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4 THE MPACT OF THE MEDA ON SOCAL MOVEMENT STRATEGES AND LEADERSHP STYLES BY Carper: T3" r Diane Kay Emling AN ABSTRACT TO A THESS Submitted t Michigan State University in partial fulfillment f the requirements fr the degree f MASTERS OF ARTS Department f Scilgy 1974

5 ABSTRACT THE MPACT OF THE MEDA ON SOCAL MOVEMENT STRATEGES AND LEADERSHP STYLES BY Diane Kay Emling An examinatin f hw media cverage influences scial mvements First, questins are addressed as t the reasns fr apparent media bias in news cverage Then the relatinship between media cverage and scial mvement strategy is analyzed Finally, the impact f publicity n the rle f leadership within scial mvements is discussed

6 THE MPACT OF THE MEDA ON SOCAL MOVEMENT STRATEGES AND LEADERSHP STYLES BY 3:41 Diane Ka25Emling A THESS Submitted t Michigan State University in partial fulfillment f the requirements fr the degree f MASTERS OF ARTS Department f Scilgy 1974

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS NTRODUCTON Establishing the Media's nfluence REVEW OF THE LTERATURE ARE THE MEDA NTENTONAL N SLANTNG COVERAGE? 12 Reprters Editrial Plicy and News Reprting Plitical Pressures An Alternative Thery THE MEDA AND MOVEMENT STRATEGY General Patterns Case Study--The Civil Rights Mvement Case Study Applicatins THE MEDA AND MOVEMENT LEADERSHP General Patterns Case Study Applicatins CONCLUSEON AND RESEARCH QUESTONS FOOTNOTES 0 0 O O O 0 O O O O O O 69 BBLOGRAPHY 72 ii

8 NTRODUCT ON The Mvement did nt chse us t be its symbls; the press and the gvernment did1 --Tm Hayden, f the "Chicag Eight" Televisin and have been ging steady fr mre than nine years2 --Vice President Gerald R Frd " televisin is the single mst ptent frce in American public live" 3 f this is true, what culd be said f the cmbined impact f televisin, radi, and the many frms f printed cmmunicatin that cme ur way each day? Certainly their impact is awesme; many key peple in ur sciety (especially pliticians) have tried t identify what that impact is Hwever, fr all the cnjecture, very little has cme in the way f achieving a Clearer understanding f hw the media derive and use their pwer, and what the cnsequences are fr scial mvements and ther change-riented grups wishing t be invlved in the news-making prcess t is such an understanding--f hw the media have influenced the strategy and leadership f scial mvement--that wish t wrk tward here

9 t is my cntentin that thrugh the ability t create frceful visual images, the media influence bth ur perceptins as individuals and ur natinal cnsciusness n additin, the dynamics invlved in reprting an event t the public may in a real sense change the character f that event (Examples f this phenmenn will fllw) This being s, it seems fundamental t a scilgical understanding f cntemprary sciety t examine mass cmmunicatin carefully and expand ur awareness f its wrkings n particular, am interested in hw the media (especially televisin news, but als the newspapers) have affected the scial mvements f the 1960's, and hw publicity has influenced the nature f leadership within the mvement n shrt, believe full understanding f cntemprary sciety requires examining hw the media have influenced ur View f sciety, and hw, by their very presence, the media have affected the curse f events Finally, as wrked n this prject, became increasingly cnvinced f the imprtance f this subject Fr a tpic with such crucial impact n sciety, it is surprising that virtually n systematic research has been dne While this lack f data r therizing n the sub ject has been a majr surce f frustratin fr me in ding this research, it has impressed me with the imprtance f beginning t pull tgether the diverse, yet related, fields where this literature can be fund n terms f academic

10 surces, have examined bth the disciplines f scilgy and jurnalism Hwever, fund sme f my mst valuable surces t be ut f these areas cmpletely; in selected articles in the undergrund press, and writings f thse invlved in the scial mvements being examined Scial mvements, especially thse much in the public eye, have had t cpe with the presence f the media; fr that reasn the insights f mvement activists have been a helpful surce f ideas hpe t bring frm these diverse surces sme infrmatin which will help draw a clearer picture f the relatinship between the media and scial mvements and their leaders Hwever, this is still a very new field, and there are many questins yet t be examined see it as ne f my majr tasks t utline sme f these as well Establishing the Media's nfluence Befre cntinuing, think it imprtant t clarify exactly what cnceive this "pwer f the media" t be Fr the mst part, the ability t influence ur perceptins des nt seem t have been cnsciusly sught and manipu lated by the netwrks Rather, the influence seems t lie in the nature f the media themselves First, the media f necessity deal with images While radi and newspapers rely n verbal images, the influence is particularly acute with televisin, which depends upn visual images

11 All that we may knw abut an event f glbal imprtance may be the picture we see flashed n the televisin screen and the 60-secnd script describing it This invlves a tremendus pwer ver hw an event will be thught f By cncentrating n image rather than factual detail, the media shape hw the public views histry as it is made The image will remain lng after the 'facts' are duly recrded rving Lang has elabrated n the aspect f image creatin ("leaving an impressin"): What televisin news delivers best is impressin A minute f film shwing bmbers destrying a bridge and a flyer emerging frm an airnsea rescue heli cpter, when cmbined with a few facts abut yesterdays raids and lsses, will leave the viewer with mre than he wuld retain if the newscaster read a lng Assciated Press dispatch4 Clsely linked t the ability t create simple images f events, n matter hw cmplex, is the pwer t define what the public issues will be Was the Vietnam War a struggle t preserve the self-determinatin f a valiant peple wh were being savagely verrun? Was it a civil war, bth plitical and religius, t be slved internally? Was it a war f imperialism? The media had access t surces advcating all these and many mre definitins f the cnflict The pwer f the press lies in determining which f these definitins will receive cverage and what the tne f that cverage will be The media grant legitimacy r deny it; they may expse a divergent definitin, r ignre it Hw the media define an issue (including thrugh images created) hlds cnsiderable sway ver the

12 definitins f the public Tm Hayden has pinted ut the differing definitins f the issues in the 1968 Chicag demnstratins: The main pint is that the Chicag cnflict culd nt be simplified, as it was in the press, t ne f free speech versus respect fr the law By defining the questin as ne f free speech, many f ur supprters were making a majr liberal mistake They pened themselves up t a cmmn-sense cnservative criticism: free speech is all right, but nt bscene epithets shuted at plice Liberal sympathizers were being frced, in effect, t defend ur right t shut "Fire!" in a crwded theater n reality, the gvernment, nt the radical left, has becme a 'clear and present danger' t ur cmmn security n this situatin radical actin has t be defended, nt n the basis f civil liberties, but n the basis f the principles embdied in the Delcaratin f ndependence Finally, the media have the pwer t judge the value f a stry Since there are ften at least tw views f the significance f an event, and a limited time fr bradcast news, editrial decisins (what t cver, what nt t cver, what segment f an event is mst "newswrthy") represent a tremendus surce f influence ndeed, by defining what is newswrthy, the media are simultaneusly guaranteeing what the public definitin f an event will be While this judgment is smewhat tempered by the need t remain cmpetitive with thers in the market, there is n dubt that the decisin t cut r keep a stry, t send a reprter r nt, has imprtant implicatins fr all f us Rbert Kintner, president f NBC, has cmmented abut the prblems invlved in determining what is newswrthy: An rganizatin withut any real membership culd picket a plitical cnventin and stand a chance f putting itself, at least briefly, befre a huge

13 public Netwrk news divisin must rely n the editrial judgement f experienced peple (wh decide) whether the real news value lies in the interesting characters demnstrating utside the drs r in the speech smebdy is making inside A Thus, the pwer f the media as see it cmes frm three majr surces: creating images fr individual viewers, creating public definitins f issues and events, and determining what is newswrthy cntend that the presence f this frce in sciety has changed ur culture within the past few decades, and has within the last few years changed the apprach f thse invlved in scial mvements Murray Kemptn maintains: There is n way in the wrld, 'm afraid, left in this cuntry t make any impact except by getting n the televisin camera This has led Stkely Carmichael t rather mechanical frmulatins fit fr tw minutes f televisin t leads us all that way, and t a certain extent all ur plitics nw is in terms f playing at dramas f ne kind r anther But 'm beginning t wnder really whether r nt a watched revlutin will ever bil The intent f this research is t examine the relatinship f the media t scial mvements and mvement leaders hpe t shed light n 1) the internal wrkings f the prfessin f jurnalism which may have effect n shaping news cverage; 2) the peculiar needs f scial mvements and the media and hw these play int each ther; als, alternatives which mvements have develped fr dealing with the media; and 3) the psitin f mvement leaders 'vis a vis the media, the dynamics f that relatinship, «and hw leaders have dealt with it Alng the way, will

14 pint ut imprtant questins needing further research, and raise questins abut the wrk already dne

15 REVEW OF THE LTERATURE began researching the cnnectin between the media and scial mvements by examining the traditinal literature in scilgy n cllective behavir (eg Camern, 1966; Ash, 1972; Smelser, 1962; Heberle, 1951; King, 1956) Mst f this literature seemed t be asking very different questins frm my wn, sme based n assumptins wuld challenge Each authr seemed intent n putting tgether the mst succinct thery:' t identify the majr predictr f a mvement, r establish the cmpnents and developmental patterns invlved Because this literature did nt seriusly cnsider the cmplex interactin f variables r the impact f external events (eg plitical climate), came t View it as smewhat simplistic Althugh did find sme insights f mderate value, they had nly indirect cnnectin t the issue f the media and mvements Within the field f scilgy, hwever, there was als sme lesser knwn literature which was very helpful (eg Freeman, 1972; Lipsky, 1968; Mltch and Fster, 1973; Brstin, 1972; Klapp, 1964) This literature reflects sme new appraches t research which seem t accunt fr a much wider range f questins Particularly in examining

16 the impact f the media, this mre recent literature has made sme encuraging advances Next, examined the literature f the field f jurnalism t, t, seems t reflect sme changes in thinking frm 1950 t 1970 The lder literature, like that f scilgy, reflects a narrw range f questins, and des nt recgnize the difficult ethical prblems that may be encuntered by the press in sciety The majr cncern seems t be maintaining the standard f bjective reprting" Linked t this are a few prfessinal debates abut the influence f newspaper chains, the prper editr/ publisher rles, etc Very few f these surces attempt t articulate the influence f cverage n the curse f events; the way in which the media define reality, and hw this impact ught t be used and cntrlled; the peculiar relatinship f newsmen and public figures, r ther crucial and challenging questins Hwever, within this literature have fund a few studies (Bwers, 1967; Breed, 1955) which seek t establish whether r nt there is intentinal slanting f news by varius prfessinals within the field This data is all the mre interesting because it is primarily internal- newsmen reflecting n their wn experiences in the prfes sin, and nt the cnclusin f an utside bserver Other than this, perhaps the best material fr my purpses has cme frm very recent surces n jurnalism within the past few years, the influence f Spir Agnew's

