Economic Policy in the European Union
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1 Economic Policy in the European Union
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3 Economic Policy in the European Union Sixten Korkman Director General for Economic and Social Affairs General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union Brussels
4 Sixten Korkman 2005 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition The views expressed in this book are those of the author, not of the institution to which he is attached. All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act First published 2005 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Korkman, Sixten, 1948 Economic policy in the European Union/Sixten Korkman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. European Union countries Economic policy. 2. European Union countries Economic conditions. I. Title. HC240.K dc
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6 Say what you want about the music of Wagner, but you have to admit that it is actually much better than it sounds. Mark Twain
7 Contents Boxes Figures Tables Abbreviations Acknowledgements Preface ix x xi xii xiv xv 1 Introduction The basis of economic policy The essence of the EU 10 2 Rationale Interdependence and the common interest Subsidiarity Economic objectives in the treaty The EU as an economic policy regime 29 3 Methods Intergovernmental cooperation versus 32 supranational action 3.2 Collective choice with unanimity Collective choice and majority voting QMV with safeguards 46 4 Modalities Community institutions and bodies Competence and assignment Methods of Community involvement in economic 56 policy decision-making 4.4 Voting rules and weights Instruments and procedures of economic policy 62 coordination Annex: the preparatory machinery and decision procedures 67 5 Macroeconomic Policy in the SOE The SOE-model The SOE-model revisited 82 Annex: fiscal policy in the SOE 86 vii
8 viii Contents 6 Macroeconomic Policy in the EMU Cross-border effects in a monetary union The case for policy coordination The adjustment process Does EMU need a stabilisation fund? Debt dynamics and the SGP The case for policy assignment 119 Annex: policy coordination in EMU Structural Policies The internal market Financial services and markets Labour markets and social policy Tax Policy Taxes and sovereignty Indirect taxes Direct taxes The Community Budget Negotiating the Community budget Community tasks and expenditure Financing the Community budget Problems and Prospects Economic performance Economic governance 187 Notes 199 References 207 Index 212
9 Boxes 1.1 The state as a cooperative solution The EU defined William Penn and peace in Europe The case for policy cooperation Tax policy and milk quotas Condorcet s paradox ECB independence The SGP and the EDP The BEPGs and the coordination process Legal instruments in the EU The OCA literature Ready reckoners The ECB definition of price stability An aside on structural policies The difficulty of living with rules The pension problem Capital taxation and agglomeration effects Cohesion policy 171 ix
10 Figures 2.1 The case for policy cooperation Majority voting and redistribution The optimal majority Sequential majority decisions Problems of majority voting Economic policy in the EU: who does what? The BEPGs The Council s preparatory machinery Macroeconomic policy in the MF-model EMU and openness Exchange rate overshooting Taxonomy of policy coordination The adjustment process Deflationary dilemma Adjustment with price rigidity The benefits of a stabilisation fund Public finance sustainability Output stabilisation and the budget balance Market integration The regulatory framework of the internal market The destination principle (VAT rates) Capital taxation and integration Capital taxation in the SOE Capital taxation and increasing returns Benefits of Community action Costs and benefits of Community action 194 x
11 Tables 1.1 The prisoners dilemma Rationale of economic policy Rationale of policy cooperation Logrolling The voting paradox Economic policy in the EU: who does what? Voting weights in the EU Comparative statics in EMU Effects of fiscal and monetary policies in the euro area Community expenditure, budget Community revenues, budget Stability Macroeconomic policy Long-term growth GDP per capita in the EU relative to the USA Employment rates Relative performance of member states 186 (structural indicators) xi
12 Abbreviations BEPG CAP CEPR CFSP COREPER ECB ECJ ECSC EDP EEC EFC EFSA EFTA EIB EMU EP EPC ESCB FP GDP GNI HST IGC IIA IMF KIP LDCs NCB OECD OCA OMC OR PPS QMV SEA SGP Broad Economic Policy Guidelines Common Agricultural Policy Centre for European Policy Research Common Foreign and Security Policy Committee of Permanent Representatives European Central Bank European Court of Justice European Coal and Steel Community Excessive Deficit Procedure European Economic Community Economic and Financial Committee European Financial Supervisory Authority European Free Trade Area European Investment Bank Economic and Monetary Union European Parliament Economic Policy Committee European System of Central Banks Financial Perspective Gross Domestic Product Gross National Income Home State Taxation Intergovernmental Conference Interinstitutional Agreement International Monetary Fund Key Issues Paper Least Developed Countries National Central Bank Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Optimum Currency Area Open Method of Coordination Own Resources Purchasing Power Standards Qualified Majority Voting Single European Act Stability and Growth Pact xii
13 Abbreviations xiii SME SOE TARGET TEN UN VAT WP WTO Small and medium-size enterprise Small Open Economy Trans-European Automated Real-time Gross Settlement Express Transfer system Trans-European Network United Nations Value Added Tax Working Party World Trade Organization
