THEORY AND PRACTICE OF POST-CONFLICT PEACEBUILDING

Transcription

1 CHAPTER TWO

2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF POST-CONFLICT PEACEBUILDING Pst-cnflict peacebuilding, as nted in the previus chapter is ne f the relatively new dmains where the increasing influence f internatinal nn-gvernmental rganisatins (INGOs) is being witnessed. As a cncept and strategy, peacebuilding has fund psitive resnance nt nly amngst INGOs but als natinal gvernments and reginal and internatinal intergvernmental rganisatins. 1 Essentially a means by which the internatinal cmmunity can cntribute t the reslutin f intrastate cnflict and t the recnstructin f a culture f peace in pst-cnflict situatins (Keating and Knight 2004: xxxi), peacebuilding has emerged as ne f mst expansive and critical aspects f internatinal invlvement in cnflict and pst-cnflict situatins. In fact peacebuilding has becme a catchall cncept encmpassing multiple perspectives and agendas and is ften indiscriminately used t refer t preventive diplmacy, preventive develpment, cnflict preventin, cnflict reslutin and pst-cnflict recnstructin (Tschirgi 2004: 2). Given these diverse and ften cntradictry cnntatins t peacebuilding, the inevitable questins which arise include: What is peacebuilding? Is there a difference between peacemaking and peacebuilding and pst-cnflict peacebuilding? What are the appraches t peacebuilding? What des peacebuilding include? Wh are the actrs invlved in peacebuilding? Hw and why are INGOs invlved in the peacebuilding prcess? Has peacebuilding been successful? These are sme f the questins this chapter will aim t address, while examining and analysing different facets f peacebuilding. PEACEBUILDING: CONCEPT, ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT The term peacebuilding riginated in the field f peace studies almst 35 years ag when in 1975 Jhan Galtung cined the term in his pineering wrk, "Three Appraches t Peace: Peacekeeping, Peacemaking, and Peacebuilding". In this article he stated that, 1 It may be nted that the terms peacebuilding and pst-cnflict peacebuilding have been used interchangeably as they bth imply the same cncept. 67

3 Peace has a structure different frm, perhaps ver and abve, peacekeeping and ad hc peacemaking... The mechanisms that peace is based n shuld be built int the structure and be present as a reservir fr the system itself t draw up... Mre specifically, structures must be fund that remve causes f wars and ffer alternatives t war in situatins where wars might ccur (Galtung1975: 297). These bservatins cnstitute the intellectual antecedents f the cntemprary ntin f peacebuilding i.e. an endeavur aiming t create sustainable peace by addressing the rt causes f vilent cnflict and eliciting indigenus capacities fr peaceful management and reslutin f cnflict. Interestingly even befre the cnceptualisatin f the term peacebuilding, the practice f external cuntries assisting war-tm scieties in recnstructin and pst-war rebuilding existed. Fr example, after the Secnd Wrld War, the United States (U.S.) played a central rle in helping the recnstructin f Eurpe and Japan. The Marshall Plan invlved the U.S. in a lng-term cmmitment in the develpment f Eurpe by bringing the U.S. financial and investment resurces t Eurpe and the pst-war Eurpean cuntries t re-build their ecnmies. In the case f Japan, the U.S. prvided large-scale humanitarian assistance in the earlier phase f recnstructin fllwed by supprt fr plitical refrm and ecnmic recnstructin (Timilsina 2007: 28). Likewise after the end f the Cld War several cuntries including Cambdia, Afghanistan, El Salvadr and Sierra Lene received external assistance fr the purpse f pst-war recnstructin. In fact traditinally, states intervened in the affairs f ther states as part f their freign plicy, i.e. where realplitik permitted, interventin was undisguised and frceful and where realplitik blcked actin, the UN and ther multilateral institutins were paralysed t act cllectively (Tschirgi 2004: 2). Hwever, cnceptual clarity n peacebuilding and its adptin as a distinctive apprach t peace was nt present befre In fact, even thugh Galtung in 1975 illustrated the difference between peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding as three appraches t peace, these three terms have ften been used interchangeably and cnsiderable cnfusin regarding their usage and meaning exists. Fr a better understanding f the cncept f peacebuilding, it is essential t make a cncrete differentiatin between the abve terms. 68

4 Peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding represent three distinct yet interlinked phases in the peace prcess fllwing vilent cnflict. Peacemaking is defined as 'actin t bring hstile parties t agreement, essentially thrugh peaceful means as thse freseen in Chapter VI f the Charter f the UN' (Butrs-Ghali 1992: Para 20). The specific tls f peacemaking as utlined in Article 33 f the UN Charter include negtiatin, enquiry, mediatin, cnciliatin, arbitratin, judicial settlement, resrt t reginal agencies r arrangements, r ther peaceful means f their wn chice. Peacemaking is a strategy usually preceding peacekeeping but als pursued in tandem with peacekeeping, which essentially aims at recnciliatin and encurages the negtiatin and settlement f the plitical cnflict underlying the vilence. Peacekeeping which is essentially a frm f third party interventin aimed at facilitating the peaceful settlement f disputes, is defined as the preventin, cntainment, mderatin and terminatin f hstilities between r within states, thrugh the medium f a peaceful third party interventin, rganised and directed internatinally, using multinatinal frces f sldiers, plice and civilians t restre and maintain peace (Fetherstn 1994: 124). Peacekeeping refers t the deplyment f a UN presence in the field, hithert with the cnsent f all parties cncerned, nrmally invlving UN military and/r plice persnnel and frequently civilians as well (Butrs-Ghali 1992: Para 20). Given these definitins f peacemaking and peacekeeping, there are tw distinct ways t understand peacebuilding. Accrding t the United Natins, peacebuilding cnsists f a wide range f activities assciated with capacity building, recnciliatin, and scietal transfrmatin (Butrs-Ghali 1992). It is a lng-term prcess that ccurs after vilent cnflict has slwed dwn r cme t a halt and thus peacebuilding is the phase f the peace prcess that takes place after peacemaking and peacekeeping. Hwever many nngvernmental rganisatins (NGOs), n the ther hand, understand peacebuilding as an umbrella cncept that encmpasses nt nly lng-term transfrmative effrts, but als peacemaking and peacekeeping. In this view, peacebuilding includes early warning and respnse effrts, vilence preventin, advcacy wrk, civilian and military peacekeeping, 69

