CONVERGENCE AND INTERDEPENDENCE AT THE CIVIL-MILITARY INTERFACE. David R. Segal. Army Research Institute. University of Michigan

Transcription

1 ' CONVERGENCE AND NTERDEPENDENCE AT THE CVL-MLTARY NTERFACE Davd R. Segal Army Research nsttute John Blar, Frank Newport, Susan Stephens Unversty of Mchgan CRSO Workng Paper #91 Copes avalable through: The Center for Research On Socal Organzaton The Unversty of Mchgan 330 Packard Street /214 Ann Arbor, Mchgan 48104

2 CONVERGENCE AND NTERDEPENDENCE AT THE CVL-MLTARY NTERFACE -. Davd R. Segal John Blar, Frank Newport, Susan Stephens.... UnversSty of Mchgan - An earler verson of ths paper was presented at the annual meetng of the nternatonal Studes Assocaton, New York, March 16, We are ndebt6d to Jerzy Watr and Charles C. Poskos, Jr., for ther comments at that tme. The vews presented n ths paper do not necessarly reflect those of the Army Research. nsttute or of the Unversty of Mchgan.

3 ABSTRACT The lterature of mltary socology dealngwth. the convergence of cvlan and mltary nsttutons n modern socety asserts that although structural somorphsm may never be attaned, the trend s n that dr&ton. t further asserts that ths hypotheszed convergence s characterzed by a breakng-dom of tfe boundary between' the. cvl and the mltary. We suggest that partcularly. n an era of all volunteer armed forces, whch s the emergng pattern n the ndustral nat.ons of,the west, the trend s no longer toward convergence and may be one of dvergence. Convergence can be seen as makng themltary functonally ndependent of.ts host socety and nsulated.from t, whereas the enforce- ment of more specfcally mltary defntons. of the mltary- system forces t to mantan open boundares and enter nto exchange relaton- shps wth ts host socety.. Data. relatng to the rn.<l.tary. famly, oc-. cupatonal structure, and research. management are presented and the mplcatons for both convergence and nterdependence. are. dscussed..

4 .. f CVL-MLTARY CONVERGENCE.. The relatonshp between cvlan and mltary nsttutons n. : : 1.' j ndustral socetes has long been of nterest to socologsts. The mltary socology of the 1960's stressed the ncreasng smlarty of mltary and cvlan sectors of Amercan ~ocety.~ Thus; Janowtz (1965:17) argued that- "to analyze the contemporary mltary establshment as a socal system, t s... necessary to assume that for some tme t has tended to dsplay more and more of the characters- tcs typcal of any large-scale nonmltary bureaucracy-." At the same tme, however, there was a recognton that common technologes, lead- ng to common organzatonal forms, could not lead to total elmnaton of the fundamental dfference between that whch.s mltary and that whch s cvlan. Although stressng the ncreasngly smlar occupatfonal structures of cvlan and mltary sectors (see Lang, 1964:45) and postulatng that on the bass of these ~mlart~es cvlan and mltary organza- tonal forms must converge as well (see Grusky, 1964;84), mltary socology has not asserted that total conve.rgence.~muld be acheved at some pont, or that structural s om or ph's'^ would be acheved...j Rather, the convergence functon has been conceved, at mos.t, as an,.! 1. - j.;. asymptotc one, wth mltary and cvflan structures- becom'ng ncreasngly smlar, but asymptotc falng to reach-a pont of ntersecton. (Segal and Segal, 1971; Segal, 1972).., Other' scholars n fact see the functon descrbng cvl-mltary conyergence as. tangental rather that asymptotc.. Moskos (1970.;170), for example, suggested that "the over-two-decade-long nsttutonal convergence!. -

5 .. of the armed forces and Amercan socety s begnnng to reverse tself... (and) that the mltary n the post-vetnam perod $11 ncreasngly dverge along a varety of dmensons from the mn- stream of developments n the general socety". A thrd poston pos%s lmts on the asymptotc functon, mplyng that rather than constantly convergng'under the.force of technologcal development,. mltary and cvlan organzatonal forms wll reach a pont pror to ntersecton at whch further convergence wll be precluded by the basc dstncton between the mltary and the cvlan.. Thus, pontng out that even n hghly technologcal warfare, conventonal mltary unts and the tradtonal mltary role must be mantaned, and that n an age of deterrence the management of volence s stll the prme mltary msson, Janowtz (1971:21) argues that "the narrowng dstncton between mltary and nonmltary bureaucraces.. can never result n the elmnaton of fundamental organzatonal dfferences." Most recently,~moskos (1973) has suggested that the mltary may at the same tme be convergent wth and dvergent from 1 model that he labels "segmented" or "pluraln-. Dvergence wll be!.. cvlan socety dependng on the emprcal ndcators used: a 1 most apparent n combat arms he suggests, and convergence n 1! ' techncal support agences. framework for vewng the convergence problem. We shall propose below an alternatve THE TWO FACES OF CONVERGENCE C t must be noted at the outset that scholars concerned wth the convergence phenomenon dffer not only n the degree to whch they see convergence occurng but also n ther projectons of what the