14 Acknowledgements The author and publishers are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development for data from OECD Economic Outlook, December 2003; A. Sapir and Oxford University Press for data from An Agenda for a Growing Europe, 2004; the copyright section of the European Communities for data in various figures and tables in the book; John Harper Publishers for much of the material in Chapter 4 from M. Westlake and D. Galloway, The Council of the European Union, xiv
15 Preface European countries are close to each other geographically and politically; their economies are integrated and interdependent. National policies have significant cross-border effects on neighbouring countries, and the spillovers risk giving rise to distortions and tensions. Cooperative action at the European level is needed in order to avoid conflicts and to achieve efficiency. The European Union manages interdependence of member states by articulating and enhancing common interests through collective action, including common policies and joint governance within a framework of supranational institutions. This endeavour faces considerable hurdles in the form of practical difficulties and political sensitivities. Many of the features of the EU can be understood only in the light of a fundamental ambivalence in public attitudes towards European integration: the crossborder effects and common interests are acknowledged (if understood), but citizens sentiments of identity, loyalty and solidarity continue to have a strongly national orientation. Member states are hesitant or unwilling to relinquish national control in favour of Community institutions, unless the powers of the Community are ring-fenced and/or unless their exercise remains subject to sufficient national influence. There is a constant need to make the case for Europe, and to make it in comprehensible language and with clear arguments. The EU is, as has often been pointed out, an economic giant but a political dwarf. Also, it is institutionally complex and there is more than one truth about the EU. It may be portrayed as a supranational bureaucracy geared to undemocratic and intrusive action. It can also be perceived as an innovative system which in subtle ways has succeeded in surmounting the antagonistic barriers associated with national frontiers and thereby in safeguarding peace and prosperity in Europe. There are pronounced differences of view not only with regard to what the EU is but even more so with regard to how it should develop and what it should become. This book attempts to understand and assess the EU in general and its economic policy regime in particular. It examines the logic of collective action with a view to answering the two-fold question: when is collective action called for? (as compared to leaving matters to private initiative and markets); and when is supranational action needed? xv
16 xvi Preface (that is, a transfer of discretionary political power to the Community level) as compared to leaving matters to national governments and intergovernmental cooperation? The rationale of the EU can be clarified only by examining and answering this two-fold question and the book sets this out in general terms (Chapters 1 and 2), in the context of macroeconomic policies (Chapters 5 and 6), structural policies (Chapter 7), taxation (Chapter 8) and the Community budget (Chapter 9). It also examines the differences between intergovernmental and supranational action (Chapter 3), describes the institutional set-up of the EU (Chapter 4), and makes some comments on key aspects of the EU s economic performance and its system of governance (Chapter 10). In writing the book, I have tried to give due attention to the different perspectives that are necessary to understand the role and functioning of the Community. The policy issues are examined in terms of economic theory, drawing notably on the macroeconomic theory of open economies as well as on public sector economics and the theory of public choice (the economic analysis of political behaviour). The legal and institutional framework of the EU is described in some detail, and problems are in many instances illustrated by historical episodes and events that are of interest not only in themselves but also because they highlight issues of principle. A broad approach is needed because a good understanding of the problems and prospects with which economic policy in the EU is confronted requires a multiple perspective, one that combines analysis of economic and political principles with considerations reflecting the institutional reality of the Community and practical experience of its decision-making. Upon arrival in Brussels in 1995, I was overwhelmed by the complexity and the opacity of the European Union s system of economic governance. That I should write a book to clarify my thoughts was first suggested by my former assistant, Marisa Penocchio, who did much to help me understand the modus operandi of the Council. I am grateful to her and to her successor, Alexandra Almeida, as well as to collaborators who have checked various parts of the text (including Andrew George, Bodil Nielsen, Ilkka Saarilahti, Servatius van Thiel and Kyle Galler). Chapter 4 is based on my contribution to Westlake and Galloway (2004); permission to reproduce that material is gratefully acknowledged. While most of the book can be read without any training in economics, some familiarity with elementary macroeconomics should facilitate the reading of Chapters 5 and 6. It goes without saying that the responsibility for the views expressed in this book, and for remaining errors, is mine and mine alone. SIXTEN KORKMAN
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