5 military interventin, humanitarian assistance, ceasefire agreements, and the establishment f peace znes (Maiese 2003). An interesting manner by which the relatin between peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding can be analysed is by examining the linkages between them at tw levels, namely the macr and micr levels. At the macr level, the linkage between peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding has been limited bth in thery and in practice. Effective crdinatin is difficult when there is n verall structure prviding directin fr activities. The reality is that nt nly have the prcesses nt been linked in any cnsistent r cmprehensive way t each ther, but that they have nt been related in any cncrete sense t an examinatin and analysis f the causes f cnflict and f appraches t relieving thse cause (Fetherstn 1994: 134). In fact peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding at the macr level are described mst ften as separate but interdependent activities. Fr, peacemaking is the area f activity in which diplmats r specially appinted high level UN secretariat fficials act as mediatrs and/r negtiatrs in cnflict situatins. Further in relatin t peacekeeping, peacemaking can wrk in parallel with a peacekeeping missin, prvide a settlement package prir t peacekeeping and then cntinue invlvement thrugh the implementatin phase, r wrk withut reference t peacekeeping. 2 Hwever at the macr-level peacebuilding is nrmally nt linked explicitly t peacekeeping prcesses, althugh there are exceptins. Butrs-Ghali (1992: Para 55) lists sme f the functins carried ut by peacekeepers and peacemakers which cntribute t peacebuilding: Thrugh agreements ending civil strife, these may include disarming the previusly warring parties and the restratin f rder, the custdy and pssible destructin f weapns, repatriating refugees, advisry training supprt fr security persnnel, mnitring electins, advancing effrts t prtect human rights, refrming r strengthening gvernmental institutins and prmting frmal and infrmal prcesses f plitical participatin. 2 The peratin in Cyprus is an example f the tw prcesses wrking in parallel. The peacekeeping missin in Namibia shws hw peacemaking can define the shape f the peacekeeping r implementatin prcess. 70

6 On the ther hand, the link between the prcesses f peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding at the micr level is quite evident. Fr, peacekeepers at this level carry ut activities which apprximate the definitins f peacemaking and peacebuilding. Fr example, peacekeepers d negtiate, mediate, and facilitate, and perfrm several humanitarian and ther peacebuilding functins. The argument accrding t Fetherstn (1994: 137) is that peacekeepers d nt nly engage in micr-level peacemaking and peace building, but that (1) such activity shuld prvide a basic ratinale fr peacekeeping, (2) peacekeepers are uniquely placed t begin prcesses f recnciliatin and recnstructin as well as facilitate cmmunicatin at all levels in the cnflict-tm cmmunities in which they perate, (3) a much mre cnsidered and cntrlled apprach which wuld legitimise these activities is needed, and (4) in rder t carry ut these functins in an effective, cherent and testable manner, peacekeeping needs t be directed frm within a cnceptual framewrk f peaceful third party interventin. Cmmenting upn the linkages between peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding, Dyle and Sambanis (1999: 5) state, Peacebuilding aims high n the spectrum f peace and depends n the prir achievement f a minimum standard f peace. In ther wrds, peacekeeping is essential fr better peacebuilding. Peacekeeping utcmes define the military plitical cntext within which peacemaking and building take place. Thus it can be said that peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding are in fact nt separate activities. They are either mutually supprtive r they are mutually crrsive (Dyle and Sambanis 1999: 4). Fr, n the ne hand, peacemaking negtiatins create the mandate fr pst-cnflict peacebuilding as they define the actins and prvide the strategy that restres peace t a cnflict inflicted regin. And n the ther hand, peacebuilding can cntribute t the peacemaking and peacekeeping prcesses. Cncept f Peacebuilding The term peacebuilding became a part f the fficial discurse in 1992, when the then UN Secretary General Butrs Butrs-Ghali used the term in "An agenda fr peace: preventive diplmacy, peacemaking and peacekeeping". Initially the cncept was linked 71

7 specifically t pst cnflict scieties as Butrs-Ghali, defined peacebuilding in relatin t a c~flict cntinuum that passed thrugh peacemaking and peacekeeping. Peacebuilding was thus assciated with the pst-cnflict phase and defined as "actin t identify and supprt structures which will tend t strengthen and slidify a peace in rder t avid a relapse int cnflict" (Butrs- Ghali 1992: Para 21 ). Interestingly the cncept f peacebuilding has als evlved cnsiderably since Fr, while in the early 1990s, the cncept f peacebuilding became mre expansive primarily due t the grwing awareness f the cmplexity f the pst-cnflict transitins alng with the increasing number f actrs including the UN, gvernmental bdies and NGOs becming invlved in the peacebuilding prcess. Cnsequently Butrs Butrs Ghali's "Supplement t An Agenda fr Peace" (1995) dismissed the ntin f phases and extended the peacebuilding term acrss the cnflict spectrum f pre-cnflict preventin, actins during warfare and pst-cnflict measures. By the end f the 1990s, it became cmmn t view peacebuilding as a means f preventing and mitigating vilent cnflicts within scieties as well as helping them recver frm such cnflicts. Further in 2001, the UN Security Cuncil clarified the expansive ntin f peacebuilding, by stating that peacebuilding nw 'aimed at preventing the utbreak, the recurrence r cntinuatin f armed cnflict'. Thus peacebuilding nw invlved nt nly keeping frmer enemies frm ging back t war, but als addressing the rt causes f cnflict and even fstering develpment and the prmtin f demcracy in cuntries nt affected by cnflict (Hanggi 2005: 11). New pssibilities surfaced fr internatinal peacebuilding actin with the end f the cld war. In the wrds f Tschirgi, The prmise f the new peacebuilding agenda was that the internatinal cmmunity wuld intervene cllectively - as a third party t help reslve vilent cnflicts and civil wars. And that, external actrs wuld actively supprt the prcess f rebuilding in the affected areas withut the shadw f cld war plitics r t suit the narrw natinal interests f individual states. (Tschirgi 2004: 2) 72

