in the Americas What were the causes andeffects of political unrest in Latin America in the 19th and20th centuries?

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2 Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas What were the causes andeffects of political unrest in Latin America in the 19th and20th centuries? 21.1 Introduction It was still dark that morning of September 16, 1810, when Father Miguel Hidalgo rang the bells ofhis church in the ruralvillage of Dolores to summon his Indian and mestizo, or mixed-race, parishioners. My children!" he shouted to the crowd. Will you free yourselves? This call to action launched Mexico s 11-year fight for freedom from Spanish rule. Father Hidalgo s famous cry, known as the Grito de Dolores, is still reenacted every year throughout Mexico on September 15, the eve of Mexico s Independence Day. So it was on September 15, 1910, when dignitaries from around the world gathered in Mexico City to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Mexico's independence and the 80th birthday of its long-time authoritarian leader Porfirio Diaz (pohr FEE-ree-oh DEE ahz). Diaz spared no expense on the lavish, month-long event. Its cost was greater than his country s entire education budget. Diaz arranged for a costly exhibit of Spanish art in a new building specially constructed to display it. The building also housed a theater. and an elaborate, one of-a-kind stained glass curtain was created for the occasion bythe famous designer Louis Tiffany. At one grand ball, Diaz provided 20 train carloads of imported French champagne. It was served by European waiters or by Mexicans who looked European. Diaz wished to portray Mexico as the land ofcortes, not the land ofmontezuma. He had the city's poor, who were overwhelmingly Indianand mestizo, rounded up to keep them out ofsight. In his 30th year ofrule, Diaz seemed to beat the height ofhis power. Few could have imagined that in just a few months he would be overthrown in what became one ofthe greatest political and social revolutions ofthe 20th century. The Mexican Revolution of 1910 would upset the political and social status quo throughout Latin America. 1 l Themes Political Systems Latin American governments were unstable inthis era as liberal and conservative elites, often backed bythe military, struggled for control. Economic Systems Largely rural resource-based and exportbased economies grew and changed inresponse to global economic conditions. Social Structures Vast disparities between social classes created tensions and helped to trigger unrest and political change. 4 Astatue commemorating Father Hidalgo's famous "Grito de Dolores" Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas 295

3 21.2 Continuity and Change The revolutions in Latin America in the early 1800s brought independence from Spanish and Portuguese control, but they changed very little else. The social structureofthe new nations remained essentially intact. The new nations adopted constitutions based on (1.8. and Eu1'opean models. These new constitutions promised representative government and equality. However, Latin America did not have much ofa democratic tradition. In practice, most nations became oligarchies ruled byupper class citizens ofeuropean descent. The majority of people had little or no voice in government. The decades that followed independence from Europe were marked by instability and unrest. Much ofit involved disputes between caudillos. Caudillos were army generals or powerful civilian leaders backed byarmed groups of followers. Not all caudillos came from the upper classes. Some had very humble backgrounds. However, they usually ruled with upper-class support. In return. caudillos protected their supporters wealth and property. Porfirio Diaz, the authoritarian leader ofmexico who rose to power in1877, was an example ofa Latin American caudillo. Diaz was a mestizo of humble origin, but he ruled with the support of the upper class as well asthe army. oligarchy a form of government in which a small group holds all the power to rule elite a group of persons who occupy a privileged position in society, often due to birthand/or education and who have power and in lluence Caudillos, Conservatives, and Liberals A few caudillos actually brought order to their nations. For example, Iuan Manuel de Rosas ruled Argentina as dictator from 1835 to He was supported by ranchers from his area and a force ofgtmtlzos (cowboys). His brutal tactics allowed him to maintain stability. He was able to defeat attempts bycaudillos from other regions to overthrow him. More often. however, caudillos and dictators brought political instability. They usually did not have the support of most ofthe people. Some were elected with the support of only the upper classes. Others seized power through force. Mexico had 48 governments between 1825 and Chile had 30 between 1833 and In most Latin American countries, two competing groups struggled for power. These groups were usually known as liberals and conservatives. Both groups were made ofelites ofliuropean descent. They shared the goals of protecting their property and keeping, their own class in power. The conservative elite worked to preserve the old colonial culture. Conservatives generally opposed modernizationand economic development. In general, the conservative elite consisted oflarge landowners. 296 (jhapter 2]