6 socal system would look lke f convergence were n fact to take place. The major area of dsagreement s on whether the cvl or the mltary wll domnate the-merged structure. Two opposng postons are apparent here. On the one hand, Lasswell's garrson-state hypothess, whch was the frst major projecton of cvl-mltary convergence n modern Amercan socal scence;sees the development of new mltary technologes that make the rsk of beng a cvlan n wartme almost as great as that of beng a mltary man leadng to a merged cvl- mltary socal structure domnated by mltary men n pursut of mltary objectves (see Lasswell, 1962). On the other hand, the argunent s made that contrary to Lasswell's poston; the convergence that has taken place thus far has led not to a mltarzaton of cvlan nsttutons but rather to a cvlanzaton of the mltary nsttutons (Bderman and Sharp, 1968 :'397). t seems premature. at ths pont to assert that one or the other of these postons s correct. Such a decson presumes that convergence has already been demonstrated. However, the convergence phenomenon today has the status of an nterestng hypothess r mltary socology, not that of an assumpton. We shall therefore be concerned'here smply wth the horse, and leave the cart for another occason, remanng mndful that f convergence s demonstrated, t cannot be nterpreted ether as a demonstraton of cvl ascendency over the mltary or vce versa wthout addtonal analyss.. Z L--. -:.--.-?-.,--.v- _... ;,:. ;..., , : --.- F.v-.-xq.,.. -> -..,., : =?,...:yy- -4-? :.,*-..-, , rr

7 ! MODELS OF CONVERGENCE The study'of cvl-mltary convergence s burdened by b0t.h. -, conceptual and operatonal ambguty. Two scholars usng the term convergence may well mean very dfferent thngs, and a th.rd, nterested j. n fhe recprocal nterpenetratf on of the. cvl and the. ml tary, mght be referrng to ether of the frst two phenomena, or to some thrd process altogether. And two scholars who use the same. term and mean the same thng by t may nonetheless come to dfferent conclusons. f one studes formal organzatonal propertes and the other occupa- tonal dstrbutons n the two sectors. At the conceptual level, two dfferent types of relatf.onshps between the cvl and the mltary. need be-specfed.. t.s necessary to dstngush the structural convergence of cvlan and ml.tary... nsttutons from the nterdependence of these. nsttutfons. t s..... our belef that these two aspects of the convergence phenomenon are negatvely correlated wth each other.. The more, structurally smlar the mltary s to cvlan socety n terms of organzatonal char- acterstcs, occupatonal structure, etc., the more capable t s of sustanng tself as an ndependent entty-wthout dependzng on tle cvlan sector. Hence, the greater the. degree of convergence n ths sense, the more structurally solated the armed forces may become from cvlan socety. The greater the constrants placed on such convergence by emphass on purely mltary actvtes, by contrast, the more dependent the armed forces wll be on the cvlan sector for non-combat actvtes, and the more permeable wll be the boundares between mltary and cvlan nsttutons.

8 CONVERGENCE WTH WHAT? One of the ssues that must be faced n dscussons of cvl- mltary convergence s what the mltary-s hypotheszed to be. convergng wth. s the referent an deal-typcal large scale non- mltary *. bureaucracy, or s t the total cvlan sector of socety? Whle much of the rhetorc of convergence. has heen presented wth a vew toward the former knd of comparson, what seems crucal to us s the latter. Whether the US Army s structurally lke General Motors may be nterestng, but t s less mportant than the degree to whch the U.S. Army can provde all essental servces nternally. To the degree that a mltary nsttuton structurally becones selfsuffcent, t alsol beco~ues structurally ndependent from ts host socety. "FA-WLY ECOLOGY' AS AN NTERFACE PROCESS :. >-, >' ;,, < ,;axze.,-ls.;;bll"fs -n.,&ue,~~l.,s;~~$e~y-,~<lal., 4.,T;~.e.be.- seel,.as.. t helpng to brdge the boundary- between mltary.and cfylan sectors. Bramson (1971), for example, has dscussed the way the Examnaton and nducton Center, under a system of conscrpton and enlstment, 1 4 served both to brng nto the mltary people who dd not want to be a 4 there, and to keep out people who dd but who were defned by the. mltary as unacceptable for any of a number of reasons. n a more long-term sense, the famly can also be vzewed as an nterface nst- j tuton, gvng the man who spends hs workng.hours on a mltary base an anchor pont n cvlan socety. The company town of the early twenteth century prevented the famly from servng such-a boundary functon by ncorporatng t nto the company. system.:.. The. trend n 4 the Amercan economy, however, has been away from'-company towns, wth.