8 The rigins f this new cncept can be traced t three inter-related trends in the pst cld war era. Firstly with the ersin f the nnns f nn-interventin alng with the develpment f the cncept f human security, states demnstrated an increased willingness t intervene within scieties t stp civil wars and establish cnditins f peace. Furthennre the intervening states had an interest in the lng tenn success f effrts t tenninate intrastate cnflicts. And finally, peacebuilding generally included liberal plitical and ecnmic strategies that enjyed increasing supprt thrughut the wrld (Sens 2004: 144). Thus cllectively, cnflict preventin, humanitarian interventin and pst-cnflict peacebuilding agendas became a part f the activist internatinal agenda. In additin, the develpment f the peacebuilding nnn was built n the intellectual rigins f peacebuilding fund in the academic wrk n cnflict management and peace research. In fact there are three main schls f thught n the nature and cncept f peacebuilding. The first schl f thught is influenced by Butrs-Ghali's "An agenda fr peace" and views peacebuilding as pst-cnflict scial and plitical recnstructin activities aimed at aviding "a relapse int cnflict". Effrts at sciety wide recnciliatin and state building in scieties emerging frm aimed cnflict are the hallmarks f this apprach (Call and Ck 2003: 235). The secnd schl f thught is based n the research cnducted in the field f cnflict and peace studies. It emphasises n cnflict preventin and reslutin initiatives at levels beynd r belw the state. It essentially cnceptualises scial psychlgical, religins and ther dimensins f cnflict reslutin prcesses, as illustrated by Jhan Galtung. The third schl f thught views peacebuilding in the cntext f peace keeping, peacemaking and cnflict preventin. Accrding t Call and Ck (2003: 235), "These schlars reject the idea that preventin activities in pst cnflict scieties differ systematically frm cnflict preventin & war tenninatin prcesses in any ther sciety". The internatinal apprach t peacebuilding is based n the cncept f "liberal peace" which derives frm a lng traditin f Western liberal thery and practice. The liberal peace thesis views plitical and ecnmic liberalisatin as effective antidtes t vilent 73

9 cnflicts (Paris 2004). Thus, prmtin f human rights, demcracy, electins, cnstitutinalism, rule f law, prperty rights, gd gvernance etc have becme imprtant cmpnents f the internatinal peacebuilding strategy. This liberal internatinalism which is basically is interventinist in nature, prmtes a nrmative agenda while assisting individual cuntries emerging frm war. This feature, accrding t therists including Tschirgi (2004: 5) stands in stark cntrast with the widely declared principle that peacebuilding ultimately requires the establishment f a nn-vilent plitical authrity which can legitimately guide a cuntry's pst-cnflict recnstructin n its wn terms. While the merits f this feature wuld be addressed subsequently, it is imprtant t nte that peacebuilding practice has been based n this framewrk. In an attempt t map the cncept f peacebuilding as it evlved and develped ver the years, Micheal Lund analyses hw the practice f peacebuilding has bradened laterally in terms f the plicy sectrs that are implicated, deepened in terms f engagement with the internal wrkings f scieties, and lengthened in terms f stages f cnflict when it perates. He cncludes by stating that, A unified cncept f deliberate internatinal peacebuilding has emerged that is nt nly multi-lateral but als multi-sectral in terms f what the internatinal cmmunity shuld be ding n the grund, multi-levelled in terms f hw much shuld be dne, and multi-staged, in terms f when the internatinal cmmunity shuld be invlved. (Lund 2003: 13) This multidimensinal cncept f peacebuilding since its rigin in 1992 has cme t exhibit certain characteristics which nt nly define the nature f peacebuilding but have als shaped the manner in which peacebuilding practice has evlved. These characteristics which have been identified by several schlars including Sens (2004), Keating and Knight (2004), Maiese (2003) and Tschirgi (2004) include a) Peacebuilding has five main dimensins, namely plitical, scial, ecnmic, security and legal. b) Security is central t the cncept f peacebuilding and establishing security is cnsidered the pre-requisite fr pst-cnflict peacebuilding. 74

10 c) A cmmitment t lcal capacity building frm the earliest stages is vital fr sustainability f peacebuilding. d) Supprt frm external actrs is critical fr pst-cnflict recnstructin because f the fragility f scieties emerging frm war. Hwever prper mechanisms need t be established t ensure that external and internal actrs wrk within a cherent strategy, establish pririties, and mbilise the necessary resurces. e) Timely, pprtunistic and quick-impact interventins are critical in influencing peacebuilding utcmes. f) Adequate, predictable and flexible funding is essential t supprt pst-cnflict recnstructin. g) Pst-cnflict recnstructin invlves apprpriate respnses at the lcal, natinal, reginal and internatinal levels. These characteristics, which can als be termed as the peratinal principles f pstcnflict peacebuilding signify that peacebuilding bth as a cncept and as a field f practice has evlved cnsiderably since its inceptin in the early 1990s. Interestingly, the bradening scpe f the term and practice f peacebuilding has resulted in it nt nly being widely used but als ften ill-defined and cntested, resulting in deficiencies in analysis, plicy and practice. Defining Peacebuilding The term peacebuilding has been used cpiusly by intergvernmental rganisatins (IGOs), including the UN, INGOs, and NNGOs, states and therists. Applied t varius practices by states, NGOs and individuals, peacebuilding refers t practices as diverse as gvernments' freign plicy bjectives, UN mandates and als the prgrammes created by many NGOs. As a result, peacebuilding has emerged as a very cnfusing and misused term in the field f internatinal relatins and peace research. In the wrds f Cusens et al, Sme definitins are s general as t include virtually all frms f internatinal assistance t scieties that have experiences r are at risk f armed cnflict, sme are mre precise but shw greater interest in clarifying internatinal mandates than cnditins fr peace in a target cuntry; thers are mre willing t ask tugh 75