17 10 attacks n the media are clear: a wealth f publicatins have Specifically analyzed netwrk news, and material has als appeared n the relatinship between media and Washingtn pliticians (eg Arnsn, 1971; Cirin, 1974; Wlfe, 1973; The O M Cllective, 1971; Schwartz, ed, 1973; and Schwarts, 1973) n many cases, the fcus f these writings can be applied t the relatinship f scial mvements t the media Hwever, there is nt yet any cmprehensive writing being dne which recgnizes the impact that the media had n the many frms f scial mvements f the 1960's Prbably the mst well-written and thughtful analyses have fund have c0me frm very recent articles in undergrund newspapers, magazines, etc (eg Hpkins, 1968; Ferr, E_al,, 1970; Hickey, 1973; Sale, 1973; Enzensberger, 1970) Perhaps thse best equipped t write abut the relatinship f the media t mvements have been t busy t set frth a thughtful analysis Thse wh have attempted t write n the subject have dne s mre t prmte the mvement than t shed light n the cmplex relatinships being enacted Perhaps within the next few years mre participants will reflect n their invlvement in writing and thus increase ur knwledge f the subject n shrt, the surces that will be citing thrugh ut the rest f this wrk are a few frm the traditinal literature f scilgy and jurnalism, many jurnals and

18 11 essay cllectins, and sme "cunter culture" resurces: bks by and abut ntable figures, undergrund publicatins, lesser knwn jurnals, etc have gleened a little frm a lt f diverse surces, and here hpe t unite it under a cmmn framewrk

19 ARE THE MEDA NTENTONAL N SLANTNG COVERAGE? have already indicated the pwer f the media t impse definitins and t recreate events is a shrt step t the next crucial issue: Frm that, it Hw the media use their pwer n this sectin hpe t examine the evidence and determine whether r nt the media are self cnscius enugh t be manipulating this pwer systematically and cntrlled its effects D reprters deliberately slant the events they cver t fit a "cmpany plicy?" Des editrial plicy influence frnt page news cverage? What are the plitical pressures perating n the media which might cnstrain news cverage? Can a thery be suggested which wuld help explain the tempering f events which smetimes seems t ccur? Scial mvement activists have lng imputed many mtives t the media fr the distr tins they perceived 'Befre cntinuing, wish t establish t what extent thse distrtins are the deliberate plicy f media executives Befre beginning t discuss the issue f media bias, it is imprtant t clarify sme perceptins abut the nature f the prfessin f jurnalism itself, t help determine where bias may enter int reprting First, 12

20 13 prfessinal relatinships within mst news establishments (newspapers as well as televisin) are highly stratified and segmented Clear distinctins are made between publisher, editrs, department editrs, and reprters within varius departments Prfessinal rles distinguish between varius levels f respnsibility and authrity, and guide relatinships between subrdinates and superirs nspite f this, there are imprtant variatins in the decisin-making prcess frm ne publisher t anther The extent f invlvement and cntrl that subrdinates will have in decisins is a matter f chice n the part f the executive8 The result f this prfessinal structure has been that mst studies in the field tend t fcus n ne level f the hierarchy, and there are little data representing a whlistic apprach One researcher may study the rle f reprters' views in determining psitive r negative cverage; anther may examine whether the advertisers have the pwer t dictate plicy Still anther may examine the rle f editr preference in determining hw many sides f a stry the public will knw Hwever, very little has been dne t attempt t trace the interactin f these varius prfessinal segments, r t illuminate the cnnectins, cmmunicatin, and pwer links between the varius levels in the jurnalistic divisin f labr As a result, my analysis will fall int the fllw ing majr areas: the rle f reprters in slanting the

21 14 news, the extent t which editrial plicy is reflected in "straight news" articles (especially candidate endrsement), and the effect f varius plitical pressures n the shape f the news when it reaches the public Finally, will undertake an analysis and put frward my wn thery as t why and hw the media appear t be systematically distrting news events Reprters The reprter, as the first link between the event and the public, has an bviusly crucial rle in the bjectivity f the presentatin f the event Besides the fact that each persn may bserve a situatin smewhat differently with n intentin f changing the meaning f the event, are there systematic actins reprters take t feel their impact ver the facts we have abut the wrld? n 1955, Warren Breed did a study entitled "Scial Cntrl in the Newsrm" in which he undertk intensive interviews with 120 newsmen frm middle circulatin (10 t 100 thusand daily) publicatins Althugh he makes n pretense t a randm sample, Breed reprts that withut exceptin editr/publisher plicy is unspken That is, reprters maintain they are nt tld hw t slant their stries Nevertheless, each reprter admits knwing, having smehw learned, what editr preference was Breed examines this phenmenn, and cncludes that a great deal f scializatin ccurs within the newsrm, insuring that vert

22 15 plicy enfrcement will be unnecessary This scializatin ccurs in sme f the fllwing ways: Mst reprters d, and sme are required t, read their paper each day This serves tw imprtant scializatin functins: newcmers will be inclined t pattern their articles after what they see as being successful; and als, new staff tend t lk at news clumns and editrials as a guide t lcal cmmunity nrms (attitudes t minrity grups, plitical parties, labr, etc) n additin, reprters may learn plicy by mre vert methds: cnsistent blue penciling f certain items, reprimands with subtly implied sanctins, verhearing cmments f executives, internal gssip9 Breed als examines the questin f why reprters cmply with perceived news plicy, and cncludes that the esteem and bligatin reprters feel fr their superirs, mbility aspiratins, and institutinal authrity are the majr frces perating n newsmen Thus, nce emplyed within a particular news firm, a reprter learns withut being tld what is expected f him, and usually cmplies Shuld a reprter nt respnd t the cues f his envirnment as t what items t temper r ignre, what will be the cnsequences? Certainly Breed has hinted that the pwer f emplyer ver emplyee is a majr factr in the acquiescence f reprters t plicy The experience f Charley Thmpsn at statin WJXT-TV is exemplaryl Hired in 1969 at statin WJXT TV in Jacksnville, Flrida, Thmpsn brught with him a recrd f critical

23 16 investigative reprting, and was guaranteed "We have n sacred cws here" 11 Shrtly after he began his new assignment, Thmpsn turned ut a series f dcumentaries n lcal pllutin prblems These films were explicit, linking imprtant civic and plitical leaders with plluting crpratins Bth the water quality cntrl bard and the air quality cntrl bard basted members allied with majr industrial plluters Many f the majr ffenders were advertisers with WJXT, as well Althugh listener respnse was verwhelmingly apprving, plitical and ecnmic pressures frm the cmmunity n the statin intensified until Thmpsn was fired fr being t effective at his assigned task Bth the Breed study and the Thmpsn example pint t the unspken pressure put n reprters t under stand and maintain the interests f thse they wrk fr- especially where advertisers and ecnmic interests are invlved Fllwing up n the rle f ecnmic pressures upn the media is a study by David Bwers (1967) which analyses when publishers will becme invlved in newsrm decisins n this study, Bwers sent an extensive questinnaire t the managing editrs f the evening daily, general circulatin newspapers listed in Editr & Publisher Yearbk in 1966 This ttaled mre than 600 US dailies, which he divided accrding t circulatin grups and gegraphic areas n this study, managing editrs were asked t rate the activity f their publishers in news

24 17 decisins n different types f news items, issues f cntent, display, use/nnuse decisins, etc Bwers' cnclusins indicate that under certain circumstances, publishers tend t be mre active in newsrm decisins Publishers f small circulatin papers were reprted mre active than larger nes They were als mre active as issues became mre gegraphically clse Finally, publishers were reprted mre active in decisins n issues which might affect the revenue n the paper than, fr example, a stand n a natinal plitical issue He als emphasizes that even in lcal revenue-related issues, the activity f publishers is mre ften prmtinal rather than suppressing f ptentially damaging stries Ge graphically, Bwers finds that the nly variatin is t smewhat less verall publisher activity in New England Thus, based n the Breed and Bwers studies and the WJXT/Charley Thmpsn affair, we see evidence that reprters are under sme pressure frm thse abve in the prfessinal hierarchy t at times mdify fr better r wrse their reprts n issues which are ecnmically sensitive Where this pressure is exerted by the publisher n the editr, it als seems likely that this will be passed alng t the reprter Hwever, have fund n evidence t supprt the claims f sme that there are specific, cntrlled decisin making channels where sme what cnspiratrial plicies are made t deliberately influence what the public thinks and knws The varius

25 18 media seem t have little cmmn mtivatin fr such intentinal deceptin Much mre cmmn are the subtle missins r tne changes intended t handle delicate public relatins prblems fr the publisher Editrial Plicy and News Reprting f it is true that l) reprters learn withut being tld what editr/publisher biases are, 2) reprters have been knwn t lse their jbs fr putting their emplyers in t severe ecnmic and plitical jeapardy, and that indeed such plitical cnsideratins prbably enter int the applicatin and hiring prcess, and 3) publishers are mre active in news decisins that relate t lcal and ecnmic affairs in small and medium circulatin papers; then ne must lk further t discver why the media appear t have a cnsistent bias in particular matters f indeed there is n real cnspiracy t manage mst types f daily news, is there any real link between editrial plicy and news as reprted? n 1957, Arthur Rwse published a study he cnducted during the 1952 Presidential campaign Attempting t answer the questin, "Des editrial plicy affect news cverage?", he examined a crss sectin f evening dailies which included 26 f the 32 largest circulatin newspapers in the natin (The ther six were excluded t avid duplicatin thrugh the use f several chains) Each was examined fr several days when stries were breaking n the

26 l9 Nixn--and later the Stevensn--campaign funds His study revealed that f all the majr papers examined, nly three editrially supprted the Demcratic Party candidate The rest, perhaps because f their business backgrund, endrsed the Eisenhwer/Nixn ticket When the Nixn secret fund (which invlved $18,235 dnated by 76 supprters) was revealed, thse papers which were editrially Republican were quite slw (apprximately 3-5 days) in giving the item frnt page and headlines Even then, the articles and headlines were highly cnciliatry in tne The three Demcratic papers editrially headlined the Nixn stry as it brke, and featured mre stries f an investigative nature n side angles t the riginal stry Likewise, a few days later, the Stevensn stry (which invlved $18,150 frm 1,000 cntributrs) was als handled in a partisan way which reflected n the editrial plicy f the paper While the Stevensn stry was relatively mre lw-key, cming in the middle f the Nixn furr and nt sptlighted by elabrate speeches in his defense, the Republican endrsrs used the Stevensn stry n the frnt page with headlines t vershadw the Nixn stry they never fully brke By the same tken, the Demcratic endrsers kept the Nixn stry in the frefrnt, making Stevensn nly a sidelight Rwse cncluded that whether cnsciusly r nt, editrial plicy clearly did influence the placement, tne, and cverage f the news He did nt speculate as t hw