4 InLatin America, there was a stark contrast between the living standards ofthe upper classes and those of everyday people. Elites lived in colonial mansions, such asthe one pictured here, while the poor lived in squalor. Despite independence from Spain, the conservative elite worked to maintain the old hierarchical colonial culture. The liberal elite tended to be wealthy merchants and professionals. They claimed to support the Enlightenment ideal ofrights and freedom for all people. However, they also believed that the common people were not ready to exercise most rights and freedoms wisely. Liberals therefore supported powerful governments. They thought this was the best way to modernize society and prepare the people for freedom and equality. This approach often produced dictatorships. They sacrificed people s rights in the name of progress. Throughout the 1800s, liberals and conservatives competed for control of government in many countries. Argentina, Colombia, Uruguay, and Venezuela experienced long periods of unrest. In the 1880s, conservatives emerged victorious in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, and Paraguay. In Venezuela, unrest continued until a military dictator took over in Elsewhere in South America, the liberals gradually gained control. ByWorld War 1 they had replaced conservative governments in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. Economicand Social Trends Latin American economies in the were based on the export of agricultural products and other raw materials. Americans and Europeans bought coffee and sugar from Brazil. Cattle and sheep from Argentina and Uruguay supplied meat to Great Britain. Rubber from Brazil, wool from Argentina, and copper and nitrates from mines in Chile and Peru provided raw materials for European industries. Many countriesbegan developing their infrastructure in the mid 1800s to meet demand for their raw materials. Governments and business people built roads and railroads to bringgoods to cities on the coast. They expanded and modernized harbors. Merchant ships switched from sail to steam. Foreign investors financed most improvements. Foreign banks often made loans to Latin American governments or business people to pay for such projects. In many cases, foreigners owned local railroads, mines, ranches, and plantations. Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas 297

5 At first, most investment was European and mainly British. However, bythe early 1900s, the United States had replaced Britain as the biggest investor in Latin America. The growth of industry in the United States and Europe in the late 1800s and early 1900s brought rapid growth to Latin American economies. By World War I, the region was exporting 18 percent of the world's grain, 38percent ofits sugar, and 62 percent ofits coffee, cocoa, and tea. Many Latin American elites became rich asa result. The masses, however, did not benefit as much. Other changes also took place as Latin American economies developed. In rural regions, Indians and other peasants were forced offtheir land as ranches and plantations grew. Some became hired hands. Others moved to cities to find jobs. Factories appeared to process agricultural products for export. In Mexico City, hundreds of new factories opened. Manufacturing also sprang up in countrieslike Chile and Brazil. As workers left the countryside for jobs in factories, urban populations grew quickly in some Latin American countries. Sao Paulo, Brazil, increased from 35,000 people in 1883 to 350,000 by Rio de Ianeiro s population doubled to one million between 1890 and Bythe mid l900s, about 40 percent of Latin Americans lived in urban areas. However, in less developed countries like Bolivia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru the population remained largely rural. As cities grew, an urban middle class emerged. Economic growth attracted large numbers of immigrants from Europe. Argentina and Brazil received the most European immigrants. Immigrant workers organized Latin America s first labor unions. This kindof social and economic change and the example ofa revolution in Mexico would bring even greater unrest to South America in the 20th century. Ascities grew, workers left the countryside for jobs in urban centers. In this photo, you can see porters atwork in LaPaz, Bolivia, in Despite the growth of LaPaz inthis period, Bolivia remained one ofthe least developed countries in Latin America. e 298 Chapter 21