11 questins abut the cmparative value f internatinal effrts vis-a-vis ne anther and in cntrast with dmestic initiatives. (Cusens et al 2001: 5) Given this assessment, ne f the largely accepted definitins f peacebuilding cntinues t be the ne prvided in the "An agenda fr peace". The frmer UN Secretary General defined peacebuilding as Actin t identify and supprt structures which will tend t strengthen and slidify peace in rder t avid a relapse int cnflict - rebuilding the institutins and infrastructures f natins tm by civil war and strife (and tackling the) deepest causes f cnflict: ecnmic despair, scial injustice and plitical ppressin. (Butrs- Ghali 1992: Para 55) In fact this definitin alng with its clarified versin prvided in the "Supplement t an agenda fr peace", have guided mst rganisatinal, academic and practitiner cntributins t the cnceptual and practical dimensins f peacebuilding. Hwever it is imprtant t nte that cnfusin is present in the definitin f peacebuilding prvided in "An agenda fr peace". Fr, while the Secretary-General made it clear that peacebuilding cnsisted f "sustained, c-perative wrk t deal with underlying ecnmic, scial, cultural and humanitarian prblems..." (Butrs-Ghali 1992: Para 57), yet, the measures listed including disarming, restring rder, destrying weapns, repatriating refugees, training security frces, mnitring electins, advancing the prtectin f human rights, refrming institutins and prmting plitical participatin, are mstly assciated with shrt t medium term internatinal interventins. In fact these measures d nt carry the ntin f being sustained effrts that address underlying causes t put an "achieved peace n a durable fundatin" (Haugerudbraaten 1998: 17). This blurred nature and definitin f peacebuilding has been acknwledged by several schlars wh have tried t bring cnceptual clarity t the cncept by attempting t redefine peacebuilding. Fr example, Dan Smith (2004) in his reprt n the Jint Utstein Study fpeacebuilding states, Peacebuilding attempts t encurage the develpment f the structural cnditins, attitudes and mdes f plitical behaviur that may permit peaceful, 76

12 stable and ultimately prsperus scial and ecnmic develpment. Peacebuilding activities are designed t cntribute t ending r aviding armed cnflict and may be carried ut during armed cnflict, in its wake, r as an attempt t prevent an anticipated armed cnflict frm starting. Peacebuilding activities fall under fur main headings: 1. t prvide security, 2. t establish the sci-ecnmic fundatins f lng-term peace, 3. likewise t establish the plitical framewrk f lng-term peace, 4. and t generate recnciliatin, a healing f the wunds f war, and justice. (Smith 2004: 19) Rebecca Spence (200 1) prvides a cmprehensive definitin f peacebuilding and defines the cncept as thse activities and prcesses that: fcus n the rt causes f the cnflict, rather than just the effects, supprt the rebuilding and rehabilitatin f all sectrs f the war tm sciety; encurage and supprt interactin between all sectrs f sciety in rder t repair damaged relatins and start the prcess f restring dignity and trust; recgnise the specifics f each pst cnflict situatin, encurage and supprt the participatin f indigenus resurces in the design, implementatin and sustainment f activities and prcesses; and prmte prcesses that will endure after the initial emergency recvery phase has passed. (Spence 2001: 13 7) Rland Paris in his seminal wrk, "At Wars End", narrws the definitin f peacebuilding t... actin undertaken at the end f a civil cnflict t cnslidate peace and prevent a recurrence f fighting. A peace building missin invlves the deplyment f military and civilian persnnel frm several internatinal agencies, with a mandate t cnduct peace building in a cuntry that is just emerging frm a civil war. (Paris 2004: 38) Jhn Paul Lederach, an imprtant schlar in the field f peace studies adds t the abve understanding f peacebuilding by stating, Peacebuilding is mre than pst-accrd recnstructin and is understd as a cmprehensive cncept that encmpasses, generates, and sustains the full array f prcesses, appraches, and stages needed t transfrm cnflict tward mre sustainable, peaceful relatinships. The term thus invlves a wide range f activities that bth precede and fllw frmal peace accrds. Metaphrically, 77