27 20 such plicy was passed alng, wh had final respnsibility, r if indeed the link was intentinal Rwse did nt examine the system f cmmunicatin acrss editrial lines (managing editr t department editrs, department editrs t reprters, etc) While we cannt tell hw this plicy came t be (r if indeed it was a matter f plicy), Rwse did clearly shw that editrial plicy and frnt page cverage are nt independent At the 1973 Cnventin f the American Sciety f Newspaper Editrs, Ben Bagdikian reprted an infrmal fllw up t the Rwse study First he established the editrial psitin f many key newspapers in 1972, and fund them still t be verwhelmingly Republican He reprted: The histry f jurnalism fr this era will have t have mre than a ftnte n the fact that f all dailies wh endrsed a majr candidate in 1972, 93 percent endrsed the first President ever t impse prir censrship n the press, wh made mre Supreme Curt appintments hstile t the press than anyne in ur time and wh has threatened and jailed mre newsmen than any President in ur memry Bagdikian cmpared the cverage f the Stevensn fund with the cverage given t Watergate prir t the electin He reprts that the same papers which carried the Stevensn stry n page ne fr as lng as pssible (and accrding t Rwse buried the explsive Nixn fund stry f 1952), als practically ignred Watergate during the 1972 campaign Thus even ver a perid f 20 years, editrially plicy (which remained remarkably cnsistent) clearly had

28 21 an impact n frnt-page news reprting Cupled with what was learned earlier abut the infrmal sanctins cntrlling reprters and the rle f publishers in prtecting ecnmic interests, the interwrkings f the prfessin becme mre visible Plitical Pressures There is anther popular thery abut hw news decisins are made: that the media areaibusiness which is by nature assciated with plitics by the definitin f its prduct (ie selling news) Accrding t this thery, dependence upn plitical surces makes the media respn sive t plitical pressures in determining cverage First, as the press has assumed a mre cnglmerate rganizatinal frm, it has becme subject t intense plitical pressures which did nt exist a few years ag As the ecnmic interests f the media becme intertwined with extensive hldings f diverse businesses (many f them multinatinal) it becmes mre and mre difficult t separate the netwrk frm the news Bagdikian (1967) has given many examples f hw great crprate linkings culd influence news cverage Fr example, since ABC and TT are part f the same cnglmerate, this culd have a tremendus impact n the news Cnsider, fr example, hw ABC might cver a Suth American mvement t natinalize US-wned industries, when the news netwrk's wn crpra tin stands t lse t wu1d nt be incnceivable fr the

29 22 ruler f such a cuntry t apprach the news netwrk and in effect cntrl the image presented f his cuntry, using the business interests lcated in his cuntry as leverage Finally, hw will ABC apprach the questin f defense cst verruns, when 40 percent f TT's resurces cme frm defense cntracts? Althugh Bagdikian's article was prmpted specifi cally by the prpsal f the ABC/TT merger, he is quick t pint ut that this is nt slely an ABC cncern Bth NBC and CBS have similar business relatinships justified by the thery that mre diverse financial surces remve much f the financial insecurity f the press, therefre allwing them t better cncentrate n the serius wrk f jurnalism seems t be: Whatever the ratinale, the imprtant questin des the existence f these relatinships influence hw a netwrk cvers the news? Des the larger crpratin pressure the press fr slanted cverage f particular events? n the ABC/TT case, the exercise f influence seemed apparent First, TT tried t influence the AP and UP cverage f the merger hearings, since they did nt reflect a sufficiently psitive pint f view Since ABC is a majr subscriber t the wire services, it was als in a psitin t exercise financial clutl3 n additin: ABC drve the pint hme by having its affiliates ask members f Cngress in their districts t supprt the merger t's a dull plitician wh desn't wnder if his access t cnstituents thrugh bradcasting isn't at stake1

30 23 Other strng plitical interests perate n the press T a large extent, infrmatin n plicies and plitics cmes t the media thrugh peple invlved in the decisin-making prcess T what extent will the press jepardize an imprtant surce f favrs r infrmatin by giving cverage which is detrimental t that surce? Given the symbisis f the plitician/press relatinship (bth needing the supprt f the ther, yet cast in an adversary rle) it can be speculated that a gd surce culd expect a degree f immunity frm the press ndeed this is s, accrding t Rbert Yakum (1967) wh examined the case f Senatr Thmas J Ddd f Cnnecticut Thrugh the curse f the miscnduct hearings against Ddd, cn siderable evidence was uncvered linking him t exchanges f fficial favrs fr financial gifts in several instances: favrs t industries under investigatin, gifts frm businessmen, diverting campaign funds t persnal accunts, exchanging financial gifts fr gvernment jbs, payrll padding in his Senate cmmittee, etc Why was it that there was very little media cverage f an investigatin which wuld usually be cnsidered imprtant news? Other than a very few clumnists, mst media as well as the majr wire service reprts did little t prmte the Ddd stry, r even t cver the events f the hearing This was especially true fr Cnnecticut papers, many f which replaced syndicated clumnists when they wrte abut the Ddd stry

31 24 Yakum explains that a newsman is likely t prtect a gd surce f infrmatin, and that this affects the cverage f such news events: One reasn fr the inactin in Washingtn is ld and familiar--the symbitic relatins that develp between newsmen and their surces Ddd, like every Senatr, had fund many ccasins when he culd give news t a reprter frm his state t their mutual benefit Reprters are nt eager t eliminate their best surce f supply fr the nly cmmdity in which they deal The final kind f plitical pressure that might influence the bjectivity f news cverage relates back t bth the issue f cnglmerates and f dependence n surces t meet survival needs Specifically, ne f the functins f the Attrney General f the United States is t review media mergers and cnglmerates Ben Bagdikian claims: Newspapers are mre and mre becming parts f chains and cngdmerates Tw thirds f all the papers in this cuntry, all dailies, are in such grups Each time ne f these grups acquires anther cmmunicatins prperty, it needs the apprval f the Attrney General f the United States S tw thirds f ur papers have crprate reasns t fear a President wh is ready t use his Department f Justice fr plitical reasns 15 Bagdikian als asserts that the Executive Branch (thrugh attacks and challenges) can greatly affect the stck and prfits f thse dailies which trade n the market (eg Washingtn Pst) The gvernment can, thrugh its attacks, create a situatin f uncertainty fr such a paper, and market traders will nt invest This area f plitical influence, as yet nwhere intensely examined, is wrthy f clse attentin in the future

32 25 n summary, several causes have been cited fr the slanting f news by varius frms f media First, reprters are scialized t accept the editrial plicy f the institutin fr which they wrk- and a great deal f self-selectin ges int that initial staffing decisin Secnd, publishers themselves are mre active in newsrm decisins as the issues mve clser t hme gegraphically and tuch the ecnmic base f the paper Third, in supprt f the scializatin thery, it has been demnstrated that editrial plicy des becme expressed thrugh the appearance and cntent f the frnt page Finally, several plitical pressures may be surces cnstraining an pen press: crprate interests within, dependence n external news surces, and the pwer f the Executive Branch ver the financial security f the business Where des this leave us in terms f ur understanding f the relatinship between media and scial mvements? t des give us insights int the internal wrkings f a prfessin which has a tremendus impact n ur understanding f ur sciety t als helps clarify differences which ccur amng different media in their cverage f prtest (eg, ne advertiser is invlved in the prtested defense cntracts; anther publisher has spken his law and rder bias in the presence f reprters eager t please) Sme cnsistency between cmpetitrs is als accunted fr here, based n the generally accepted nbtin that a high percentage f media industries and executives are Republican/business riented

33 26 Hwever, still d nt find this type f analysis adequate, fr it leaves much unaddressed Are the media intentinal in slanting news items? f s, nne f the studies cited have given an adequate explanatin f why, r hw such decisins are made and enfrced f nt, the studies d nt explain why many mvement activists have perceived the press as intentinally distrting reprts f prtest Because these studies remain n the surface f many issues (eg never analyzing relatinships between advertiser, publisher, editr, reprter; nt asking "why" at critical pints), have mved t sme ther surces fr a mre plausible explanatin f why the media may seem t sme t be a mnlithic giant when it may nt really be SO An Alternative Thery Anther dynamic seems t be perating here, which wuld characterize as the American flair fr cnsumptin wuld pstulate that the media, as part f this sciety, are themselves susceptible t the same ecnmic idelgy which has affected ther businesses as well as all f us as citizens Linked t the philsphy f prgress as grwth (ecnmic expansin) is the prductin f newgds fr cnsumptin, and increasing cnsumptin as any new "gadget" is prduced n cmpetitin fr such a cnsumptin-riented audience, the media themselves cme t view any particular news item as thrw«away; depth

34 27 reprting is used nly if there is nt enugh "new" t fill the allted time r pages each day Because we as viewers have becme cnsumers f technlgy, we expect 'that technlgy t prvide us with change, newness, stimulatin, internatinal intrigue T be ecnmically cmpeti tive, the media must cnstruct news in bigger and better ways Many histrical frces help t explain hw we have cme t ur present immderate hpes But there can be n dubt abut what we nw expect, nt that it is immderate Every American knws the anti cipatin with which he pens his evening paper befre dinner, r listens t the newscasts every hur as he drives acrss the cuntry, r watches his favrite cmmentatr n televisin interpret the events f the day Many enterpris ing Americans are nw at wrk t help us satisfy these expectatins Many might be put ut f wrk if we shuld suddenly mderate ur expectatins But it is we wh keep them in business and demand that they fill ur cnsciusness with nvelties Nt nly have the media as an industry cme t view news events as items fr cnsumptin (as we all have), they have als cme (with ther crpratins in a capital istic ecnmic system) t an understanding abut ecnmic survival and hw t "beat the cmpetitin" What this leads t is a situatin in which the media develp interests cmmn t mst American enterprises: sharehlder returns, and sympathetic peple f influence in the right places Mltch and Fster (1973) have therized that if the same types f events and people are rutinely cvered by the press, it is because their interests are cmpatible, rather than that in sme "bjective" sense they are mre

35 28 newswrthy18 t is simply that in rder t satisfy cnsumers and survive in a cmpetitive ecnmic market, certain types f news must be generated (ie, the unusual, sensatinal, persnality/human interest angle, etc); in rder t survive amng cmpetitin, each newsman must persist with mre vigr than the last This prductin/ cnsumptin dynamic applied t the field f jurnalism, seems t shed a great deal f insight as t why many, especially mvement peple, tend t View the media as having cmmn interests which verride their differences Jeanette Hpkins has summarized the thery f the media as a part f a culture which itself demands rapid change, explitatin f surces, and sensatinal stimulatin: Jseph Breckner said that 'despite extremist claims, there is n vast cnspiracy amng the news media and certainly nne amng bradcasters n fact, there is fierce and expensive cmpetitin amng the varius netwrks and individual statins Cmpetitin, hwever, will nt ease the sense f alienatin (f blacks) frm the news media, fr the bligatin 't perfrm in the public interest, which Breckner mentins, sug~ gests a cmmn understanding f what that interest is The natural alliance f bradcasters is mre ne f cmmn attitude and identificatin with the majrity culture than it is ne f cnspiracy but the cnsequences are ften the same as if it were a predetermined plicy19 What, then, are the cnsequences fr scial mvements and their leaders f this majrity culture identificatin f the press which gives them needs f their wn which must be satisfied in news reprting?