6 21.3 The Mexican Revolution and Its Impact By1910 Mexico had enjoyed 30 years ofstable government and economic growth under General Porfirio Diaz. Diaz was returned to the presidency time after time in rigged elections. He paid little attention to Mexico s constitution. Overtime,Diaz gained near total control of the government. He packed the legislature and courts with his friends and silenced the press. He suppressed his enemies through intimidation, imprisonment, and murder. Diaz defended his rule by claiming that he was modernizing Mexico in order to prepare it for democracy. His economic policies and the political stability he achieved did encourage development. Foreign investors built railroads and factories. They opened mines. brought irrigation to commercial agriculture, and launched Mexico s oil industry. However, most ofthe wealth gained from these ventures went outside the country or into the hands ofa few upper class Mexicans. Tensions grew within Mexico s developing middle class. Most urban and rural workers remained landless, powerless, and poor. As criticism of Diaz increased, so did his crackdown on critics. The Indian leader Emiliano Zapata '. (center, C,' h h h h The Revolution of 1910 In 1910, the wealthv landowner Francisco seam ls S own ere W ) is * staff. Zapata raised an army of5,000 Madero (mah-day-row) ran against Diaz for president. Diaz thought he men and joined Madero in driving the could control this election as hehad controlled previous ones. However, ma; regime from power_ support for Madero grew. Diaz responded byhaving Madero arrested. Diaz was then reelected in a rigged election. Madero escaped to Texas and called on Mexicans to revolt. When no uprising took place, Madero used his wealth to arm bands of peasant gueril- Ias in northern Mexico. One of these bands was led by a bandit named Pancho Villa (VEE-yah). In the south, Madero was aided bythe Indian leader Emiliano Zapata (ay-mee-lee AH-no Zah- PAH-tah), who raised an army of5,000 men. ByMay 1911, Madero s peasant forces had defeated Mexico s army. Diaz fled to Europe, and Madero became president. Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas 299

7 strike a form of protest in which workers refuse to work unemployment insurance money paid bygovernments to workers who cannot find jobs nationalize to transfer something from private ownership to ownership by the government By1914, the United States had become hostile to the Huerta government. President Woodrow Wilson intervened inthe civil war inmexico to help defeat Huerta. Inthis image from April 12, 1914, U.S.troops march onveracruz, Mexico's main port city. Continued Unrest and Civil War Madero s presidency was unstable and brief. He made democratic reforms, but lost Zapata s support when he refused to return lands that wealthy landowners had seized from the Indians. Unhappy industrial workers took advantage oftheir new democratic freedoms byforming unions and going on strike. Those who still supported Diaz were also upset and launched revolts. These revolts were put down by army general Victoriano Huerta (WHERE-tah). Madero also lost favor when he placed a tax on Mexico s oil production, much of which was under U.S. and British control. Hoping to protect American investments, U.S. President William Howard Taft supported Huerta. He mobilized U.S. troops on the border and in the Gulfof Mexico although they never engaged in battle. In February 1913, Huerta forced Madero to resign. He then had him executed, and became president. However, Huerta was soon overthrown byforces loyal to Madero s ally Venustiano Carranza (vay-noo-stee-ahn-noh cahr-ahn zah). These forces were led byvilla, Zapata, and a rancher named Alvaro Obregon (AHL-vahr oh oh-bray GOHN). U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, who succeeded Taft in 1913, sent arms to the pro-carranza rebels, despite the fact that the United States had supported Huerta in the previous administration. He also sent U.S. forces to seize Mexico s main port city of Veracruz to help in Huerta s defeat. Huerta fled. In August 1914, Carranza declared himselfpresident. This turned Villa and Zapata against him. However, by late 1915 both had been defeated by Carranza. Widespread warfare ended, although sporadic fighting continued until The Constitution of 1917 President Carranza presided over the writing ofa new constitution for Mexico. The Constitution of 1917 placed into law the reforms that the revolution s supporters had fought for. It empowered the government to seize and redistribute the land of wealthy landowners. It set minimum wages and maximum hours for workers. It created government-sponsored retirement, life, health,and unemployment insurance programs. It also gave workers the right to form unions and to strike. It provided all Mexicans with a free publicschool education and granted them freedom of religion. These measures greatly reduced the long held power of the Catholic Church. Finally, the new constitution nationalized all the country s mineral and oil resources. The Constitution of 1917 made the Mexican Revolution a social revolution as well as a political one. 300 Chapter 21

