Thought and Other Intellectual Developments Pre-Classical Economic Thought 2. Adam Smith: Classical Capitalism 3. Malthus and Ricardo: Neo-Classical Capitalism 4. Other Intellectual Developments History, Literature, Art, Music, Education, Science, Medicine Chapter V. Summary and Conclusion 427 Appendix I. Oxford Handbook of Political Theory Appendix II. Political Theory of John Rawls Index of Persons and Places and Index of Subjects 515 ix

2 Chapter I. Politics and Religion The European States in the Eighteenth Century 9 Atlantic Seaboard - France, Britain, and the Netherlands Central and Eastern Europe - Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Poland Mediterranean - Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Scandinavian States The Social Order for Crime and Punishment 2. International Wars and Imperialism 23 The Great Northern War , The War of the Polish Succession , The War of the Austrian Succession , The Seven Years' War: , Ottoman Wars: , and European Armies and Warfare 3. The American and the French Revolutions The American Revolution From Elite Protest to Popular Revolt, Fighting for the Independence, A New Republic - the United States of America, and Thomas Jefferson and James Madison 3-2. The French Revolution The Old Regime and the Enlightenment, The Revolution and Constitutional Changes, The National Convention, and The Constitutional Republic the Directory 4. The Age of Napoleon Bonaparte 65 The Rise of Napoleon and the Consulate, The New Empire: , Wars in Spain and Austria and the Grand Empire, Nationalism and Political Developments: , and The Russian Campaign and the Fall of Napoleon 5. Religion and Politics in Europe 93 The Church in France and England , The Church in Germany, Russia, and the New World , The Church in France and England , and The Church after the French Revolution Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 102 x

3 Chapter II. Economy and Society Population and Agriculture 117 Demographic Adjustments in Europe Pre-1750, Demographic Adjustments in Europe Post-1750, The Agricultural Revolution in England, Agriculture in Continental Europe, and The European Deep Sea Fisheries in the Eighteenth Century 2. The Industrial Revolution and Technology 133 British Leadership of the Industrial Revolution, Patterns of Demand, The Textile Industry and Technology, Iron and Steel and Technology, The Steam Engine and Technology, The Chemical Industry and Technology, and The Spread of Industrialization 3. Commerce and Transportation 147 The European Trade with Colonies until 1700, British Foreign Trade Policies, British Foreign Trade and Transport, Voyages to the Pacific and a Second New World, and The Continental System and Its Impact on the Trade 4. Finance and Banking 165 Fiscal and Monetary Institutions in Britain, Taxation and Debt Finance in France, The Netherlands and Trade Finance, Fiscal and Monetary Institutions in Spain and Portugal, and The New World - Fiscal and Monetary Adaptation 5. The Change of Society by State 183 The Social Structure in Britain, French Society and the Change of Education, Social Changes in Austria and Prussia, Social Changes in Poland and Russia, Social Changes in Spain and Italy, Social Changes in the Netherlands and Scandinavia, The Ottoman Empire - Politics, Economy, and Society Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 202 xi

4 Chapter III. Political Philosophy: The Rise of Liberalism The French Enlightenment - The Age of Reason 217 Montesquieu. Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Claude Helvetius, Paul d Holbach, William Godwin 2. The Theory of Revolution Radicalism in America 233 Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson 2-2. Communism and Revolutionaries in France 239 Etienne-Gabriel Morelly, Gabriel Mably, Emmanuel Sieyes, Honore Mirabeau, and Jacques Pierre Brissot 2-3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the Social Contract 245 The Origin of Inequality of Mankind, The Social Contract, Emile, and the Confessions 3. History and Politics, and Law and Constitutionalism History and Politics 257 France - Marie Jean Condorcet Britain - Henry Bolingbroke; and Italy - Giambattista Vico 3-2. Law and Constitutionalism 262 German Natural Law: Christian Thomasius, Christian Wolff, and Frederick II; British Common Law: William Blackstone; and American Federalists: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay 4. Immaterialism, Empiricism-Skepticism, and Conservatism 269 George Berkeley Immaterialism David Hume - Empiricism and Skepticism, and Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre - Conservatism 5. German Idealism and British Utilitarianism 285 Immanuel Kant - Transcendental Idealism, Johann Fichte and Friedrich Schelling Subjective Idealism, George W. F. Hegel - Absolute Idealism, and Jeremy Bentham and James Mill - Utilitarianism Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 303 xii