36 THE MEDA AND MOVEMENT STRATEGY The discussin f the structure f the media and news reprting was intended t set the stage fr a mre in-depth analysis f the relatinship between the media and scial mvements Especially, hpe t shed mre light n the cmplex relatinship between media cverage and the decisins mvements make abut strategy and tactics First, will discuss sme general patterns which seem t apply t thse scial mvements which are riented t the media Next, will present a case study f the civil rights mvement f the 1960's, attempting t shw the impact f publicity n the curse f the mvement Finally, will indicate ways in which ther scial mvements (partly learning frm the histry f the civil rights mvement) have develped mre sphisitcated appraches t the media Bth scial mvements and the press have becme increasingly self-aware, and will detail these insights and their practical applicatin General Patterns Different frms f media tend t respnd t scial mvements in different ways Fr example, televisin has mre need fr a visually stimulating item than radi r 29

37 3O newspapers Therefre, televisin mst ften relates items which are dramatic; the theatrical aspect f all ur plitics has risen sharply with the expansin f electrnic media A newspaper, n the ther hand, cannt rely n dramatic visual appeal, and may give mre in the way f factual detail, backgrund, r the unraveling f cmplex issues James Mcevy and Abraham Miller (Becker, 1970) have discussed the difficulty f the media, especially televisin, in presenting cmplex issues This reluctance t becme invlved in highly cmplex issues leads the media t accept an fficial pint f view r a superficial analysis if there are enugh news events in a day t fill the time alltment Hwever, if it is a "slw news day," reprters may a bit mre actively dig fr stries beneath the headline Even s, the stry that reaches the viewer is likely t be a very superficial treatment f what may have been weeks r even years in brewing The needs f radi news reprts in many ways parallel thse f televisin: news items must fit int a small time slt, and be verbally, if nt visually, excit ing ndeed, the radi has mre need fr rapid turnver f events, fr its news bradcasts are usually cnsumed hurly thrughut the day A stry which is revealed slwly (s that there is a little mre t reprt each hur) is well fitted t the frmat f radi newsbriefs n the hur n planning strategies, mvements have smetimes shwn an understanding f basic differences between media frms, and selected press targets accrdingly

38 31 The secnd majr pattern which seems t affect mst scial mvements which have decided t be media-riented is that televisin news reprting is slanted by a heavily Eastern bias20 Since the majr investment f televisin is in entertainment rather than news, netwrks have fund it ecnmically unfeasible t invest in great numbers f camera crews permanently statined thrughut the cuntry Rather, a netwrk seems t maintain the minimum number f crews necessary t fill the alltted time n essence, crews are maintained where news is expected t break (Washingtn and New Yrk) This circumstance clearly affects mvements which might seek publicity but be far frm the media surces t als implies that by the time a netwrk discvers a mvement, it may already by firmly established in ther parts f the cuntry Fr example, the wmen's mvement was very active in Chicag and Seattle lng befre it came t the atten tin f the media21 Yet when wmen began t rganize in New Yrk and Bstn, they were "discvered" by the televisin netwrks Nt surprisingly, mst f the wmen set up by the press as spkespe0ple are als Eastern in lcatin, thugh they may have n mre credibility as leaders within the mvement than smene frm San Francisc r Dallas Third, the less pwerful ne is in sciety, the mre ne must resrt t the unusual t get attentin The President f the United States need nt picket the White

39 32 Huse t vice cncern ver a critical issue He need nly request prime time cverage, and it is his; any issue he chses t speak n becmes an issue invlving us all Less pwerful grups t try t cause issues t surface But by virtue f their lack f pwer, they must typically assemble themselves in an inapprpriate place at an inapprpriate time in rder t be deemed 'newswrthy 2 While this relatinship t sme extent defines the media/scial mvement interactin frm the utset, it can have many cnsequences Fr example, having chsen t assemble "inapprpriately" s as t disrupt "business as usual," a mvement may find itself being discredited in the media n the basis f its tactics, rather than n its issue psitin The final general pattern that will discuss is that f the rle requirements f reprters wh are assigned scial mvement cverage Understanding the crss-currents the reprter faces may help us understand the relatinship f the media t mvement leaders, fr bth;newsmen and leaders are caught between several cmpeting rle demands First, newsmen have been trained t supprt the cncept f "bjective reprting," and t believe that by living up t that cncept they are wrking fr civic betterment Yet, in additin, they require f themselves the discvery f a just-breaking stry r the investigatin f a new angle n the latest wire service reprt They als expect reliable and accurate infrmatin Lipsky (1968) has ut lined sme f the ptential cnflicts amng these gals:

40 33 Reprters demand newswrthiness f their subjects in the shrt run, but als require reliability and verifiability in the lnger run Factual accuracy may dampen newswrthiness Sensatinalism may be incnsistent with reliable, verifiable narratin f events The leader, als, is caught between the demands f diverse elements As much unity as pssible must be maintained amng members f the mvement Yet cntrversial steps may need t be taken t seek new members While the leader must nt be "abve" thers in the mvement in an alienating sense, s/he must als be able t stand independently, and be a representative fr the grup Demands must be juggled frm external grups with whm the leader may be negtiating, internal mvement demands, press demands ndeed it seems that neither the reprter r the leader can cmpletely trust any allies--inc1uding each ther Case Study- The Civil Rights'Mvement As a basic case study arund which t frmulate a mdel f media/mvement interactin, civil rights mvement f the 1960's have chsen the There are several reasns fr this chice First, upn surveying ther mvements f ur recent histry, wuld cnclude that this was the first large American scial mvement where strate gies were clearly planned fr electrnic media publicity, and where the mvement leader (Dr Martin Luther King, Jr) did at sme pints in his writings indicate the meaning f publicity fr the mvement n additin, the effects f

41 34 the media cverage n the curse f the mvement were highly frmative and are clear t see wuld therize that many f the stages f the civil rights mvement were directly related t the impact f the media n the phase which came befre have als chsen this mvement fr the reasn that find it t be in many ways the frmative mvement fr this field f study That is t say, many f the mvements which fllwed lked carefully at the experiences f blacks in their mvement fr liberatin, and learned lessns, made changes, and made new mistakes Thus, after the case study, intend t trace the way in which ther grups have learned frm the experience f the civil rights mvement, and have develped a mre sphisticated apprach t the media Finally, because f the impact f the civil rights mvement n ur sciety at large, there is much mre systematic data n it than n many ther mvements, and this has helped in detailing mre precisely hw the media and mvement decisins were related Case Study As the mvement fr justice fr black Americans mved frm the arena f legal actin int nnvilent direct actin, there were new developments in idelgy and strategy Thse within the mvement began t speak f finding ways t frce white cmmunity leaders t bring their racism int the pen; t mve ut f the slw and

42 35 dispassinate legal realm One f the majr gals was t bring white racism int the pen and expse its depth and cruelty s that n ne culd mistake it Withut actually stating it, blacks were beginning t evalute the rle f publicity (ie, press cverage) fr their mvement, and planning strategy which wuld use that publicity mst effectively Martin Luther King, Jr steps in a nnvilent campaign: has utlined the majr negtiatin, self-purificatin, and direct actin While this lng prcess is clsely related t the philsphy f nnvilence itself, it has several spin-ff results fr the media First, it gives plenty f advance ntice (thrugh the stages f negtiatin and self-purificatin) s that crews may be n the scene when the direct actin des ccur n additin, the added expsure f the negtiatin and selfepurificatin stages with the arrival f the media can be a psitive influence fr the mvement Secnd, it makes a lnger stry, weeks since results are unknwn fr several days, r even This is the type f stry the media mst prefer, since it can run fr a relatively lng time yet always have a new angle (the latest negtiatin reprt, a persn ality r human interest stry, plenty f time fr interviews with mvement and cmmunity leaders, the man n the street, etc) Finally, the majr issues will be utlined, psitins and persnalities hardened, and cmmunity sentiment arused in the early stages f the prcess, which

43 36 gives gd imagery fr the media t market The "creative tensin" that King sught t build practically guaranteed any ambitius reprter n the scene a gd and unique stry f the prcess f wrking tward a nnvilent campaign had psitive results fr the media, it was nthing cmpared with the actual direct actin part f the campaign Fr the cnfrntatin tactics the scial mvement chse rested squarely n media supprt fr their effectiveness While there was very little specific reference t "the media," the rle f publicity is clearly understd White racists culd easily hide behind the legal system and its frmalities; the intent was t shw the wrld their true nature by frcing them t a cnfrntatin in public The rest f the wrld was t be shwn a side f Suthern white America that frmerly nly blacks had knwn The brutality with which fficials wuld have quelled the black individual became imptent when it culd nt be pursued with stealth and remain unbserved t was caught--as a fugitive frm a penitentiary is ften caught--in gigantic circling sptlights t was a luminus glare revealing the naked truth t the whle wrld While nnvi1ent spkesmen may nt have defined exactly hw they expected this message t be carried t the rest f the wrld, it was clear that their strategies were partly directed at the media A direct actin campaign has in it all the mst cmpelling qualities fr the press: clr, glamur, danger, strng emtinal invlvements, persnalities, and a cause based n the American values f demcracy

44 37 Current analysts assessing the actins f the early 1960's are much mre explicit than thse directly invlved in the mvement in pinting t the rle f the media in publicizing the injustice, carrying the desired images and definitins t the public, and indeed bringing wrld pressure t bear upn Americans t live up t their wn creed in granting equality and freedm t blacks Jeanette Hpkins (1968) explains the persnal impact f viewing the cverage f this mvement: Where direct experience is absent, the press may prvide indirect, vicarius encunter The viewer was, in a sense, prjected nt the bridge at Selma r nt the streets f Birmingham His respnse was ften immediate and smetimes galvanizing, fusing intellect and emtin in understanding f the mgltiple dimensins f the experience f racism2 Daniel Bell (1973), emphasizing hw mdern cmmunicatins frce us t deal immediately with scial issues, als mentins the events at Selma: There is little questin that the presence f the televisin cameras in Selma, Alabama arused an immediate natinal respnse which was reflected in the presence f thusands f persns wh pured int Selma the fllwing week Withut televisin, it is likely that the shck effect, even if transmitted thrugh news phts and newsreels, wuld have been dissipated (and that befre the rise f the mass media this incident wuld have never had a natinal impact) Within a relatively shrt time, hwever, the civil rights mvement grew mre cmplex Up t this pint, bth the media and the mvement had their needs met almst symbitically As the mvement diversified, hwever, this dynamic became increasingly unclear: fr telling the wrld

45

46 38 abut the frces f gd and evil in cnfrntatin in Suthern USA n lnger tld the whle stry First, the public began t grw impatient with images f cnfrntatin and mass demnstratins n their televisin screens every night Sn the cncept f white backlash emerged t describe the situatin The mvement became caught in a dilemma which wuld als affect thse mvements t fllw: When a particular type f demnstratin is new and exciting, the press will be n hand Hwever, since we have cme t demand newness and excite ment in ur newscasts, n ne tactic will lng cmmand media attentin When the mvement becmes everyday, the press must lk elsewhere fr its news Abut the same time that the media became restless with direct actin, the mvement began t reflect n its strategies Many wh were invlved in King's campaigns began t ask themselves whether there might nt be merit in the cncept f self-defense, and whether rganizing within the black cmmunity might nt be a better apprach than waiting until sufficient pressure cnvinced whites t have a change f heart Thus, at the same time that the mvement faced a lessening f public attentin n its direct actins, it was facing internal divisins which the press was quick t discver Hwever, the media seemed incapable f dealing with cmplicated issues in depth t culd air nly flashes f the debate t the public: an image f a speaker