8 However, Carranza failed to carry out most of the reforms called for in the Constitution. As a result, workers and peasants backed the war hero Obregon for president in When Carranza tried to arrest Obregén, fighting broke out again. Carranza fled with the nation's treasury but was captured and killed. Several months later, Obregon became president in Mexico's first fair and peaceful election. Post-Revolutionary Mexico Many historians view Obregén s election as the end of the Mexican Revolution. Obregon was committed to social reform. However, he had to move carefully to avoid angering the Catholic Church, foreign investors, and other elites. Periodic rebellions, assassinations, and other unrest continued. In 1928 Obregon was elected president again but was assassinated before he could take office. The outgoing president Plutarcho Calles (pluh-tahr-koh CAH-yays) devised a plan to both stay in power and make Mexico politically stable. Heformed a political party to choose the new president. The party was named the National Revolutionary Party. It survives to this day but is now called the PRI. Calles used the party to put three weak presidents in oflice. He invited military,labor, peasant, and regional political leaders to join the party. By1934, some of these leaders had become more powerful than Calles. They forced him to name the radical reformer Lazaro Cardenas (LAH-zahr oh CAHR day-nahs) as the presidential candidate. Cardenas was elected and served as president until He finally carried out the reforms promised by the Constitution The war hero Alvaro Dbregén was of Hedistributed land to previously landless farmers. Healso elected president in M9Xi '5 first fair strengthened Mexico s labor unions. In 1938, Cardenas seized Mexico s ' tl - omega" had ' 5t his ri -ll" arm inthe battle ofcelaya in 1915 and railroads and oil industry from foreign control and nationalized them. Cardenas also expanded the PRI. He strengthened the peasants power in the party. He also doled out government benefits to various groups in return for party support. Under Cardenas, Mexico became what has been called a one-party democracy. The PR1controlled Mexican government for the rest ofthe 20th century. Cardenas reforms cause some historians to view 1940, instead of 1920, as the true endpoint of the Mexican Revolution. came known as Manco de ce.. aya ( the one-armed man ofcelaya ). Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas 301

9 g Oil fields near Maracaibo, Venezuela, in Oil revenues enriched Venezuela's dictator, Juan Vicente Gomez, but most Venezuelans lived in poverty. Under Gomez, reforms inspired bythe Mexican revolution did nottake hold as they did elsewhere inlatin America. The Revolution's Impact Many Latin Americans admired the l\/iexican Revolution for its political, social, and economic reforms. The influence of the Mexican Revolution weakened the power ofsouth America s traditional elites. Argentina, for example, gave all males the right to vote in Four years later, the Radical Civic Union,a middle class, came political party supported byargentina s growing to power. Its leader became Argentina s first president elected bythe people instead of selected by the oligarchy. Reforms continued in other Latin American nations as well. By 1920, Peru and Chile had reform-minded governments. In Peru, reformers advocated for rights for the nation s Indian peasants. Chile's new constitution of 1925 allowed reforms that benefitted urban workers. In 1929, Ecuador became the first Latin American nation to grant women the right to vote. By 1934, Brazil, Cuba, and Uruguay had done the same. Elsewhere, calls for reform often resulted in military intervention. In 1925, urban and labor unrest in Ecuador caused the army to overthrow the government. Unrest in Ecuador prevented any meaningful social reforms. In Bolivia, war with Paraguay delayed reform. In 1936, radical army otficers ended more than 50 years of civilian government. Bolivia s new military rulers enacted worker-friendly labor laws, but little else changed. In Paraguay, the war was followed by a military coup, dictatorship, and even less change. In Brazil, the country s wealthy landowners controlled the government. They were known as the coffee elite because ofthe source of their wealth. In the 19205, members of Brazil s growing urban middle class joined with young army oflicers to oppose the government. They called for labor and land reforms and for nationalizing the country s natural resources. Their efforts to incite revolts plunged Brazil into a decade of unrest. The dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gomez that began in Venezuela around 1910 continued until Bythen, Venezuela was the world s leading exporter of oil. The oil boom brought high-paying jobs and paid for roads and other improvements. It also enriched Gomez and his supporters. However, most Venezuelans continued to live in poverty. Political activity was outlawed. Dissent brought harsh punishment, including execution. After 193S, Venezuela went back and forth between dictatorship and a more open government. For a brieftime, civil liberties and the right to political activity were protected. However, Venezuela s president restored the dictatorship in Political activity was permitted again in Four years later, the president was overthrown by a group of military officers and civilian leaders who enjoyed popular support. This action marked the first time in \ enezuela s history that a political party supported by a majority ofthe people came to power. 302 Chapter 2]