9 the famly operatng as a more autonomous system enterng nto ex- change relatonshps wth economc organzatons. Wth the movement away from company towns, the company and ts host communty have be- come more nterdependent (see Parsons, 1960). a, The relatonshp between the mltary as a corporate entty and the famles of ts emfloyees has gone n the opposte drecton from that of cvlan economc organzaton. The mltary famly dd not really exst hstorcally. Most solders were not marred except for more senor offcers, and ther wves and famles could only rarely lve wth them on a mltary post f they were marred. Women lvng n communtes outsde the base,. and n some cases, female employees provded certan martal functons (Lttle, 1971). Untl the begnnng of World War 11, ths was true except durng tmes of natonal moblzaton. Even then, famles were far away and lttle was provded for ther support. Durng the mass moblzaton of World War 1 and n the cold war! perod after that, large numbers of marred men were brought nto the mltary and for the frst tme assstance to famles n terms of allowance and lmted medcal care was made avalable. Because of housng shortages on post, most famles lved n ctes, but the.. ; 1. majorty of economc 'transactons stll occurred off post. For many mltary men ther daly trp to the post for ther dutes resembled 1 the daly trp to the factory or offce for others. ncreasngly 1 1 the solder was a famly man and communty member. True, he moved more than others and hs collar was green or brown rather than blue or whte, but there was consderable parallelsm n structure and nterdependence n actvtes between the mltary and cvlan sectors.

10 But what.about.the present-day mltary famly? How s t smlar to or dstnct from ts cvlan counterpart? Frst, thel trends n assstance and support to the famly whch have come to characterze the post World War 1 perod have contnued and expand- *. ed n scope. To attempt to measure ths trend, one could consder a wde range of emprcal ndcators. For example, one mght want to look at the change n: famly allotments (elgblty and amount), medcal care for dependents (on and off post), welfare servces (such as the Army Communty Servce), provson of on-post consumer goods facltes (PX and commssary), or entertanment facltes (clubs, athletc facltes, move theaters, etc.). As the data presented n Fgure 1 show, the percentage of... nsert Fgure 1 about here... famles n mltary-owned and controlled housng across tme has shown a constant upward trend. Through the decade of the 19601s, there was a relatvely stable plateau varyng between 23 and 26 per- cent of mltary famles. Ths was an ncrease from the decade of the 1950's, and another major ncrease s projected n the 1970's. -. Were data avalable or earler perods, the change would probably - be even more strkng. The trend s clear, however, and would be.. upward n the future even f no new housng were to be bult--at least untl the number of personnel and ther famles decreases to ts low pont n the all volunteer army. Thus, the famly has been ncreasngly brought wthn the mltary structure. More mportantly, 7

11 gven the decrease n cvlan company to~ms, were we to graph dfference scores rather than raw percentages-, the. curve would be... changed by a consderable power. Equally mportant s. that 75 per cent of the FY'l972 buldng program was devoted to enlfsted rather thaf'offcer housng. Ths too s n drect contrast to cvlan corporatons whch, to the extent that they- see to the. housfng needs of ther personnel, seem to confne ther concerns to management rather than assembly-lne strata (Jennngs, 1970). Howeyer, one could also note that as the mltary nstallaton comes to be structured more lke a cvlan communty by provdng communty facltes such as housng t becomes less dependent upon a cvclan envronment. OCCUPATONAL DSTRBUTONS Much of the argument on cyl-mltary convergence has been concerned wth occupatonal structures. Early reports ndcated ncreasng smlarty between the mltary and the cvlan n ths regard (see Lang, 1964), but made lttle comment on tte mplcat.ons of that smlarty. However, data presented both by Bderman and Sharp (1968) and by \*loo1(1968) suggests that tls convergence s not takng place. The former authors see mportant lmtatons on the "transfer value" of mltary sklls to cvlan lfe, and the latter ponts out that the mltary remans a specalzed structure, wth large numbers of men engaged n actvtes that are only slghtly represented n the cvlan occupatonal structure.