13 peace is seen nt merely as a stage in time r a cnditin. It is a dynamic scial cnstruct. (Lederach 1997: 20) In an attempt t prvide an verview f the cncept f peacebuilding, Kenneth Bush ( 1996) states, In the bradest terms, peacebuilding refers t thse initiatives which fster and supprt sustainable structures and prcesses which strengthen the prspects fr peaceful cexistence and decrease the likelihd f the utbreak, reccurrence r cntinuatin, f vilent cnflict. The prcess entails bth shrt-term humanitarian peratins and lng term develpmental, plitical, ecnmic and scial bjectives. (Bush 1996: 29) Interestingly Galtung wh first cined the term peacebuilding and defined it as "encmpassing the practical aspects f implementing peaceful scial change thrugh sci-ecnmic recnstructin and develpment" (Galtung 1975), redefined peacebuilding as " part f 'third generatin' f peace appraches evident after the Cld War, when a reactin against simplistic appraches t building peace finally recgnised the deep-rted nature f cnflict and its links t develpment" (Galtung et al. 2002: xvi). In additin t these therists and academics, several rganisatinal practitiners have als develped diverse explanatins and definitins f peacebuilding. Fr example, the Wrld Bank defines peacebuilding as Activities aimed at preventing and managing armed cnflict, and sustammg peace after large-scale rganised vilence has ended. The scpe f peacebuilding cvers all activities that are directly linked t this bjective within a 5-l 0 year perid. Peacebuilding shuld create cnducive cnditins fr recnstructin and develpment effrts, but shuld nt be equated and thus cnfused with these cncepts. There are three phases f peacebuilding: preventin prir t the utbreak f vilence, cnflict management during armed cnflict, and pstcnflict peacebuilding fr up t 10 years after the cnflict end. (Wrld Bank 2006: 5) The Eurpean Unin's visin fpeacebuilding is similarly detailed and entails, Lng-term effrts aimed at preventing armed cnflict frm erupting in the first place by addressing its deep-rted structural causes. This includes brader measures in the plitical, institutinal, ecnmic and develpmental fields, such as cmbating pverty, prmting an equitable distributin f resurces, pursuing 78

14 justice and recnciliatin, uphlding the rule f law and human rights, supprting gd gvernance and human rights, including accuntability and transparency in public decisin-making, plitical pluralism and the effective participatin f civil sciety in the peace-building prcess. (EU 2001) While the Wrld Bank and Eurpean Unin have defined peacebuilding in a brad and cmprehensive manner, NATO n the ther hand adpts a narrwer and mre fcused definitin fpeacebuilding. NATO views peacebuilding as Building bridges between cmmunities and nt nly abut preventing vilence, securing freedm f mvement fr vulnerable ppulatins, ensuring the safe return f IDPs and refugees that are very effective cnfidence building measures. (NATO 2003) Likewise the Department f Natinal Defense and Canadian Frces adpt a mre precise definitin f peacebuilding and defines it as Actins t supprt plitical, ecnmic, scial and military measures aimed at strengthening plitical stability, which include mechanisms t identify and supprt structures that prmte peaceful cnditins, recnciliatin, a sense f cnfidence and well-being and supprt ecnmic grwth. ( _ Eng/J3%20Publicatins/CF%20Jint%20Dctrine%20- %20B-GJ %20FP-030%20-%20Peace%20Supprt%200ps%20- %20EN.pdf accessed 5 July 2009) Thus it is seen that peacebuilding can be defined in several different ways. Schlars, plicy makers and field practitiners have develped varied cnceptins f peacebuilding, the activities it includes, the time line assciated with it, as well as its main pririties and bjectives. This is primarily because, mre ften than nt, the definitin used and the apprach adpted largely depends upn the institutinal interests f the actrs invlved (Hanggi 2005:1 0). In an interesting study, Barnett et al (2007) tabulate the different definitins and cnntatins alltted t peacebuilding by diverse actrs and agencies (See Table 2.1 ). The authrs then identify fur grupings f actrs and agencies which perceive and 79

15 define peacebuilding in accrdance with their respective rganisatinal mandates and netwrks. These are the UN Secretariat, the UN specialised agencies, Eurpean rganisatins, and member states. This differentiatin, accrding t the authrs is primarily because the cre mandates heavily influence the rganisatin r actr's receptin t, and definitin and revisin f, the cncept f peacebuilding. Thus while the UN Secretariat cntinues t build n frmer UN Secretary-General Butrs Butrs Ghali's riginal frmulatin and definitin f peacebuilding, the UN's specialised agencies have adpted ther cncepts and definitins in accrdance with hw peacebuilding fits int their brader cre mandates. Fr example, the UNDP uses bth peacebuilding and cnflict preventin because it has a mandate in bth, the Wrld Bank prefers the use f pst cnflict recnstructin and pst cnflict recvery, and the IMF pst cnflict recvery (Barnett 2007: 42). The Eurpean agencies including the Eurpean Unin favur cncepts f cnflict preventin and management, and rehabilitatin and recnstructin ver that f peacebuilding, and agencies within the gvernments f different states adpt variatins f the term peacebuilding including stabilisatin, pst cnflict recvery and pst cnflict recnstructin. Table 2.1 Different Cncepts and Definitin f Peacebuilding acrss Agencies Agency Cncept Definitin US Agency fr Internatinal Develpment (USAID) UK Freign and Cmmnwealth Office (UKFCO) UK Department fr Internatinal Develpment (DFID) Pst cnflict recvery and transitin assistance Pst cnflict recnstructin Cnflict reductin and pst cnflict peacebuilding Immediate interventins t build mmentum in supprt f the peace prcess including supprting peace negtiatins; building citizen security; prmting recnciliatin; and expanding demcratic plitical prcesses. An umbrella term cvering a range f activities required in the immediate aftermath f cnflict. Cnflict reductin includes cnflict management (activities t prevent the spread f existing cnflict); cnflict preventin (shrt-term activities t prevent the utbreak r recurrence f vilent cnflict); cnflict reslutin (shrt-term activities t end vilent cnflict); and peacebuilding (medium-and lng-term actins t address the factrs underlying vilent cnflict). Essential pst cnflict peacebuilding measures include 80