10 The Great Depression In 1929 the United States plunged into the Great Depression. It spread worldwide in the The Great Depression had a strong impact on Latin America. Prices for the regions major exports including sugar, bananas, copper, and oil fell because of reduced demand. The elites whose wealth came from the sales ofthese products lost much oftheir wealth and power. In Brazil, for example, the Depression brought down the coffee elite, finally accomplishing what the middle-class reformers could not. In much of Latin America, increased unemployment led to unrest. Instability followed, and progress toward democracy stalled. After military coups, army officers replaced civilian leaders in Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru. Even in those nations where civilian rule continued. government control increased. In Uruguay and Peru, governments cracked down on labor and peasant groups. This postponed further social reform. In Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, undemocratic leaders moved forward with some reform, hoping to prevent unrest. The Depression also fostered economic independence in some countries. As earnings from exports declined, many nations could no longer afford to import manufactured goods. As a result, the region had to develop its own sources for these goods. Industry grew in many nations. Colombia, for example, became a major producer of cotton textiles. In Brazil,the government encouraged manufacturing. This quest for economic selfsufficiency aroused economic nationalism in Latin America. The boldest expression ofeconomic nationalism came when Bolivia and Mexico seized their nation s foreign-owned oil companies. In the years between 1910 and 1945, life in Latin America had both radically changed and remained the same in many ways. In many places life had changed very little. Paraguay, for example, remained almost totally rural and isolated. In Brazil, residents of the vast interior were barely affected bychanges in the nation s fast-growing industrial cities. Atthe same time, bythe mid- 20th century more people in Latin America had been exposed to a basic public education. In cities, an industrial working class was growing. Changes in communication and transportation were drawing people together and linking them to the national and world economies. These trends would continue through the rest of the twentieth century. ',1-r rt-vrv'ry r t it _-~-: ~. u s L 1 -I'd : One effect ofthe Great Depression was that Colombia became a centerfor textile manufacturing. This Colombian factory produced cotton and rayon fabrics. J 4 ~." -:2 / / _ Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas 303