12 Wool ponts out that the mltary remans a very specalzed structure wth markedly dfferent dstrbutons of ndvduals n... categores of occupatons. These dfferences nclude the absence + - of sales and farm workers n the mltary; the concomtant absence. of gtound combat troops n the cvlan structure; the much greater number of mechancs n the mltary n comparson to the cvlan sector; and the absence of large numbers of non-farn? servce, opera- tves and laborers n the mltary. n short, as can be seen 'from! Table 1, there s by no means a structural convergence between the 1 two sectors. Table 1 about here n very broad terms, there have been some smlar trends n the cvan and mltary sectors: ncreases n sklled and tech- ncal jobs; decreases n combat and farm occupatons; ncreases n whte-collar jobs; growth of the tertary sectors. The dstrbutons of specfc jobs n the two sectors reman.dfferent, and most of the change that dd occur took place between;world War 1 and the md-1950's. Thus, we can assert nether that the trend toward con- vergence n occupatonal structure s a long-standng hstorcal one, nor that t s.contnung nto the future. Graph 2 presents absolute dfference scores between the proporton of the cvlan labor, force and the proporton of the ml- tary labor force n three broad categores of occupatons: whte

13 collar (excludng farm and combat occupatons); blue collar (ex- -,.. eludng farm and combat occupatons); farm and combat occupatons. Ths last category mght be seen as the declnng prmary sector Graph 2 about here of the cvlan and mltary ndustral organzaton, respectvely. At the tme of the Cvl War, 90.4 per cent of our actve duty force was categorzed n combat occupatons. By 1960, ths fgure had fallen to 16.3'per cent. Less dramatcally, at the tme of the Cvl War, 53 per cent of the male cvlan labor force was engaged n farm occupatons as aganst 6.3 per cent n Despte a contnung declne n the prmary sector, and despte the fact that between' he Cv -;Car ana 360,the,m.rrary over.took-and surpassed. 1 the cvlan sector n the proporton of ts labor force nvolved n admnstratve and clercal occupatons, the dfference between per cent n blue collar occupatons n the two sectors has remaned relatvely constant n the post-world War 1 years,.after convergng pre-world War. The dfference between per cent n whte collar occupatons, after declnng pror to World War 11, s now ncreasng The consderaton of occupatonal convergence between the mltary and cvlan sectors rases agan the problem.of system boundares. Lang (1972) sees the prmacy of combat orentatons

14 as the bass for a mltary career dmnshng as the need for per sonnel n the tertary sector ncreases. Ths would, n theory,. reduce the dscrepancy between that whch s mltary and that whch s cvlan (cf. Segal, 1972). Because of the nerta of tradtonal concepts of the mltary career, however, the mltary nsttuton has dffculty fttng ts skll dstrbuton to ts needs. Lang (1972) suggests three alternatve means of dealng wth the problem: lateral recrutment; use of paraprofessonals; and contract. The frst two nvolve brngng people who are not mltary profes- sonals nto the structure of mltary management, and would probably contrbute to structural convergence. The latter defnes as outsde the mltary sphere tasks that are not performed by mltary person- nel, thereby assertng system boundares and contrbutng to nter-..:..&&j.eud.el~c!e. La<t3& ellyy Las ael,lxl?c" ds*$& L a&:e pfs <-{otd War 11 years. The paraprofessonal model s approxmated today only n the Ar Force, and there only at junor grades. The contract model, by contrast, has tradtonally been, and contnues to be, the major means by whch the mltary secures servces. Wth the transton to an all volunteer force, and wth a dmnuton n the sze of the actve duty force, we mght antcpate that an ncreasng number of tasks wll be defned as non-mltary and outsde of the boundares of the mltary system, and wll be performed by cvlans on a contract bass. ns terestngly,-lang (1973), argues that the boundary between the cvlan and the mltary has already "been blurred to a pont where t hardly exsts any longer.

15 Our own nterpretaton of the data s that the boundary s ndeed dstnct, and that n an era of shrnkng unformed personnel reseurces, the mltary wll ncreasngly dverge from cvlan occupatonal -. structure and toward ts prmary msson - combat readness - the ncreasngly complex technology of combat notwthstandng. The m- plcatons of ths lack of structural convergence appear to be n the consderaton of the ncreased contact and nterpenetrablty that must exst for the mltary to contnue to exst. The cvlan sectpr s stll responsble for the manufacture of clothng, equpment, bombs, weapons;tools and so on for the mltary. Food must be grown by the cvlan sector and sold to the mltary. Servces for mltary personnel, such as barber shops, auto mechancs, and Bble salesmen, must be provded from the cvlan sector (although the mltary nnntn..nm tn nrn~r<dr\ -4nmtnrm rlnotrrrc ond dnnt4n4-7 Fm- co -,rrooor;.l\ r".rb*r.ulu L" (rl".-uc...l"ll* &,,..*.'...b,.?-la" LU LVL ALU.yb*UV.*~*L*/. All of ths dctates that there must be a large amount of nteracton between the mltary and cvlan spheres for the former's contnued exstence. A useful example of what a completely ndependent mltary mght look lke can be provded by lookng at the mltary nstalla- tons n foregn countres, where most equpment and supples are sent from the-unted States and there s mnmal contact between the mltary personnel and the ndgenous economy. Here one wll fnd lttle relatonshp between the happenngs of the foregn country and the Amercan mltary, whch for all ntents and purposes, s functonally ndependent by vrtue of ts beng able to fulfll ts