47 39 urging mre militant actin ppsed t a Speaker urging dedicatin t nnvilence Since the media were nt equipped t fully explre these issues fr the public, there was much ignrance abut the actual psitin f the mvement at any time Secnd, in the midst f this time f directinal indecisin fr the mvement, the media was nt withut its influence By the very fact that cameramen were lking fr new events t film, and giving less attentin t styles f the recent past, the mvement was in effect encuraged t mve t a mre dramatic psitin T retain the nnvilent stand wuld be t risk lsing bth a large part f its internal supprt and its media supprt Emergence f a mre militant grup wuld bth satisfy internal elements clammring fr faster scial change, and als retain media fascinatin Thrughut the decisin making prcess, the media (due t its wn need fr news) disprprtinately cvered these yunger, mre radical elements, which in effect frced a decisin befre it was made The relatinship between a mvement and the media is never statinary, and its fluid nature can cause many cmplicatins fr the mvement n this case, the civil rights mvement turned increasingly militant, fllwing the lead f certain f its wn members, as well as playing int the needs f the press Sn, hwever, the rle f the press (which had frmerly been seen as at least smewhat helpful) was t change: as the media captured

48 40 the flavr f the "radicals" and presented their image t sciety, the mvement was less pleased with the results: The earlier gratificatin with televisin's functin as revealer f vilent Suthern Bigtry in the early 1960's gave way t dismay amng "mderates" as televisin cameras and micrphnes picked up self-incriminating statements frm Negr "radicals" during summer unrest The scene is n lnger ne f simple black gd versus simple white evil Negr vilence and hatred have intrduced mral cmplexity int the scene, and televisin cverage is nw perceived by Negres as a ptential danger and even, t sme degree as an evil 27 Having thus utlined in sme detail the relatinship f the media t the nnvilent mvement, and in smewhat less detail the increasing cmplexity f the relatinship as the mvement grew prgressively mre militant, wuld like t cnclude this case study with an examinatin f the rle f the media in the urban rits f 1966 and 1967 First, the news reprts f the rits were heavily biased with a law enfrcement pint f view This was s fr several reasns Plice and ther fficial surces had the mst reliable infrmatin at the time, and were within easy reach Als, shuld a reprter venture int the rit area t bserve fr himself, he mst ften did s n the heels f the plice, upn whm he relied fr a degree f prtectin This plice/reprter relatinship n the scene limited what the media reprted, fr reprters ften were seeing thrugh plice eyes Anther factr which may have entered int the pint f View expressed in news reprts f the rits is that f access t surces Given that nce the nnvilent stage was past mst

49 41 demnstratrs were black, and reprters white, ne might questin whether reprters had knwledge f r access t thse cmmunity peple wh mst accurately culd describe the events All these factrs united t practically guarantee that the viewing public wuld never really understand what the rits meant fr the black peple invlved Secnd, during the first rits, the press were thrust int a rle withut ever having reflected upn their prfessinal respnsibilities in such a situatin Perhaps reprters relied n plice because the stry needed immediate cverage, yet n example had ever been set as t hw t get it Within a very shrt time, hwever, individual jurnalists and prfessinal cnventins thrughut the cuntry were debating the respnsibility f the reprter in urban disrders Were cameramen guilty f increasing the vilence by their presence? Did this mean that they shuld nt cver the news? Ought there t be a prfessinal psitin n the issue f news blackuts which might be extended ver the days f a rit? These and ther questins which had been in the minds f bservers fr sme time finally began t be asked within the ranks f jurnalists Frm this pint n, the press increased in sphisticatin, in understanding their influence n events, hw they have been used by varius grups fr publicity, and als hw their wn needs have played int this dynamic Hwever, whether the media are yet aware f hw they have

50 42 manipulated scial mvements t meet their needs is still uncertain n summary, wuld pstulate that the relatinship f the media and the black mvement has undergne cnsiderable change ver time, and that this relatinship has been reflected upn by ther scial mvements which fllwed Perspectives have shifted frm reliance n the press t cmmunicate a clear and simple message t the public, and frm a relatinship where mutual needs were being met As militancy was n the rise (in part encuraged by the media) the press fund new ways t meet its need fr newness and excitement, and mvements have been wrking t redefine their relatinships with the media Culminating in the rits, the relatinship f the media and the mvement had mved full circle: the media had becme the allies f the law enfrcers Applicatins As ther scial mvements rse during the 1960's, sme seemed t make a cnscius effrt t build n the experience f the black mvement in planning their actins Hw, then, did successive scial mvements refine this awareness f the rle f the media? What new mistakes were made; what new dynamics discvered? The first strategy which was learned very well by the anti war activists in the late 1960's was the success f direct actin demnstratins in visualizing grievances

51 43 The tactics (rallies, marches, building sit-ins, etc) were reminiscent f the early civil rights mvement, and indeed met with sme success The gd/evil dichtmy was als invlved as the natin's mrally pure yuth tk a mral stand fr the value f human life The strategy f being in inapprpriate places at inapprpriate times did insure a great deal f media attentin, and did bring the questin f the mrality f the Vietnam War t the natin thrugh its televisin screens Prtesters learned, as Lipsky therizes, that the success f prtest activity may well be directly prprtinal t the amunt f wider! based publicity it receives28 Hwever, this skill at capturing publicity invlved anther factr which anti-war activists ften verlked: that the media will tire f tactics they have seen befre, and will give mre publicity t smething new Saul Alinsky explains: "Once a specific tactic is used, it ceases t be utside the experience f the enemy Befre lng he devises cuntermeasures that vid the previus effective tactic" 29 Thus white yuth fund themselves struggling t think up new ways t visualize their prtest in rder t maintain media attentin n the curse f the mvement, everything frm planting pine trees at defense plants t spilling bld n draft recrds was undertaken ~all effrts t cmpress a mral lessn int a televised visual message n trying t accmdate media demands fr new events, mvements ran certain risks By patterning ne's

52 44 mvement after the needs f the press rather than the imperatives f ne's wn idelgy, ne risks lsing cntrl f the mvement t the media This valuable lessn was never really articulated by blacks; hwever, student prtesters fund that at times a mre radical wing f the mvement culd cntrl a tactical decisin because it wuld als attract mre attentin, especially frm the media As a result, the mvement lst sme f its supprt amng the yung, as well as lsing sme f that image f mral purity which had helped t keep the larger sciety tlerant f the demnstratins Viewing this tendency fr a mvement t lse cntrl ver its wn events, Alinsky has cautined: Radicals must be resilient, adaptable t shifting plitical circumstances, and sensitive enugh t the prcess f actin and reactin t avid being trapped by their wn tactics and frced t travel a rad nt f their chsing The secnd majr difference between the yuth mve~ ment (particularly the Yippies) and the black mvement was a bradening f the arena fr dramatic events N lnger did ne annunce a rally and wait fr the press t arrive; much mre was dne t g where the media werepusing public frums t make ne's case PeOple came t Washing tn, DC r Chicag partly because f the plitical impr tance f what was happening there, but als because that was where the media were n Chicag in 1968, Hayden explains that there was a plan t avid plice cnfrntatins n the city streets where the media were nt present

53 45 Rather, the mve fr cnfrntatin was made in frnt f the Hiltn Htel, where the cameras were already filming fr a natinal audience31 n additin, Abbie Hffman's cncept f "media freaking"'was carried t many new frums, mst ntably the curts Here, fr the first time, defendants did nt cmply with the usual curtrm decrum, but instead used every pssible mment t dramatize the dichtmy between "straight" and "freak" ways f life and thught Here the put-n was perfected This tactic f letting "the establishment" set the scene, and using ne's tactics in any frum t create the desired images was clearly a new develpment in the use f the media32 The third new element the new left learned t cpe with was the effect f lessened cverage n the mvement Once large, dramatic actins seemed t be lsing their effectiveness (less press cverage, little visible result in plicy changes, internal cnflicts between activists), many had t reevaluate the meaning f their actins Many left the mvement t d less cnspicuus things with their lives Such press selectivity has an effect beynd simply depriving the public f infrmatin abut what's ging n in the radical wrld f campus plitics t serves t blunt the plitical effect f prtest and gradually thereby t diminish the instances f it--if nbdy's listening, what's the pint?--and it persuades individual grups that they are islated and wrking in a vid, hastening the prcesses f atmizatin amidisintegratin Whether this is a cnscius effrt n the part f the media, as was their playing dwn f ghett rebellins in the late

54 46 Sixties, r whether it is simply the acting ut f their uncnscius rle as scial meliratrs, the effect has been pervasive Sale ges n t describe the effect as that f turning radicals inward Rather than cntinuing massive public actins, varius radicals f the 1960's have cntinued t live ut their philsphies thrugh changes in lifestyle By defining new careers fr themselves cnsistent with the cunterculture, by wrking n lcal prjects and building frm within, these individuals have indeed learned t live radicalism in ways which might prduce mre real change with substantially less dependence n the media The wmen's mvement,grwing in part ut f the experience f wmen in the new left, had the pprtunity t even further refine its relatinship with the media T a large extent, the mvement has been very cautius f the media, bth becuase f its heavily male rientatin and because f the media's pwer t redefine a mvement ut f the hands f the members This is ne reasn why the wmen's mvement has nt emphasized large, public actins, but has wrked n an interpersnal level Nt as much cncerned with bringing an immediate halt t ne specific plicy (as was the antiewar mvement), the wmen's mvement has emphasized small, lcal cnsciusness raising grups Attempting first t help wmen make sme significant changes in their wn lives, the mvement has addressed specific plitical issues secndarily Even while active in the

55 47 plitical realm, wmen have adpted a much mre lw key style (as with the Equal Rights Amendment), which keeps them frm manipulatin by the media n the meantime, the wmen's mvement has als wrked t articulate a media thery and t try t cntrl that relatinship carefully t may be telling that the wmen's mvement is simultaneusly prbably the mst advanced in its understanding f media dynamics, yet the mst cautius in its use This effrt has had its drawbacks as well as its strengths While it has allwed the mvement t stay lw-key, and prbably last lnger than if it had becme a media flash, the press has fund new, ften unanticipated ways t relate the mvement First, the media has selected cverage t reinfrce the traditinal female steretypes--feather-brained, childish, nt t be taken seriusly This has been dne primarily thrugh the selectin f spkespeple, and s will be dealt with later in a discussin f leadership Hwever, it als applies t thse larger-scale events wmen have staged: the press respnse t bra-burning, fr example, was highly steretyped n additin, the media have_wrked harder with this mvement than thers t create spkespeple This has been necessary because the mvement has devted s much effrt t remaining leaderless, and therefre t cnsciusly denying celebrities fr media cnsumptin Als, because f the small-grup style f the mvement, fewer figures emerge as clrful, vibrant sympathizers whm the media