11 Sugarcane was an important cash crop inthe Caribbean. Mostsugar plantations were foreign owned. Inthis photo, workers harvest sugarcane in Cuba in Central America and the Caribbean The Mexican Revolution had little effect on Central America and the Caribbean. Most ofthe Caribbean islands remained French, Dutch, or British possessions. Only Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Cuba gained independence before World War II. Like the nations ofsouth America, their economies were based on the export of agricultural products and natural resources. Economic development was financed by foreign investment. U.S. investment built huge coffee and sugar plantations. Bythe 19205, Americanowned companies in these nations were producing most of the world s sugar. Most of Central America followed a similar course. Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador gained independence from Spain, as part of Mexico, in In 1823, they declared their independence from Mexico and formed the United Provinces of Central America. But the United Provinces did not stay together very long. Peasant revolts and conflicts between liberals and conservatives split the United Provinces into separate nations by Bythe 1870s, the liberals had gained control in all these nations but Nicaragua. Meanwhile, the United States and Britain competed over development rights. Coffee and banana plantations provided the major exports. They also promoted the rise ofa landowning liberal elite. In every country but Costa Rica, elites and foreign investors relied on dictators to provide stable government and protect their interests. Cuba The Caribbean island of Cuba was home to many Americanowned sugar plantations. In the 1890s, it revolted against Spanish rule. U.S. troops invaded Cuba in 1898 and forced Spain to grant its independence. To protect U.S. interests, troops remained in Cuba until They built roads and schools. They established economic and educational systems modeled after those in the United States. The United States pressured the Cubans to amend their new constitution to give them the right to oversee Cuban affairs. U.S. officials supervised the election of Cuba s first president. American rule returned between 1906 and 1908, following his resignation. U.S. troops occupied Cuba again from 1917 to 1923, when more political unrest threatened to disrupt the booming sugar economy. In 1933, the United States helped bring about the overthrow of a brutal dictator. Army sergeant Fulgencio Batista (fuhl GEHN see oh bah TEES tah) seized power. Backed by U.S. business interests, Batista ruled Cuba for most of the next 25 years. 304 Chapter 21

12 . The Dominican Republic and Haiti The Dominican Republic and Haiti share the island ofhispaiiiola. Both experienced unrest throughout most ofthe 19th century. Starting in 1822, Haiti ruled the Dominican Republic. In 1844 the Dominicans drove the Haitians out. From 1844 to 1899, the Dominican Republic was ruled by a series of caudillos. Most of them opposed democracy. They all borrowed heavily from foreign banks. Eventually all were forced from power. Haiti had 20 rulers between 1843 and Nearly all ofthem were assassinated or overthrown. Despite the political instability, US. and European businesses continued to make major investments in both nations. By 1905 Haiti and the Dominican Republic were in serious financial trouble due to heavy borrowing and political corruption. US. oflicials feared that Germany or some other European power might take over one or both countries to collect on unpaid debts. In 1905, the United States took control of both countries customs operations. It used the money collected to pay each country's creditors. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt justified this action by stating, Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening ofthe ties of civilized society, may... ultimately require intervention by... the United States... to the exercise ofan international police power. This policy statement became known as the Roosevelt Corollary. It was used bylater U.S. presidents to justify other interventions in Latin America. Following renewed unrest, US. troops occupied Haiti in 1915 and the Dominican Republic in The Dominican Republic remained under US. control until 19-4,and 7 Haiti until In both countries the Americans built roads, schools, and health clinics. They also improved sewer, water, and communications systems. U.S. troops trained and armed national guards in each country. These groups often sought power after the United States left. As a result, Haiti underwent frequent military rebellions and coups. In 1957 Francois Papa Doc Duvalier (frahn SWAH doo-vahl-yay) began a long and feared dictatorship. In the Dominican Republic, the military put General Rafael Trujillo (rah fay-el troo-heeyoh) in power in His 31-year rule became one ofthe cruelest dictatorships of modern times. THE BIG S'l I( l\' IN THE C.\RlRBE.\.\' 3 customs taxes that must be paid to the governnient on goods brought in from other countries creditor a person or company to whom money is owed in 1905, the united states intervened in Haiti and the Dominican Republic to 9 5U'9 llialtheli debts W9? Paid I0 foreign powers. This political cartoon shows President Theodore Roosevelt policing the Caribbean Sea. The boat in the foreground reads debt couectofi. a role the United states felt it was justified in playing inlatin America. Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas 305