16 .!!.! own needs (see Wolf, 1969). t appears, then, as. f the relatve lack of convergence between the occupatonal structures of the cvlan and mltary structures means that there s stll a great deal of contact between the two, and that the mltary n ths country has not become'.. ndependent of the cvlan work force and economy. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Technology has been postulated to be the motor that runs. the convergence machne, and research and development (P, and D) s the handmaden of technology. ndeed, gven the dependence of a wde range of organzatons, the mltary among themf on modern tech- nology, we mght expect cvl-mltary convergence n the R and D L q:...- n area even f t occurred nowhere else. Recently socologsts nterested n organzatonal analyss have used an open-system approach..n studyng the jjlternal structure and functonng of organfzatons. ~laracter'st'cs: of the. open- : 4 system perspectve are a reconceptualzaton of organzatonal j boundares as problematc. and an emphass on external varables, as $.. -J.1 3 the prmary agents of socal change (Hrsch., 1973; Katz and Kahn, 1966).. ' ' '. n partcular, Thompson (1967) argues. that the structure of all organ-za- 4 3 tons s desgned to protect the'producton or~technolog.ca1 core from '3.. '.j envronmental nfluences. Therefore, t w2ll be non-producton unts such as marketng, dstrbuton, and research-and development whch 3 ; : wll be nvolved n exchanges wth. the envronment, The key. aspects 4.. :. of these boundary-spannng roles are obtanng ntellgence on.t probable future demand, on contfnued avaflablfty-of ralc materals,

17 1? on the relatve merts of product nnovatons, and to carry out polcy decsons n sales, dstrbuton, and product developmet ' and producton (Hrsch, 1973). The prmary characterstcs attrbuted to the envronment n ths approach are ts complexty and relatve, unpredctablty. Ths envronment ncludes, for mltary as well as for cv2lan ndustral organzatons, rapdly changng technology and 'demands for organzatonal output. Research and development s most commonly seen as an organzatonal attempt to manage the un- certanty posed by a complex and changng envronment through predc- ton and control of nlovaton and demand. The mltary as well as 3! cvlan and other governmental organzatons engages n research and development n response to envronmental threats to organzaton1 J control over the producton process (n a broad sense). The smple t convergence hypothess would therefore predct that the mltary organzaton would ncreasngly resemble other organzatons n re- search and development expendtures as a proporton of total resources, n undertakng more non-mltary-specfc research-especally n. \ management and other general sklls and technques., and that the amount of research done nternally (not contracted out to other organzatons) 4 would approach that of the comparson organzatons What are aspects of the R&D process whch mfght be relevant to the,\ 1 1 j convergence hypothess? Four key parameters mght be the number and dstrbuton of manpower resources devoted to R&D, smlar measures for fnancal resources, felds of study- wthn whch researcl~s under-! taken, and the organzaton of research, especally- the dstrbuton? between n-house and contracted research. The cvlan benchmark 1 1

18 .. ' y. j aganst whch to test convergence mght be c'vlan government agences or'cvlan prvate enterprses. t s necessary to establsh both theoretcally and emprcally the poston bf these benchmarks n order to demonstrate convergence by the mltary. What would be the consequences for nteracton of the mltary wth ts envronment f convergence wt$ one or another of the cvlan models were demonstrated? To the extent that the cvlan organzaton s autonomous n ts research actvtfes and to the extent that the mltary converged wth that model, mltary R&D could operate autonomously of ts envronment. To the extent that mltary R&D conducted n-house, employs only mltary research personnel, allots a reasonable (n comparson wth other organzatons) amount of re- sources to research, and covers all relevant or necessary felds of nqury, mltary R&D s self-contafned and needs, lttle or no fnter--.. acton wth most cvlan research-related organzatons. to carry out ts functons. ' Fgure- 3 presents mean ndces of dssjn'larty- for R&D ex-.. pendtures as a proporton of the total budgec among the Amerfcan Fgure 3 about here v----vt- armed servces (computed for each par of servces and averaged), for the Department of Agrculture and the ~epartment of Health, Educaton and Welfare as cvlan governmental agences for comparatve

19 purposes, and between the. armed servces and the cvlan agences (computed for each servce-cvlan agency par and averaged). t s clear that the two governmental agences are more dssmlar from each other than the three armed servces are among themselves. -3 Moreover, the secular trend among the armed servces seems to be toward greater smlarty, whereas the trend between HEW and Agr- culture seems to be toward greater dssmlarty, wth the excep- ton of Most mportantly, dssmlarty s greatest n the mltary-cvlan comparsons, and ths dssmlarty does not seem to have decreased through the decade of the 1960's. n the R and D feld, the boundary mantenance problem can be approached by consderng the degree to whch the mltary conducts such actvtes n-house, rather than havng t done by outsde con- tractors.. The former model more closely approxmates the actvtes of cvlan enterprses that are hghly dependent on technologcal development, and hence mght be seen as contrbutng to structural convergence. Carryng out R and D actvtes on a contract bass.. contrbutes to a strcter defnton of the dvson of labor between mltary and cvlan sectors, and hence mtgates aganst convergence and reflects nterdependence. Whle there are dfferences among the branches of the Amercan mltary and fluctuatons over tme n the degree to whch R and D r actvtes are carred out n-house, no clear case can be made for