16 German Federal Freign Office (FFO) German Federal Ministry f Defense (FMD) Civilian crisis preventin Multidimensinal peace missins disarmament, dembilisatin and reintegratin prgrams, and building the public institutins that prvide security, transitinal justice and recnciliatin, and basic scial services. The cncept f civilian cnsts preventin encmpasses cnflict reslutin and pst cnflict peacebuilding and is understd thrugh a number f strategic leverage pints, such as the establishment f stable state structures (rule f law, demcracy, human rights, and security), and the creatin f the ptential fr peace within civil sciety, the media, cultural affairs, and educatin. Multidimensinal peace missins aim t redress the destructin f a cuntry's infrastructure resulting frm intrastate cnflict. In additin t their military aspect, they undertake a variety t tasks ranging frm refrm f the security frces and dembilisatin f cmbatants t the rebuilding f the justice system and gvernment structures and preparatins fr electins. German Federal Ministry fr Ecnmic Cperatin and Develpment (BMZ) Develpment and peacebuilding Develpment plicy seeks t imprve ecnmic, scial, eclgical, and plitical cnditins s as t help remve the structural causes f cnflict and prmte peaceful cnflict management. Gals include pverty reductin, pr-pr sustainable ecnmic grwth, gd gvernance, and demcracy. Peacebuilding attempts t encurage the develpment f the structural cnditins, attitudes, and mdes f plitical behavir that may permit peaceful, stable, and ultimately prsperus scial and ecnmic develpment. As cnceptualised in the jint Utstein study, peacebuilding activities fall under fur main headings: security, sciecnmic fundatins, plitical framewrk f lng term peace, and recnciliatin. French Ministry f Freign Crisis management Plicy primarily pursued thrugh multilateral Affairs (MOF A) rganisatins: peacekeeping, plitical and cnstitutinal prcesses, demcratisatin, administrative state capacity, technical assistance fr public finance and tax plicy, and supprt fr independent media. French Ministry f Defense (MOD) Peace cnslidatin Activities in supprt f peace cnslidatin include mnitring cmpliance with arms embarges, deplyment f peacekeeping 81

17 Agence Franrancaise de Develppement (AFD) Canada Department f Freign Affairs and Internatinal Trade (DFAIT) Department f Natinal Defense and Canadian Frces (DND/CF) Canadian Internatinal Develpment Agency (CIDA) Japan's Ministry f Freign Affairs (MOF A) Japan Develpment Agency (JDA) Japan Internatinal Cperatin Agency (JICA) Crisis preventin Cnflict preventin Peacebuilding Peacebuilding Cnflict preventin Recnstructin Assistance Peacebuilding trps, DDR, and deplyment f plice and gendarmerie in supprt f the rule f law The French gvernment's internatinal slidarity plicy is pursued in the areas f humanitarian actin and develpments. Activities t prevent the emergence f vilent cnflict thrugh an pen, inclusive, cherent, and cmprehensive frame wrk that takes int accunt all phases f the peace and cnflict cycle. Actins t supprt plitical, ecnmic, scial, and military measures aimed at strengthening plitical stability, which include mechanisms t identify and supprt structures that prmte peaceful cnditins, recnciliatin, a sense f cnfidence and well-being, and supprt ecnmic grwth. Effrts t strengthen the prspects fr internal peace and decrease the likelihd f vilent cnflict in rder t enhance the indigenus capacity f a sciety t manage cnflict withut vilence. Activities t prevent vilent cnflict by prmting a peace prcess, securing dmestic stability and security, and prviding humanitarian and recnstructin assistance. Effrts t prevent a reginal cnflict frm recurring after a ceasefire agreement, which include an engagement in relief and recnstructin activities fr victims f cnflicts frm the view pint f stabilising the situatin in affected areas. A general apprach extending frm cnflict preventin t recnciliatin and pst cnflict recnstructin, in which peace is pursued thrugh acrss-the-bard endeavrs that include develpment assistance in additin t traditinal effrts within military and plitical framewrks. Surce: Barnett et al (2007), "Peacebuilding: What Is in a Name", Glbal Gvernance, (13) 1: As is evident frm the definitins and cnntatins f peacebuilding listed abve, peacebuilding is a multi dimensinal cncept. Cmmenting upn the diversity f pst cnflict peacebuilding, Keating and Knight are f the pinin that, 82

18 Peacebuilding as it has been practiced t date, invlves a number f diverse instruments and players and much like an rchestra, the instruments must be finely tuned and the players must wrk in cncert in rder t prduce anything resembling a cherent apprach t pst cnflict recnciliatin and sustainable peace.( Keating and Knight 2004: xxxii) Fr the purpse f this study, peacebuilding will be defined as a set f actins and initiatives which seek t achieve and cnslidate peace by preventing the cntinuatin r recurrence f armed cnflict, encmpassing a wide range f activities, measures and actrs acrss diverse sectrs, entailing bth shrt term humanitarian peratins and lng term pst-cnflict plitical, scial and ecnmic develpment bjectives. This definitin assumes that peacebuilding has several cmpnents including diverse activities, measures and actrs. The fllwing sectins will examine each f these in detail. PEACEBUILDING ACTIVITIES As a multi dimensinal exercise, peacebuilding encmpasses a wide variety f activities including disarming warring parties, decmmissining and destrying weapns, demining, repatriating refugees, prviding humanitarian relief and advancing effrts t prtect human rights, recnstructing, refrming and strengthening institutins f gvernance as well as civil sciety rganisatins. Hwever as each pst-cnflict situatin represents a unique set f circumstances and there is "n ne-size fits all" peacebuilding mdel, the scpe f activities and measures undertaken in different peacebuilding peratins vary cnsiderably. In fact different actrs pursue different activities in situatins requiring peacebuilding effrts and these practices and measures are essentially based n the specific requirements f the given situatin. Thus, while sme pst-cnflict scieties require brad based peacebuilding effrts including scial, plitical, ecnmic and eclgical fundatins that serve the welfare f the peple (Regehr 1996), peacebuilding effrts in ther scieties may suffice with nly specific measures. 83