56 48 push int public psitin The interchange between the media and the wmen's mvement n the issue f leaderless ness is far frm ver What new patterns are discvered bth by the mvement and by the media will be vitally imprtant fr thse mvements t fllw n summary, then, the relatinship between the media and scial mvements grew increasingly cmplex thrughut the 1960's While mvements grew mre cautius and began planning much mre carefully hw t relate t the media, the media als grew in its understanding f hw t meet its needs fr excitement and nvelty under the newly defined cnditins The new left emphasized direct actin as a methd t reach the masses quickly and effect plitical change frm a relatively pwerless base Hwever, they were nt as effective at cntrlling the limits t their media strategy, and at times it vertk them They als learned t g t the media, rather than waiting fr the televisin crews t frequent the scene f a demnstra tin By taking the mvement int new places, and by staging events slely fr the purpse f attracting media cverage, the mvement pened a debate abut the nature and validity f the "pseud-event" The cncept f the pseud-event (an event which did nt happen fr its wn sake, but was created t be reprted) was intrduced by Daniel Brstin (1964) As examples f what he cnsiders pseud-events, Brstin cites the press release written in past tense describing an event

57 49 which has nt yet ccurred, r a script circulated befre a press cnference (r party cnventin) Shuld the event nt crrespnd t the prir definitin in detail, the media is in a quandry ver which descriptin merits attentin Which, indeed, was the real event? ndeed, are either real events, since they bth exist sclely t be reprted? This cncept has led the media t becme mre thughtful abut their rle in publicizing demnstratins They are becming sensitive t the fact that they might be being manipulated by staged events fr the purpses f a particular mvement Within six mnths' time, TV Guide, has carried at least tw articles describing the realiza tin f the press that they have been used in particular situatins Bth the AM takever at Wunded Knee (TV_ guide, December lil973)and the Hearst kidnapping (TV Guide, April 20, 1974) represent recent events in which the media have becme increasingly aware f hw they have played int public dramas in ways they might nt have chsen Whether the press adpt sme new defenses t make themselves less susceptible t this kind f jurnalism will indeed be interesting t see While the cncept f the pseud-event may be helpful in distinguishing between events which wuld happen regardless f the press and thse with an element f theatrics (such distinctins, by the way, are surprisingly hard t make), the cnventinal wisdm nw seems t be t

58 50 use the cncept t discredit mvement events which rely n media attentin Such happenings have cme t be cnsidered unreal in sme sense, r cf less newswrthiness than events nt staged with an eye t the media Others, hwever, have been quick t pint ut that the establishment has its pseud events as well -inauguratins, state funerals, plitical trials34 Certainly the fact that these are initiated fr public cnsumptin with bvius;p01itical meanings has nt deterred the media frm being n hand Ben Bagdikian has defended the legitimacy f the pseudevent: This is a useful ntin, but the 'pseud event' is nt entirely an unreasnable manipulatin f mass infrmatin machinery t is an artifact f urban life, where it is impssible t pass infrmatin t all wh need t knw by face tface cntact Frmal systems f cmmunicatin are the nly means we have; these systems are nt entered with the manners r mdes f the New England twn meeting but by smething very like the 'pseud-event 35 The press seem still t be debating what the apprpriate respnse shuld be t the pseud event in the news Whether they shuld decide t grant such events legitimacy r nt, there is anther imprtant and far-reaching ques tin invlved While the pseudeevent may nt be "an unreasnable manipulatin," it may be anther critical step in the directin f cnsumptin plitics f dramas are staged fr us, we are exempted frm invlvement When televisin news brings us the mral issues f the day wrapped and packaged, the citizen-as-spectatr rle is enlarged Therefre, the utcme f the media debate

59 51 n the prper handling f pseud-events may have a large frmative impact n develpments bth f scial mvements and f issues f public participatin in sciety What, then, can be cncluded abut the relatinship f the media and scial mvements? What can a mvement d t cntrl its curse f events, yet still meet its needs fr cnstituency building? Primarily, this must be dne by carefully examining bth the mvement's needs and the needs f the media, and by articulating befrehand hw that relatinship will be defined First, the mvement members must think in depth abut hw tactics are t fit with thery The philsphy f the grup must first be made clear, and each tactical chice shuld be held up t that ideal and checked fr fit Especially, the rle and need fr publicity must be explred Can the mvement survive withut it? Hw much publicity may be necessary? t cmprmise t achieve it? Hw much is the mvement ready s it practical t assume that a mvement can be successful in terms f achieving change withut attracting media attentin? The mvement must define hw much it will allw its strategy t becme radicalized by the press This can nly be dne with a careful analysis f the media requirements in a situatin, and knwing frm the press' pint f view what the relatin ship is This is never static, fr even as mvements learn and grw in their understanding f this relatinship, s des the press As mentined befre, especially since the

60 52 Wunded Knee episde the media have been mre cautius abut their pssible manipulatin by mvements in the future The media may change appraches entirely Secnd, the mvement must thrughly define the type f image it wants t prject While a mvement may cntrl its image smewhat, it seems unlikely that a mvement culd'avid media images cmpletely Given that the media may cnsciusly r therwise create an image, it is imperative t have thught thrugh what image the mvement favrs, and hw t maintain it Hw will an unfavrable image be cmbatted? Hw might the members prtray the image desired? Hw d the chsen philsphy and tactics fit with the intended image? Hw will this image be cmmunicated? Als, it must be cnsidered befrehand that while being n the ffensive in presenting ne's chsen image may lessen the ability f the press t create ne, the media may manipulate the image chsen Hw might the media manipulate this image, and what alternatives might wrk in dealing with that manipulatin?

61 THE MEDA AND MOVEMENT LEADERSHP As with the media/mvement dynamic, there are sme general patterns which characterize the relatinship f individual mvement leaders and the press First, the media seem t prefer certain leadership styles Understanding these preferred styles can help a mvement avid media manipulatin thrugh the ability t secndguess f a mvement has chsen t be leaderless, fr example, it culd attempt t identify which f its members are likely media targets fr "stardm" By wrking clsely with thse individuals a mvement may be able t blunt the effect f the press n additin, knwledge f media-preferred plitical styles and understanding the leadership rle internally (see Lipsky, 1968) can allw the mvement t decide upn and advance its wn leader if it s desires Jeanette Hpkins (1968) has utlined mre specifically what the apprved style fr black leadership cnsisted f: "the press tends t apprve thse leaders whse demeanr, style, language, and expressed md are typical f its wn leadership preferences-- sphisticatin, urbanity, intelligence "36 She is quick t pint ut that this preference has a strng 53

62 54 upper-middle class bias t it, and that leaders wh fall int this style can get by with fairly radical cntent This may help als t explain the apparent cntradictins in Hpkins' statement Abbie Hffman, fr example, is nt strictly speaking in the sphisticated, urbane style Hwever, he is intelligent, articulate, and can utwit the press at any given mment This gives him fascinatin fr the media, and s he is apprved t is a "lwer-class" style which rates disapprval frm the press A secnd general pint is that the relatinship between the media and leaders depends n bth parties: "Fr the reprter, news, nt scial change, is the gal Fr the leader, news is nly a means t the end f change Each needs the ther but neither meets the ther's need"37 While many leaders d nt trust the press, they still must be in cntact purely as a functin f their psitin n additin, they may at times have tips t pass alng t their favrite reprter, and grant interview requests n a discretinary basis At the same time, the press needs the leaks and persnality angles nly a leader can prvide Hwever, the emphasis is nt t serve the needs f the leader (althugh t sme extent this may happen), but rather t get the stry faster than the cmpetitin This need may ver time necessitate jeopardizing whatever persnal trust may have been established between reprter and leader

63 55 This leads t the third general aspect f the media/leader dynamic: the media hld the pwer, nce a leader is recgnized, t discredit that leader t the public, and by implicatin, t discredit the mvement as well Shuld the press need a stry which is nt frth cming, it will find ne Perhaps a divergent spkespersn can be fund t emphasize divisins within the grup Perhaps the press thrugh its attentin can give rise t a new "leader," r dig up an aspect f the leader's persnal life t cast dubt n the respnsibility f the psitin An interesting example f this attempt t discredit by persnal detail can be seen in the wmen's mvement When Kate Millett acknwledged her bisexuality publically, the media attempted t use that t create an image fr the entire mvement n this instance, the mvement's respnse was t defuse the entire situatin by supprting Millett: "We are all bisexual," and wearing lavendar armbands as a symbl By accepting the image pushed by the press, the mvement tk the grund that the media was standing n, leaving them where they started The pint is, when news is slw, there are many ways the media can use a persnality t create a fresh stry The leader is practically pwerless t prevent this frm happening As such, any mvement prjecting a leader must think f creative ways t deal with it, and accept it as a cst t be brne based n the initial chice f leadership style

64 56 The furth general trend is that the "star system" (either self-selecting r thrugh media selectin, having a leader prjected as the super-persn) and hstile feelings within a mvement creates elites Once a leader becmes a star, tw elements begin perating First, cntrl ver the leader is lessened since the leader's main dependency is n the press and ther stars The leader becmes an elite amng his/her wn mvement peple Secnd, internal prblems develp based n jealusy and attempts by wrkers t establish wh is "in with the leader and wh is nt Fr any mvement seeking t main tain a demcratic decisin-making style (r fr ne attempting t be leaderless, but with media-selected stars), the implicatins f having a leader turn "star" can be very serius The final general theme wuld like t enumerate befre ffering sme examples, is that the media, if it is left t chse a leader fr itself, will ften chse smene wh fits with scial steretypes abut particular mvements and their members Fr blacks, fr example, a media-selected leader wuld mst ften be a strng lking male n reprting the wmen's mvement, the media ften chse as a Spkespersn smene quite attractive, but nt t threatening A gay liberatin spkespersn wuld either be a large and frceful female, r an effeminate male Fr a mvement which is seeking t break dwn these

65 57 steretypes, the media use f images can pse difficult tactical problems Case Study Once again, t establish sme basis fr discussin, will present a brief case study f hw, at a few pints in time, the media have interacted with varius black leaders Frm there, will trace the understanding gained and changes made by ther mvement leaders in their peculiar Situatins Martin Luther King may well have had the press in part t thank fr his rapid rise frm small lcal begin nings t a psitin f natinal leadership Virtually unknwn befre the Mntgmery, Alabama bus byctt, King became a respected natinal celebrity virtually vernight His style was much as Hpkins has suggested: articulate, able t cuch fairly radical demands fr change (at least fr that time) in reassuring terms He was a pwerful persnality wh culd inspire crwds and prvide excellent news and clr fr newsmen as well Fr quite sme time, King seemed t remain free f many f the pitfalls f leadership utlined abve n the early days f the mvement, there were n ther spkes peple t divide the cnstituents There was little r nthing in King's persnalllife t be discredited, althugh peple did debate whether he was really as nnvilent as he prfessed, and sme questined King's (and the mvement's)