20 convergence, and a mld case can be made for nterdependence. The Ar Force, whch through the decade of the 1960's grew from havng, the smallest R and D oblgatons relatve to ts budget among the servces to havng the greatest; performed about 13 per cent of ts. *. R and D actvty n-house at both the begnnng and the end of the decade, wth fluctuatons n between. The Navy experenced smlar over- all stablty, although the proporton of ts total R&D budget whch was spent wthn the organzaton was more than 30 per cent throughout the ten year perod. The Army, on the other hand, was the only servce to show a secular trend n these data. t decreased ts nternal R and D actvty from 40.7 per cent of ts total R and D effort n 1960 to 34.5 per cent n The comparson organzatons, HEW and the Department of Agrculture, show an ntermedate pcture. The latter conducted most research wthn the organzaton, drawng to a much smaller extent on non-governmental resources, whle the former showed a moderate declne n n-house research as a proporton of the total. R and D budget, from about 26 per cept to about 19 per cent. Whle t s mpossble to conclusvely demonstrate ether convergence or dvergence from these data, the relatvely &mall total amount of n- house research conducted by the Navy and the Ar Force and the decrease n the amount conducted by the Army are suggestve of mltary-socety nterchange and nterdependence. f' Table 2 about here

21 j DSCUSSON Where prevous dscussons of the cvl-mltary convergence phenomenon.have tended to vew such convergence as contrbutng to the wqeablty of the boundary of the m'ltary system, we suggest ' - # that the greater degree of structural convergence, the less dependent the mltary s on ts host socety, and the more nsulated t may become from cvlan sensbltes (see Moellerng, 1973). Emprcal ndcators of structural convergence of cvlan and mltary sectors examned here do not n the aggregate support the hypotheszed convergence. By attemptng to brng the pattern mantafn2ng functons of the famly wthn the mltary system, for example, the rnl.tary s becomng more structurally smlar to the cvlan communty and s therefore becomng a more closed systen..the contnung dssmlarty? of the cvlan and mltary occupatonal structures and the contnung t. relance of the mltary on cvlan R & D actvtes, however, do ndcate a lack of structural convergence and the concomtant necessty 5 of the mltary to mantan tself as a more open system. The contnued lack of convergence between cvlan and mltary occupatonal structures, mantanng the mltary's need for cvlan g.? employees and servces,.$ and the handlng of a good deal of the research : : and development of technologcal and manageral sklls on a contract 1 rather than an ntra-mural bass seems to suggest a strengthenng of f j. 1 the dstncton between what s mltary and what s cvlan through ;. the mechansm of dfferentaton n functon. By more clearly defnng 4

22 the boundary.between the mltary and the cvlan, the m1tary.~ able! to mantan tself as a more open system. Where Lang (1973) sees,a blurrng of the cvl-mltary boundary assocated wth ncreased mltary dependence on cvlan expertse, we see a reaffrmaton, n the -&rent decade,.of a tradtonal dvson of labor that perhaps dd get blurred n the early 1960's. t mght be hypotheszed that a healthy relatonshp between the mltary nsttuton and the democratc socety t protects seems to requre that the mltary functon be narrowly defned so that the mltary s functonally dependent upon cvlan nsttutons whch can, n turn, beneft from mltary- sponsorshp. t, may be that under an all-volunteer system t s especally mportant for 1 the mltary to self-conscously ntegrate tself nto cvlan socety, and that a clearer defnton of the boundares of the mltary system must be developed precsely so that the mltary nsttuton can be mantaned as an open system (Janowtz, 1973). On the other hand, others,! most notably the crtcs of the "mltary-ndustral complex" have argued l. that ths type of symbotc relatpnshp, nstead of beng healthy, f creates.a degree of nterdependence wth cvlan and mltary goals so ntertwned that mltary (and poltcal) polcy s at least partly. 1 : dctated by corporate needs and vce versa. E.ther relatonshp could be conceved as njurous to democratc values and processes. An nsulated mltary, able to functon by. tself, could possbly be n a!..7 poston to operate ndependently ether wthfn ths country or on'the nternatonal scene. The nterdependent mltary, conversely-, rases