19 Given the brad scpe f activities that can be undertaken in any peacebuilding peratin, several therists have suggested classificatins f activities cmprising peacebuilding. Sens (2004: 146), fr example puts frward a "menu f strategies and tasks" which he states t be the standard practices and activities guiding peacebuilding. These include stabilisatin f the internal plitical and security situatin develpment f reginal engagement with neighburing states and reginal actrs dembilisatin, disarmament and reintegratin return f refugees and Internally displaced persns demcratisatin strengthening civil sciety capacity building and security sectr refrm technical assistance fr recnstructin and ecnmic develpment prmtin fhuman rights demining and awareness Lund (2001: 17-18) n similar lines suggests a peacebuilding 'tlbx' with a list f activities categrised under seven headings: Official Diplmacy including mediatin, negtiatin, cnciliatin, gd ffices, peace cnferences, cercive diplmacy, diplmatic sanctins, etc; Nn-fficial Cnflict Management Methds, supprting indigenus dispute reslutin mechanisms, peace cmmissins, nn-fficial facilitatin and prblemslving wrkshps; Military Measures, such as deterrence, restructuring and prfessinalisatin f military frces, dembilisatin/reintegratin f ex-cmbatants, cnfidencebuilding and security, demilitarised znes, peace enfrcement; Ecnmic and Scial Measures, like humanitarian assistance, develpment assistance, ecnmic refrms, inter-cmmunal trade, private investment, agricultural prgrams, aid cnditinality, ecnmic sanctins; 84

20 Plitical Develpment and Gvernance Measures, including plitical party and institutin building, electin refrm, supprt and mnitring, civic sciety develpment, training f fficials, pwer-sharing arrangements, cnstitutinal refrm; Judicial and Legal Measures, such as inquiry cmmissins, war crimes tribunals, judicial/legal refrms, arbitratin, plice refrm, adjudicatin; Cmmunicatins and Educatin Measures, fr example peace radi/tv, media prfessinalisatin, jurnalist training, internatinal bradcast, peace educatin, exchange visits, cnflict reslutin training. An interesting categrisatin f peacebuilding activities has been suggested by the Canadian Peacebuilding Crdinating Cmmittee (CPCC). 3 Presented in the frm f a chart, the CPCC includes the fllwing twelve activities under peacebuilding. Cnflict Reslutin Early Warning Envirnmental Security Physical Security Ecnmic Recnstructin; Persnal Security Human Rights Institutinal/Civil Capacity Building Gvernance and Demcratic Develpment Humanitarian Relief and Emergency Assistance Training, Plicy Develpment, Assessment and Advcacy ( accessed 10 May 2010). 3 The Canadian Peacebuilding Crdinating Cmmittee is a netwrk f Canadian nn-gvernmental rganisatins and institutins, academics and individuals engaged in a wide range f activities related t addressing the causes and cnsequences f vilent cnflict. It was established in 1994 with the visin t prmte and further develp a vibrant and rbust Canadian peacebuilding cnstituency in the interest f advancing just and lasting peace internatinally, this netwrk was renamed Peacebuild in Fr mre infrmatin see 85

21 While the abve mentined categrisatins indicate sme similarities in the type f peacebuilding activities envisined by therists alng with the bjectives they aim at achieving, the categrisatins als prtray the vastness and cmplexity f activities included within the ambit f peacebuilding. As a result, mst therists and plicy makers analysing peacebuilding measures, tend t rganise peacebuilding activities accrding t fur r five pillars r dimensins. While varius actrs define these pillars differently, there is cnsensus that peacebuilding has plitical, scial, ecnmic, security and legal dimensins (Tschirgi 2004: 9). Fig. 2.1 Peacebuilding Palette Figure 2:The Peace building Palette Sd-ea:mnJic Fundatins physical re(.""<mst:t'uc:.ti-n. e:cnm:nic inf:rnst.rueture infrustnk.":tuj"f..'!c f lu..'!&hh and eclucatiun.n"..jnd:ri:at!in and return -f retuaees and IDPa. fnd $e!cut'i1<v '. : " '. '. ' ~. : ;. ' '.=~~~~f~ :.:ltqod g~a.n~;{a~ntabijuy~.< ~~~m.:m ~f ~,P:t~~ s~r~~~,-~ :~ Surce: Smith, Dan (2004), "Twards a Strategic Framewrk fr Peacebuilding: Getting their Act Tgether: Overview Reprt f the Jint Utstein Study fpeacebuilding", Evaluatin reprt, Osl: Ryal Nrwegian Ministry f Freign Affairs, p 28. In fact mst f the peacebuilding literature tends t divide peacebuilding activities bradly n the basis f three cre dimensins t the mre elabrate that list fur t five different dimensins. Fr example, Barnett et al.(2007: 49) refer t three dimensins f 86

22 peacebuilding namely stability creatin, restratin f state institutins and sciecnmic recvery. Dan Smith (2004) suggests an rganisatin f fur pillars namely, security, plitical framewrk, sci-ecnmic fundatins; and recnciliatin and justice (See Figure 2.1). Hamre and Sullivan (2002: 91) suggest security, justice and recnciliatin, scial and ecnmic well-being, and gvernance and plitical participatin as the fur distinct pillars f peacebuilding. Interestingly, the frmer UN Secretary-General, Kfi Annan's "N Exit withut Strategy" argues that peacebuilding shuld be understd as fstering the capacity t reslve future cnflicts by: (1) cnslidating security, (2) strengthening plitical institutins and (3) prmting ecnmic and scial recnstructin (United Natins 2001). Hwever the mre recent reprt f the present UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki Mn n "Peacebuilding in the immediate aftermath f cnflict" lists five areas f actin, namely: (1) basic safety and security, (2) plitical prcesses, (3) basic services, ( 4) cre gvernment services and (5)ecnmic revitalisatin (United Natins 2009). Hwever the UN's integrated apprach t peacebuilding pts fr a mre elabrate list that includes: plitical, develpment, humanitarian, human rights, rule f law, scial and security aspects (De Cning 2010:7). Hwever, a cmprehensive way t categrise peacebuilding measures is by identifying the key areas where peacebuilding assistance is usually critically required in any given cnflict situatin. These areas include amng thers, refugees and internally displaced persns, disarmament, dembilisatin and reintegratin, demcratic develpment and ecnmic and scial develpment. The crrespnding peacebuilding activities can be gruped int three main categries. These are: (a) Peace and security activities (b) Plitical activities 87