66 58 lng-term respnsibility fr thse arrested Hwever, with the passage f time, sme f this began t change The changes that began t ccur fr King and the civil rights mvement can be attributed t tw surces which are very difficult t separate: the internal wrkings f the mvement, and the media As has been discussed befre, the media has limited need fr any ne particular style, and begins t lk fr nvelty The media definitely tired f the King style f cnfrntatin ver time, and began t lk fr ther spkespeple t give expsure t Simultaneusly, segments within the mvement began t questin the effectiveness f King's nnvilence Suddenly, there were many mre black spkesmen given cverage, and pushed t natinal prminence As Martin Luther King began t be upstaged by yunger black men ready t make mre radical statements t the press, and as blacks began t cncentrate n rganizing arund lcal issues, the mvement experienced yet anther side f the press: leadership creatin Mst lcal issues did nt invlve a natinal figure r bradbased issues, and the media were in a quandary abut hw t cver mvement events Fr natinal netwrks, the prblem was even larger, fr it was difficult t cme int a cmmunity and quickly get a feeling fr the imprtant issues and individuals This resulted in a situatin in which almst anyne wh was willing t speak r make a prpsal had a chance f being labeled as a mvement leader T a

67 59 large extent, this was based n the failure f newsmen t knw enugh abut the lcal mvement Hwever, the end result--anyne willing t make a mre radical statement than was aired the day befre, made the news--has been widely criticized First, it created a false impressin f the prblem-~usually exaggerated, and much brader than the riginal issue Secnd, it made cnflict reslutin even mre difficult, fr publicized pinins are skewed t the radical, and the cnfusin f wh i _a mvement leader made negtiatin even mre difficult Ted Pstn asserts: the editrs and publishers really dn't knw r wish t knw that part f their larger cmmunity There is an increasing and dangerus tendency fr Nrthern papers t create their wn versins f Negr leaders in the Harlems f this cuntry Hw d they d this? Simply by giving frnt-page cverage t and designating as a 'leader' any nnwhite citizen wh makes prepsterus statements abut race relatins3 The secnd result f the rise f many black spkes peple was the phenmenn whereby any well-knwn black persn (be s/he entertainer, athlete, plitician, etc) was expected t be a "leader in the sense f articulating gals and phils0phy fr the mvement itself Talk Shws cmpete fr interviews with the intentin f presenting a "Negr leader"39 Nt surprisingly, it is the lcal black press which has avided these pitfalls, and been able t distinguish true cmmunity mvement leaders frm the fabricated nes This has been an imprtant lessn fr ther prtesting grups: by establishing its wn press, a grup has at

68 60 least an internal rgan which is reliable and can perhaps clue in the "straight press" as t the real cmmunity dynamics it may be ut f tuch with Prbably the mst ntable example f this is Liberatin News Service, a wire service started t crdinate reprts frm diverse under grund surces Bth the new left and the traditinal press are subscribers t this surce f cunterculture news Applicatins Based n this brief utline f the relatinship f press t persnality as bserved in the black mvement, where have ther mvements gne with the leadership prblem Hw have thse designated as leaders cme t under stand their psitin? Tm Hayden has summarized well the tendency f leaders t fall int the "star system"; Hayden takes seriusly the implicatins f the cult f persnality which can easily engulf mvement celebrities He pints ut that "deally leadership is suppsed t be shared, r even t be 'nnleadership, but here it is embarrassingly self«centered, deliberately and cnsciusly marketed" 40 This "marketing f persnality" has been used by mvements (especially the Yippies) fr their wn benefit, hwever, the tendency is fr the theater f persnality t wrk against the mvement: The first step in this pwer syndrme is t becme a 'persnality' Yu begin t mnplize

69 61 cntacts and cntracts Yu begin making $1000 per Speech With few real friends and n real rganizatin, yu becme dependent n the mass media and travel in rbit nly with similar 'stars'41 Once this ccurs, the mvement has n sanctins t maintain that leader as their representative (if indeed s/he ever was), and n cntrl ver the public image created by that persn in the name f the mvement as a whle Althugh many mvements have felt the impact f this marketing f persnality, r star system, perhaps the draft resistence mvement and the wmen's mvement have, at least retrspectively, cme t grips with its implicatins mre than thers Fred Rsen (1971) has written: There was a tendency t stress the exemplary lives we were leading which led necessarily t the cultivatin f the mst exemplary persnalities we set up an infrmal hierarchy in ur wn rganizatin which we called leadership, but which was really much mre f a star system The peple wh led the mst exemplary lives, r wh lked like they led the mst exemplary lives, were ur stars guess we figured we culd recruit mre resisters and be mre impressive t the public with ur stars up frnt T be sure, there were peple wh were mre frceful mre creative and sme wh were better lking t Fr the mst part these qualities merely enabled different people t make different cntributins, but after a while we began t believe ur press instead f urselves42 Several wmen have written f the devastating effects f a star system within the feminist mvement J Freeman (1973) has utlined thrughly the dynamic f the star system: hw it is created either thrugh the chice f the mvement r by default thrugh the press She has als

70 62 bserved the implicatins fr the internal mvement: the creatin f an elite in a suppsedly demcratic mvement; the way in which the mvement lses cntrl ver such leaders as they becme indebted t the press; and the prblems invlved in the persnal relatinships f "star" and "regular members" The ultimate effect f this eagerness n the part f sme early mvements and indeed f certain persnalities (Abbie Hffman, fr example) t market leader persnalities, has been t prmpt a majr debate within the mvement Hw can peple arguing seriusly fr an anti-capitalistic alternative engage s penly in prfit riented activity? S the mvement c pted by nurturing dependence n a capitalist institutin? Especially cnsidering the tendency fr leaders t fall int the individualistic "star" syn drme, des the capitalist nature f the media shape the prblems f leadership faced by mvements? n many cases, these idelgical questins have prmpted mvements t reaffirm the slw-but-sure grass rts apprachand t carefully guard themselves frm excess media attentin This, in turn, leads back t the questins being asked by mvement activists abut whether there is a lss f effectiveness in the lss f publicity Thus, the tactical prblems in dealing with the media are becming clearer; the majr philsphical cntradictins are yet t be reslved

71 63 What, then, might a newly rganizing scial mvement d t circumvent the prblems f leadership encuntered by previus mvements? First, a mvement might cnsider bth leadership systems and leadership styles, again related t philosophy, image, tactics Will the grup explre leaderless rganizatin? Hw will infrmal leaders be kept frm dminating and in effect assuming leadership psitins? Hw will needs be met which therwise a leader wuld fill? What abut leadership grups which rtate respnsibilities?- Leaders, shuld there be frmal nes, may be elected, r be chsen n a cnsensus mdel T a large extent, the leadership system depends n the gals and cmmitments f the members Likewise, questins f leadership style are clsely related t chices f leadership systems s the leader (shuld there be ne) t serve mainly internal functins fr the mvement? Or is s/he t als serve as the public spkespersn? the leader? What cntrls will the mvement retain ver Hw will leadership prblems be dealt with? s the mvement biased in favr f upper class scial skills in determining leadership styles? s this a delib erate chice? The final questin regarding leadership which wuld urge needs t be addressed early in the mvement's life is: t what extent is the psitin f leadership t be viewed as a learning psitin fr the persn invlved? T answer that questin may well prvide

72 64 a framewrk fr hw ther leadership decisins will be made Finally, it is within the realm f the mvement's decisin t lay sme grund rules fr hw t deal with the press Althugh this is a new realizatin, many techniques have been tried, and sme imaginatin must be used Will interviews be granted nly t press members wh identify with the grup (eg, many wmen's grups will nt allw a male reprter t their meetings)? Will meetings be pen t press, r clsed entirely? Will leadership and image manipulatin best be cntrlled by allwing interviews nly with tw r mre members present? Black natinalists have begun t argue fr equal time r independent prgramming rights frm the netwrks as a way t guarantee a fair share f time, and fair cverage as well42

73 CONCLUSON AND RESEARCH QUESTONS n cnclusin, the best key have fund t understanding the cmplex dynamics f the relatinship f the media t mvements and their leaders is simply t examine the interplay f the needs f the varius grups invlved f the relatinships change ver time, it is likely that the needs f at least ne party invlved have changed as well Overall, the needs f the media are fr nvelty, visual r verbal stimulatin, reliability f surces and imagable items Which f these needs takes precedence in a particular situatin may change; hwever, in the lng run mst f them must be fulfilled The needs f the scial mvements are basically fr membership and a degree f prgress tward a gal (usually f sme type f scial change) Therefre, mvements can have a diversity f appraches t leadership as well as t the media The needs f a leader vary greatly depending n his/her chsen style and the gals f the mvement invlved Basically, the leader needs t maintain a cnstituency while leading them tward their gal This usually invlves a degree f publicity The dilemma fr the leader is t achieve a 65

74 66 balance between the needs f the mvement and the media withut becming entirely engulfed in ne r the ther Therefre, prbably the mst imprtant (and als the mst variable) element in this framewrk is hw the mvement chses t wrk tward its gals, and frm that, hw the leadership rle is defined Once these are determined (either by explicit planning r by evlutin thrugh actin), the mvement becmes mre public The media then begin t relate t the scial mvement n the basis f their wn needs, and the interactin is underway Secnd, wuld emphasize that this relatinship is never static, and indeed that any attempt t capture it at a particular pint in time may nt be accurate in anther situatin A change in any ne f the three majr elements (media, scial mvement, mvement leader) practically always affects the thers in sme way Als, each f the elements seems t be at a pint f reevaluating at the present The media, especially, are beginning t questin hw they have been invlved in scial mve ments, feeling that they have been manipulated by clever "media guerrillas" Mvements are explring alternative mdels f leadership, and alternative methds f relating t the press Leaders are re-examining their rle within SOCial mvements, particularly their susceptability t the aspects f persnality marketing Frm all f these examinatins will cme sme changes in apprach Hw the decisins f each element affect the thers will indeed be interesting research fr the future

75 67 Near the beginning f this paper, mentined that research within the field f jurnalism had tended t fcus n ne segment f the prfessin at a time (advertisers, publishers, editrs, reprters) t seems imperative that research be undertaken which will achieve a mre whlistic view f the field f jurnalism varius prfessinals relate t each ther? Hw d the Hw are decisins cmmunicated? What are the alternative mdels fr decisin-making fllwed by varius publishers, and what invlvement is encuraged by staff? Are there any general patterns which emerge? Specifically, what is the pwer f the advertiser ver the whle prcess? f we culd better understand the ways in which media decisin making and internal cmmunicatin ccurred, much f the image f the "mnlithic giant" culd be replaced by a mre realistic and useful apprach Secnd, a great deal f participant bservatin, as well as a variety f ther research techniques, need t be undertaken t mre carefully examine the wrkings f cntemprary scial mvements There is a lack f any systematic data in this area, nt fr the lack f articu late peple invlved, but fr the lack f putting experiences int print We currently have n surces n hw decisins were made within the varius mvements cnsidered, r hw leaders and media were viewed frm within Were alternatives carefully cnsidered? Were peple aware f the dangers f the "star system" and f media manipulatin?