23 t. ;. *..a 7 j the possblty of mltary actvtes, stll not controlled by the naton as a whole, but by some form of power elte. n ether..event, the exact nature of the cvl-mltary nterface must be made explct f questons such as these are to be answered. /. From ths perspectve, Moskos' (1973) "segmental" model of convergence, whle conceptualzng mltary personnel systems as evdence for dvergence from the cvlan occupatonal structure, has dfferent consequences for the problem of nterdependence. The combat army, as the tradtonal nucleus of mltary operatons, has become ncreasngly msson orented, and wholly staffed by personnel n unform traned n combat specaltes. t s here that dvergence from cvlan socety takes place. The support agences, by contrast, n an era of fewer enlstees and no conscrpts, may become ncreasngly dependent on cvlan employees or on servces performed contractually by cvlan organzatons. Alternatvely, one may vew the segmental model n terms of two armes: a combat army-, orented to the combat msson and structurally d~ergent from cvlan socety.,,and.a'support.. army, smlar n structure to cvlan nsttutons. (Hauser, 1973). combat army n ths case would be functonally dependent on the support army rather than on the cvlan sector, and thus ts relatonshp to cvlan socety would be at one remove. A smlar phenomenon arses The. wth regard to the mltary famly. At the level of complex organzatons., there s structural dvergence n comparson to corporatons and company housng and other servces for employees and ther famles. However, the mltary nstallaton represents a structural. cbn+ergence wth.

24 1. D regard to the facltes and processes found n cvlan communtes (see Clark,-1968). ncreasng ncorporaton of the entre famly,nto a stuaton, as on most mltary bases, where mltary supervsed and controlled nsttutons medate n the solder's contact ~ 5th the cvan sector, removes the ndvdual aspects of the mltary-cvlan nterface and leaves a stuaton n whch the actors are not ndvduals' but organzatons -- for nstance, mfltary procurement offces and cvlan supply corporatons nstead of ndvdual consumer and retaler. Thus cvl-mltary nterdependence s ncreased at the nsttutonal level but decreased at the level of the ndvdual solder and hs famly. W~ether these relatonshps at one remove between the mltary and the surroundng socety present threats to cvlan ascendancy and 3 control or ncrease hgh-lev21 mltary recogn.ton of and adjustment 4 to dependence on the cvlan sphere s another queston whch., at present, remans unresolved.

25 'me FOO'XOTES.. # data for come from U.S. Department of Defense ~nnul * Reports for the respectve fscal years. The percentage represents the proporton of mltary famles n adequate famly housng unts owned and controlled by the mltary. The number of mltary fam- les was operatonally defned as the number of eves lsted as mltary dependents of the total DOD mfl'tarypersonnel.. For.1952, the percentage was estmated based on 200,000 reported housng unts (US DOD Annual Report, 1952) and on an estmate made of the number of famles whch was based on the 1952 total personnel strength usng the wves to total personnel ratro of 196.7, a year w.th. sm- lar troop strength.and war moblzaton.. For 1960, the numeer of wves were estmated usng the a2ves to total personnel rato of 1S51-; the ;.,n;;,bcr of Lzaslzg.azlts xs gven.r; the azznal re'rort.. For 1970, the data on the number of famles and the number of adequate housng unts came from US House hearjlgs (_1972; 106). For 1971, the number of housng unts are from US House hearngs (Fd.) and the number of famles were estmated based on the rato of famles to personnel n Ths probably- underestmates the numbers of famles--and ncreases the proporton gven-because the reducton n force between 197Q and 1971 probablynvolved young, sngle men dsproportonately.. The 1976 fgure s based on pro- jected famly and housng unt fgures for 1976 (US House, 1972: 106). -?.:.:.-:. -:... - Z..-.: r-v :.~c.r.5:~.t~w-:2--~2-, ~~.r---=.----~v-..._ , < :.. -$ '

26

27 Blue collar.ar-m/nnmhot -----, c.yuyuc Whte collar SOURCE: Wool, 1968, p FGURE 2.. Dfferences between cvlan and mltary sectors n percent of labor force engaged n whte collar, blue collar, and combat/farm occupatons.. -

28 ,/ '. \ mltary-cvlan * 0 '-=..4,;, - 8 '. cvlan-cvlan SOURCE: Federal Funds for.1 r Research, Develop- O r ( N " ) e ~ a b a l c n ment, and other a Z,, g g g a a a a a Q\ cn ~ \ m c n c n m Scentfc Actvd r ( r l r l r l, + r ( r ( r l r l tes Natonal FGURE 3. C -3 Year Scence Foundaton ndces of dssmlarty among and between U.S. armed servces and governmental agences n R and D expendtures,

29 Table 1. MltaryCvlan Occupatons: % n Certan Jobs... \. lltary Cvlan Groqd Combat Arcraft Mechancs Electroncs Medcal and Dental 13.4% 0.0% Shp Operatng Crafts General Admnstratve & Clercal 7.1 Automotve Mechancs Constructon and Utltes Metal Workng Laborers, non-farm Farm - = statstcs not avalable; beleved to be less than -1%! Source: Harold Jool, The Mltary specalst, Johns. Hopkns Press, Baltmore, 1968, Page 56.