13 Panama Canal Zone, 1914 ATLANTIC OCEAN ATIANTIC ocmv Inaddition to providing a more direct route to Asia, the Panama Canal greatly reduced the distance for ships travelling between the east and west coasts ofthe United States. Before, ships had to take the long route all the way around South America, as shown at the bottom leftofthis map. Because the canal was ofsuch strategic and commercial importance, the United States intervened several times in Panamanian politicsto ensure their continued control ofit. ormrv PACIFIC OCEAN Panama In the late 1800s, Europeans and Americans began seeking a shortcut across Central America to create a more direct trade route with Asia. A French company began digging a canal across Panama in the 1880s, but it ran out of money. In 1902, it offered to sell the project to the United States. However, the government ofcolombia (to which Panama belonged) refused to approve the deal. The French then encouraged a group of Panamanians who wanted independence from Colombia to rebel. President Roosevelt aided the revolt. In 1903, the new government ofpanama gave the UnitedStates control ofthe Canal Zone. This was a 10 mile strip of land along the canal route. Construction resumed the next year, and the Panama Canal opened in The canal gave the United States a major interest in Panamanian politics. Unrest in Panama led U.S. troops to intervene several times between 1908and Panamanian nationalism grew during the This resulted in the election oftwo successive anti-american presidents. The second was overthrown in The newpresident turned his nation s defense over to the United States. U.S. troops occupied Panama untilmassive public protests forced them to leave in Nicaragua Conservative rule in Nicaragua brought stability from 1857 to In 1893 the liberal General Iosé Zelaya (hoh-zei-i zeh- LAH-yah) came to power. Heestablished a brutal dictatorship that lasted 16years. During that time, Zelaya opened Nicaragua to foreign investment. New roads, railroads, and seaports were constructed. Banana and coffee exports increased. Bythe early 1900s, Americans controlled the country's banana and coffee industries. 306 Chapter 21

14 In 1909, Zelaya invited German and Japanese investors to build a canal across his country to compete with the canal the Americans were building in Panama. The United States responded by sending 400 Marines to help the conservatives overthrow him. U.S. military troops were stationed in Nicaragua from 1912 until They helped to keep several conservative presidents in power. They also armed and trained a Nicaraguan National Guard to keep the peace after they left. In 1936, the National Guard commander General Anastasio Somoza (ah-nah STA1-I see-oh soh-moi-lzah) overthrew Nicaragua s elected president. After a rigged election, he became president himself. He used the National Guard to create a brutal dictatorship that lasted until he was assassinated in Other Nations in Central America Clashes between liberals and conservatives also divided Guatemala, Honduras, and ElSalvador. All experienced violent dictatorships during the first halfof the 20th century. These dictators protected U.S. financial interests. In return, they received money and support. Only Costa Rica avoided this fate. In 1889 it held the first entirely free and fair presidential election in all of Central America. Costa Rica became the region's only stable democracy. General Anastasio Somoza (left) overthrew Nicaragua's elected president in 1936 and established a dictatorship that lasted for 20years. Heisshown being received bythe U.S. Speaker ofthe House, during his 1939 tour ofthe United States. In this lesson, you learned about the causes and effects of political unrest in LatinAmerican nations during the 18005and PoliticalSystems Liberal and conservative elites competed for control of government. Both groups favored strong leaders who could protect private property and control the pace of change. This often meant military or civilian dictators who came to power with a group s backing, either through rigged elections or byviolent means. Economic Systems Most Latin American economies were based on the export ofagricultural products such as coffee, sugar, and bananas as well as natural resources such as copper and oil. Growth and development was largely accomplished through foreign investment and loans. Early industry centered on processing raw materials for export. Later, the Great Depression caused some countries to begin manufacturing for the home market, as imported goods became scarce or too eitpensive. Social Structures Initiallysociety consisted of a wealthy upper-class minority and a mass population of poor, often landless rural peasants. As cities and industry grew, an urban middle class and working class developed. Governments used repression and reform to keep workers and peasants under control. Over time, however, the middle class began to challenge the elites for politicalpower. l Foreign Influences and Political Revolutions in the Americas 307