76 68 When did this cme abut? Sme f this material exists in scattered surces in very piecemeal frm The gathering and systematizing f these views wuld be a great service t the field Finally, the literature needs t be develped in the area f leadership t include mre than business and civic-related cncepts Leadership in terms f scial mvements receives nly brief treatment by scial mvement theriticians, and little f any treatment by leadership specialists The leaders if the mvements themselves have nt yet written systematically abut their experiences Bth bigraphies and ther studies and analyses are in rder here n clsing, wuld like t reiterate that cnsumptin (capitalism) is at the rt f the media/mvement/ leader dynamic The differing gals and definitins f the media and scial mvements vis a vis their relatinship t cnsumptin are at the heart f these cnflicts f scial mvements are indeed ever successful at mving citizens frm their passive, cnsumer rle, the media will necessarily underg tremendus changes Fr this reasn, as well as thse stated early in this paper, am cn vinced f the imprtance f this area f study bth t the prfessin and t sciety While my research has been a challenging and rewarding prcess, it represents nly a start n what hpe will be a grwing area f study

77 FOOTNOTES ltm Hayden, Trial (New Yrk: Hlt, Rinehart & Winstn, 1970), p 109 2Gerald Frd, March 23, 1974, p 5 "Televisin and Me," TV Guide 3bid, p 6 4rving E Lang, Televisin News (New Yrk: Hastings Huse, Publishers, 1968), pp Hayden, p 48 6Rbert E Kintner, Bradcasting & the News (New Yrk: Harper & Rw, 1965), p 13 7Alexander Klein, ed, DissenthPwer, and Cnfrntatin (Chicag: McGraw Hill Bk Cmpany, 1971), p 146 8Fieldntes: nterview with Charles Walden, editrial writer fr the Detrit Free Press, February 28, Warren Breed, "Scial Cntrl in the Newsrm--A Functinal Analysis," Scial Frces, 33 (May 1955), "The Devil in Duval Cunty," Time, Vl 96, August 17, 1970, p 42+ llbid 12American Sciety f Newspaper Editrs, Prblems f Jurnalism (Washingtn, DC, 1973) 13Ben Bagdikian, "News as Byprduct," Clumbia Jurnalism Review, 6 (Spring, 1967), 7 14 bid, p 7 15Rbert Yakum, "The Ddd Case: Thse Wh Blinked," Clumbia Jurnalism Review, 6 (Spring 1967), 20 69

78 70 16American Sciety f Newspaper Editrs, p Daniel Brstin, The mage: A Guide t Pseud- Events in America (New Yrk: Harper & Rw, C010phne Bks, 1964), p 9 18Harvey Mltch, Marilyn Fster, "Accidents, Scandals, and Rutines: Resurces fr nsurgent Methdlgy," nsurgent Scilgist, (Summer 1973), 4 19Jeanette Hpkins, Racial Justice and the Press (New Yrk: Metrplitan Applied Research Center, 1968), p 47 20Jhn O'Cnnr, "Narrw Fcus f TV News, New Yrk Times, April 5, J Freeman, "The Tyranny f Structurelessness," Berkeley Jurnal f Scilgy, XV ( ) 22Mltch, Fster, p 4 23Michael Lipsky, "Prtest as a Plitical Resurce," American Plitical Science Review, 69 (July 1963), Martin Luther King, Jr, Why We Can't Wait (New Yrk: Signet Bks, 1964), p 39 25Hpkins, pp Daniel Bell, The Cming f Pgst-ndustrial Sciety (New Yrk: Basic Bks, 1973), P Hpkins, pp Lipsky, p Saul Alinsky, Rules fr Radicals Randm Huse, 1972), p bid, pp 6-7 (New Yrk: 31Hayden, p bid, pp 69-70; 33Kirkpatrick Sale, "The New Left: What Left," Win, June 28, 1973, p 9 34Murray Edelman, Plitics as Symblic Actin (Chicag: Markham Publishing Cmpany, 1971), p 37 35Warren K Agee, ed, Mass Media in a Free Sciety (University Press f Kansas, 19693, p 20

79 71 36Hpkins, pp bid, p 13 38Paul Fisher, Ralph Lwenstein, ed, Race and the News Media (New Yrk: Frederich A Praeger Publishers, 1967), p bid, pp Hayden, p 110 4lbid, p Fred Rsen, reviewer, "The Wise Minrity -An Argument fr Draft Resistance and Civil Disbedience," Win, August 1971, p 27

80 BBLOGRAPHY

81 BBLOGRAPHY Agee, Warren K Mass Media in a Free Sciepy University Press f Kansas, 1969 Alinsky, Saul Rples fr Radicals New Yrk: Randm Huse, 1972 American Sciety f Newspaper Editrs Prblems f Jurnalism Washingtn, DC, 1973 Arnsn, James Packgging the News New Yrk: nter natinal Publishers, 1971 Ash, Rbert Scial Mvemengs in America Chicag: Markham PubliShing Cmpany, 1972 Ashman, Charles The Peple vs Angela Davis New Yrk: Pinnacle Bks, 1972 Becker, Hward 8, ed Campus Pwer Struggle, New Yrk: Transactin, nc, 1970 Bell, Daniel The Cming f Pstsndustrial SCiety New Yrk: Basic Bks, 1973 Brstin, Daniel The mgge: A Guide t Pseud-Events in America New Yrk: Harper & Rw, 1964 Camern, William Bruce Mdern Scial MOVements New Yrk: Randm Huse, 1966 Cirin, Rbert Dn't Blame the Pe0ple New Yrk: Randm Huse, 1971 Cirin, Rbert Pwer t Persuade- Mass Media and the News New Yrk: Bantam Pafhfinder Editins, 1974 Daly, Charles V, ed Media and the Cities Chicag: University f Chicag Press, 1968 Edelman, Murray The Symblic Uses f Plitics Urbana: University f llinis Press, 1964 Edelman, Murray Plitics as Symblic_Actin Chicag: Markham Publishing Cmpany,

82 73 Fisher, Paul and Lwenstein, Ralph, eds Race and the News Media New Yrk: Frederick A Praeger PubliShers, 1 67O Hayden, Tm Trial New Yrk: Hlt, Rinehart & Winstn, 1970 Heberle, Rudlph Scial Mvements New Yrk: Appletn- Century-Crfts, nc, 1951 Hpkins, Jeanette Racial Justice and the Press New Yrk: Metrplitan Applied Research Center, nc, 1971 King, Wendell C Scial Mvements in the United States New Yrk: Randm Huse, 1956 Klapp, Orin Symblic Leaders-~Public Dramas and Public Men Chicag: Aldine Publishing Cmpany, 1964 Klein, Alexander, ed Dissent, Pwer, and Cnfrntatin New Yrk: McGraw Hill Bk Cmpany, 1971 Lang, rving E Televisin News New Yrk: Hastings Huse Publishers, 1968 MacDnald, Dwight The Tales f Hffman New Yrk: Bantam Bks, 1970 Metefsky, Gerge "Right On, Culture Freaks!" Hip Culture New Yrk: Times Change Press, 1970 Mung, Raymnd Famus Lng Agpr My Life and Hard Times with Liberatin News Service Bstn: Beacn Press, 1970 The O M Cllective The Organizer's Manual New Yrk: Bantam Bks, nc, 1971 Rivers, William L TheAdversarigs--Plitics and the Press Bstn: Beacn Press, 1970 Rwse, Arthur Slanted News Bstn: Beacn Press, 1957 Schwartz, Barry N, ed Human Cnnectin and the New Media New Jersey: Prentice Hall, nc, 1973 Schwartz, Tny The Re pn ive Chrd New Yrk: Anchr Press/Dubleday, 1973 Smelzer, Neil S Thery f Cllective Behavir Lndn: Rutledge & Kegan Paul, 1962

83 74 Stein, Rbert Media Pwer Bstn: Hughtn Mifflin C, 1972 Thrne, Barrie "Resisting the Draft: An Ethngraphy f the Draft Resistance Mvement" Unpublished PhD dissertatin, Brandeis University, 1971 Walzer, Michael Plitical Actin--A Practical Guide t Mvement Plitics Chicag: Quadrangle Bks, 1971 Wlfe, Tm, ed The New Jurnalism New Yrk: Harper & Rw PubliShers, 1973 Articles Bagdikian, Ben H "News as Byprduct" Clumbia Jurnalism Review 6 (Spring 1967), 5-10 Bittner, Egen "Radicalism and the Organizatin f Radical Mvements" American Scilgical Review 28 (December 1963), ' Bwers, David R "A Reprt n Activity by Publishers in Directing Newsrm Decisins" Jurnalismguarterly 44 (Spring 1967), Breed, Warren "Scial Cntrl in the Newsrm- A Func tinal Analysis" Scial Frces 33 (May 1955), "The Devil in Duval Cunty" Time Vl 96, August 17, 1970, p 42+ DeVries, Tm "Hearst Kidnapping: When Newsmen Lst Sight f the News TV Guide, April 20, 1974, p A-3 Enzenberger, Hans Magnus "Cnstituents f a Thery f the Media" New Left Review, 64 (Nvember 1970), 13 Ferr, Nancy; Reid Hlcmb, Cletta; Salzmanewebb, Marilyn "Setting it Straight" Off ur Backs April 25, 1970 Freeman, J "The Tyranny f Structurelessness" Berkeley Jurnal f Scilgy, XV ( ) Hickey, Neil "Was TV Duped at Wunded Knee?" TV Guide December 1, 1973

84 75 Hffman, Abbie "Media Freaking" TDR The Drama Review 131 (Summer 1969), 49 Lang, Kurt and Lang, Gladys Engel "The Unique Perspective f Televisin and ts Effect: A Pilt Study" American Scilgical Review 18 (February 1953), 3-12 Lipsky, Michael "Prtest as a Plitical Resurce" American Plitical Science Review 62 (December 1968)] "Media and the Mvement" Liberated Guardian May 23, 1970, p 3 Merelman, Richard "The Dramaturgy f Plitics" Scilgicalpguarterly 10 (Spring 1969), Mltch, Harvey; Fster, Marilyn "Accidents, Scandals, and Rutines: Resurces fr nsurgent Methdlgy nsurgent Scilgist, (Summer 1973) O'Cnnr, Jhn "Narrw Fcus n TV News" New Yrk Times April 5, 1973 Rsen, Fred, reviewer "The Wise Minrity- An Argument fr Draft Resistance and Civil Disbedience" Win (August 1971) Sale, Kirkpatrick "The New Left: What Left" Win (June 28, 1973) Tuchman, Gaye "Objectivity as Strategic Ritual: An Examinatin f Newsmen's Ntins f Objectivity" American Jurnal f Scilgy 77 (January 1972), Tuchman, Gaye "Making News by Ding Wrk: Rutinizing the Unexpected" American Jurnal f Scilgy 79 (July 1973), Tuchman, Gaye "The Technlgy f Objectivity: Ding 'Objective' TV News Film" Urban Life and Culture 2, N 1 (April 1973), p 3 Yakum, Rbert "The Ddd Case: Thse Wh Blinked" Clumbia Jurnalism Review 6 (Spring 1967), 13-20

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