30 Table 2. ntramural R&D as Percent of Total R&D Oblgatons... Fscal..... Year, Army Navy Ar Force Agrculture HEW - Source: Federal Funds for Research., Development, and Other Scfentff.~ Actvtes, Natonal Scence Foundat.on, ,9,

31 REFERENCES... -, Bderman, Albert D. and Laure M. Sharp 1968 "The convergence of mltary and cvlan occupatlona1 *. structures," Amercan Journal of Socology 73 (January): Bramson, Leon 1971 "The Armed Forces Examng Staton, ' n.charles-.c. Moskos, Jr. (ed. ) publc-opnon and the Mltary Establshment (Beverly Hlls : sage publcatons-), L pp Clark, Terry N Communty Structure and Decson-Makng: Comparatve Analyss. San Francsco: Chandler Publshng Company. Grusky, Oscar 1964 "The effects of successon," n Morrs Janow'tz (ed. ) The New Mltary (New York: Russell Sage Foundaton), pp , Hauser, Wllam L Amerca's Amy n Crss (Baltfore; Johns Hopkns 7-.ul~ve~b.y.Fressrj, ' Hrsch, Paul M The organzaton of consumpton, Unpublshed Ph.D. dssertaton, The Unversty of chgan. Janowtz, Morrs 1965 Socology and the Mltary Establshment, revsed edton. (New York: Russell Sage Foundaton) "The emergent mltary," n Charles C, Moskos, Jr,, (ed. ) Publc Opnon and the Mltary ~stablsfment (Beverly Hlls; Sage Publcatons), pp ! The U. S. Forces and the 'Zero Draft, Adelph. Papers- '4! 94, London: nternatonal nsttute. for Strategc Studes. ;r ' Jennngs, Eugene E "Mobcentrc man," Psychology Today. 4 (July); 34ff, Katz, Danel and Robert Kahn The Socal Psychology of Organzatfons. New York: John Wley & Sons, nc,

32 Lang, Kurt Technology and career management n the mltary establshment," n Norrs Janowtz (ed.) The New. Mltary (New York: Russell Sage Foundaton), pp "Mltary career structure: emergng trends and alternatves," Admnstratve Scence Quarterly "Trends n mltary occupatonal~structure and 'ther poltcal mplcatons," Journal of Poltcal and Mltary Socology, 1 (sprng): Lasswell, Harold D "The garrson-state hypothess today," n Samuel P. Huntngton (ed.) Changng Patterns of Mltary Poltcs (New York: Free Press of Glencoe), pp Lttle, Roger W "The mltary famly," n R. W. Lttle (ed,) Handbook of Mltary nsttutons (New Yorlc: Sage publcatons), pp Moellerng, John H "The army turns nwardtt. ~1.t ary ~evew, July. # L.LU sku a,, Clz e 1970 The Amercan Enlsted Man (New York: Russell Sage Foundaton).... s 2., ZL "The emergent mltary, t Pacfc SocTologcal ReyLew 16 (Aprl) : ' Z.. Parsons, Talcott j 1960 Structure and Process n Modern Socetes (New York: Free Press). Segal, Davd R. and Danel H. Wllck 1968 "The renforcment of tradtonal-career patterns n agences under stress, " Publc.~dm.n.s.trat.on Revew 28., Segal, Davd R. and Mady W. Segal 1971 "Models of cvl-mltary. relatonshps at the elte level," n M. Yan Gls (ed.) The Perceved - Role of the Mltary (Rotterdam: Rotterdam Unyersty Press). 1 Segal, Davd R "Cvl-mltary dfferentaton n the new ndustral 4 1 state," Socologcal Focus 6:

33 ~horn~son, James D Organzatons 'n Acton, McGraw-H-11.; New York * U.S. Department of Defense ' Annual Reports, Ffscal ~ears.19' , Department of' 1968 Defense (Vashngton, D. C. : Government Prntng Off ;ce), U.S,,House of Representatves 1972 "Mltary constructon appropr.at.ons. for 1973," Hearng before a subcomm,ttee of the Comrn'ttee on Appropratons, 92nd Congress, 2nd Sesson, Part.1.. (Washngton, D. C. ; Government Prntng off 'ce.).. Wolf, Charlotte 1969 Garrson Communty: 'A Study of an Overseas Amercan Mltary Colony. Westport, Connectcut; Greenwood Publshng Company. Wool, Harold 1968 The Mltary Specalst (Baltmore: Johns Hopkns Unversty Press). -