5 Chapter IV. Economic Thought and Other Intellectual Developments The Rise of Capitalism Pre-Classical Economic Thought 319 Richard Cantillon Physiocrats and French Pre-Classical Political Economy Francois Quesnay, Robert Jacques Turgot Pre-Classical Economics in Great Britain David Hume, James Steuart 2. Classical Capitalism: Adam Smith and Jean-Baptiste Say 345 Adam Smith The Theory of Moral Sentiments An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations Jean-Baptiste Say A Treatise on Political Economy 3. Neo-Classical Capitalism: Malthus and Ricardo 379 Thomas Robert Malthus An Essay on the Principle of Population Principles of Political Economy David Ricardo Principles of Political Economy and Taxation 4. Other Intellectual Developments in the Eighteenth Century 395 Writings on History Literature and Art Classical Music Education The Scientific Advance Mathematics Physics Chemistry Astronomy About the Earth: Meteorology, Geodesy, Geology, and Geography Botany Zoology and Biology Psychology Medicine Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 415 xiii

6 Chapter V. Summary and Conclusion 1. Summary 429 Politics and Religion; Economy and Society; Political Philosophy; Economic Thought 2. Conclusion 441 Interactions between Politics and Economy; Relations between Theory and Practice; Relations between Great Britain and France Appendix I: Oxford Handbook of Political Theory - A Summary 449 Part I. Introduction Part II. Contemporary Currents Part III. The Legacy of the Past Part IV. Political Theory in the World Part V. State and People Part VI. Justice, Equality, and Freedom Part VII. Pluralism, Multiculturalism, and Nationalism Part VIII. Claims in a Global Context Part IX. The Body Politic Part X. Testing the Boundaries Part XI. Old and New Endnotes and References 512 Photo Kant s Centre for Studies in the Long Eighteenth Century (2007) Accessed 25 April 2016, xiv

7 LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND PHOTOS Photo The French Revolution: Liberty Leading the People Photo Kant s Centre for Studies in the Long Eighteenth Century (2007) Photo I-0-1. Napoleon Crossing the Alps, romantic version by Jacques-Louis David in 1805 Photo I-0-2. The French Revolution Army Photo I-0-3. The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame de Paris by Jacques-Louis David 1806 Photo I-2-1. The Great Northern War: Russian Victory over Sweden, Poltava in 1709 Photo I-2-2. Siege of Danzig by Russian and Saxon Forces, 1934 Photo I-2-3. The Battle of Fontenoy between France and Britain, 1745 Photo I-2-4. The Battle of Kolin: 44,000 Austrians against 32,000 Prussian on 18 June 1757 Photo I-2-5. Allegory of Catherine s Victory over the Turks Photo I-3-1. George Washington at the Battle of Princeton Photo I-3-2. The French Revolution: Storming the Bastille Photo I-3-3. George Washington taking of the American Army at Cambridge, 1775 Photo I-3-4. The French Revolution Photo I-3-5. French Troops and the Revolutionary Wars Photo I-4-1. Napoleon reviews the Imperial Army before the Battle of Jena Photo I-4-2. The Battle of Marengo fought on 14 June 1800 between France and Austria Photo I-4-3. The Grand Army crossing the Niemen, 1812 Photo I-4-4. Napoleon s Retreat from Russia in 1802 Photo I-4-5. The Cossack Horsemen, as irregular cavalry of the Russian Steppes Photo I-4-6. The Battle of Waterloo, 1815 Photo I-4-7. The Battle of Leipzig, 1813 Photo II-0-1. A Watt Steam Engine Photo II-0-2. British Agricultural Revolution: an Image of certain Inventions Photo II-0-3. A Cotton Mill constructed by using the latest technology in 1800 Photo II-1-1. Population of England and Wales in 1780 Photo II-1-2. Cotton Plantation Farming, 1800 Figure II-2-1. Newcomen s Steam Powered Atmospheric Engine, 1712 Photo II-2-1. Mount Savage Oron-Works Photo II-3-1. The Bridgewater Canal crossing the Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1761 Photo II-3-2. The Steam Boat, becoming popular for recreation by the late 1800s. Photo II-3-3. James Cook Witnessing Human Sacrifice in Tahiti, c Photo II-4-1. The Bank of England, 1800 Photo II-4-2. View of Paris from the Pont Neuf, 1763 Photo II-5-1. Women s Involvement in the French Salons (early 18th century) Photo II-5-2. The Height of Popularity of the Perspective Views (late 18th century) Photo II-5-3. The education of children by schoolmaster in 18th century France Photo II-5-4. Sorbonne University, founded 1257, in Paris, France Photo III-0-1. France: Enlightenment and Revolution of 1789 Photo III-0-2. An engraving from the 1772 edition of the Encyclopedie: Philosophy and Reason Photo III-1-1. Montesquieu ( ) Photo III-1-2. Voltaire ( ) Photo III-2-1. Thomas Paine ( ) Photo III-2-2. Thomas Jefferson ( ) Photo III-2-3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ) xv

8 Photo III-2-4. Rousseau s Discourse on the Origin of Inequality of Mankind published in 1755 Photo III-4-1. Bishop George Berkeley ( ) Photo III-4-2. David Hume ( ) Photo III-4-3. Edmund Burke ( ) Photo III-4-4. Burke s Reflections on the Revolution in France published in 1790 Photo III-5-1. Immanuel Kant ( ) Photo III-5-2. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ( ) Photo IV-0-1. The Enlightenment and Economics in the Eighteenth Century Figure IV-0-1. Classical Economics Photo IV-1-1. An Imaginary Seaport with a transposed Villa Medici Photo IV-1-2. The Montagu Family at Sandleford Priory (Berkshire), 1744 Photo IV-2-1. Jean-Baptiste Say Photo IV-2-2. Adam Smith Photo IV-3-1. Thomas Robert Malthus Photo IV-3-2. David Ricardo Table IV-3-1. The Population Growth and Subsistence Level by Thomas R. Malthus Photo IV-4-1. Ludwig van Beethoven ( ) Photo IV-4-2. Frederick the Great ( ) Table IV-4-1. The Development of Economic Theory Photo IV-Ref-1. River Landscape with a Castle, 1780s, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Photo V-0-1. Living eh French Revolution and the Age of Napoleon Photo V-3-1. John Rawls ( ) Photo V-3-2. The Cover Page of Political Theory (2006) Figure V-3-1. How Does Political Theory Evolve? LIST OF MAPS Map I-1-1. Europe: Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) Map I-2-1. The Great Northern Wars ( ) Map I-2-2. Absolutism Central Europe Map I-2-3. The War of the Austria Succession Map I-2-4. The Seven Years War Map I-2-5. The Russo-Turkish War ( ) Map I-3-1. The American Revolution: Prewar and Postwar Boundaries Map I-3-2. The American Revolution, , A Battle Map Map I-3-3. The First French Republic from 22 September 1792 to 18 May 1804 Map I-4-1. The First French Empire at its greatest extent in 1811 Map I-4-2. The Peace of Amiens between France and Britain in 27 March 1802 Map I-4-3. The Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805 Map I-4-4. The Battles of Jena and Auerstedt on October 14, 1806 Map I-4-5. The Napoleonic Wars: Iberian Peninsula, June 1808-August 1808 Map I-4-6. The Napoleonic Campaigns: The Battles by Year until 1810 Map I-4-7. Napoleon s Russian Campaign, 1812 Map II-3-1. The Routes of Captain James Cook s Voyages Map II-4-1. Political Boundaries of the World in 1700 Map II-4-2. Political Boundaries of Europe in 1815 Map IV-0-1. Colonial Trade Routes in the Eighteenth Century xvi