23 (c) Sci-ecnmic activities 4 The peace and security situatin is very vulnerable and fragile in pst-cnflict settings. Often characterised by anned nn-state actrs and frmer cmbatants waiting fr reintegratin int civilian life, the state security apparatus is underging recnstructin r being ill-prepared t prvide security fr the state and its ppulatin and ptential peace spilers; the nature f peace is rather precarius. Given this, peacebuilding activities aim at creating and maintaining peace and security f bth the regin and persnal security f its inhabitants. In addressing these challenges, pst-cnflict peacebuilding in the security dimensin must invlve bth the direct prvisin f basic security in fragile envirnments as well as the brader tasks f building up dmestic capacity t prvide security. The main activities undertaken include: a) Disarmament, dembilisatin and reintegratin (DDR) f ex-cmbatants int the lcal cmmunity including special prgrammes fr wmen and children b) Humanitarian mine actin including mine clearance, stckpile destructin, supprt t victims f landmines, and awareness prgrammes. c) Imprving cntrl f small arms and light weapns including measures t prevent misuse and illegal trade, prviding incentives t hand in weapns, and dealing with the underlying causes f demand fr such weapns. d) Security sectr refrm (SSR) emphasising the imprtance f civilian cntrl, transparency and accuntability as regards the military, the plice, the justice and the penal services. The plitical activities which need t be taken in rder fr effective peacebuilding t take place are directly linked t the underlying r triggering causes f cnflict. Illegitimate r weak gvernment institutins, lack f gd gvernance, vilatins f human rights, and a 4 This categrisatin f peacebuilding measures is influenced by the wrk f Bryden and Hanggi (2005) and the OECD issue brief n Peacebuilding (OECD 2005). 88

24 widespread sense f injustice and impunity cnstitute the plitical legacy f cnflict and thus the measures shuld aim at addressing these issues. The main activities undertaken under this categry include: a) Rebuilding f natinal plitical authrities and supprt fr plitical and administrative authrities and structures b) Humanitarian assistance c) Assistance t institutins and prcesses that prmte gd gvernance, demcracy and human rights; d) Civil sciety empwerment; and e) Recnciliatin and transitinal justice Similarly the sci-ecnmic activities cmprising peacebuilding are als linked t the causes f cnflict. Increasing sci-ecnmic differences, unequal distributin f benefits r burdens, marginalisatin f vulnerable grups r gegraphical regins, and relative deprivatin are all factrs that may cause r trigger cnflict. Effrts t build peace must address these fundamental r triggering drivers f cnflict. Thus the sci-ecnmic measures f peacebuilding include: a) Repatriatin and reintegratin f refugees, b) Recnstructin f infrastructure and imprtant public functins, c) Develpment f educatin d) Develpment f health services; e) Private sectr develpment, emplyment, trade and investment including legal and ecnmic refrms, institutinal c-peratin and technical c-peratin. Given the diverse measures that cntribute in making peacebuilding a cmprehensive exercise, an inevitable questin which arises is whether any hierarchy r priritisatin f measures is present r needed. In ther wrds, des any categry f measures supersede the thers r shuld peacebuilding give preference t any ne categry f measures. In 89

25 fact these questins frm the basis fr ne f the mst widely debated issues in the field f peacebuilding i.e. hw t priritise and sequence the range f necessary interventins. Interestingly when the internatinal cmmunity first became invlved in peacebuilding in the early I990s, the primary emphasis was n ecnmic and scial recnstructin while the plitical tasks f building up dmestic capacity t prvide security were ften neglected (Hanggi 2005: 4). Gradually the fcus shifted t plitical and security measures. Fr example, accrding t Kumar (1997), peacebuilding effrts shuld be initiated with plitical measures, fllwed by scial rehabilitatin and ecnmic measures.shuld be given the least pririty. Hwever there is an increasing agreement amng several academics, plicy makers and practitiners that in pst-cnflict situatins, the immediate need fr security is paramunt and withut security, all ther peacebuilding interventins are likely t fail (Baker 200 I, Zeeuw 200 I, Lund 2003, Llamazares 2005, Timilsina (2007). Thus it is nw largely believed that the setting fr peacebuilding must be secured befre ther peacebuilding activities are initiated. In ther wrds, the "hawks" must be "bxed" befre the "dves" are "released" (Baker 200 I: 763). Althugh the peacebuilding literature nw increasingly reflects the pririty assigned t security related activities within the larger sphere f peacebuilding activities, the assessment is still nt unanimus. Fr, sme therists such as Hanggi (2005) and Ball (I996) are f the pinin that sequencing f peacebuilding activities shuld nt be attempted and peacebuilding shuld pursue develpment in all three dimensins simultaneusly and in a balanced way. Accrding t Bryden and Hanggi (2005: I2), the experience in peacebuilding has prved that the linear sequencing f peacebuilding activities is nt recmmendable due t the clse relatinship between the three main categries f peacebuilding measures. Ball (1996) further explains the imprtance and interdependence f security, plitical and sci-ecnmic measures by stating, There can be n sustainable sci-ecnmic develpment withut security f individuals and sciety and accuntable plitical institutins, n plitical develpment withut a basic level f security and imprvement in the standard f living, finally n lng-term security withut prgress in plitical and sci-ecnmic develpment. (Ball I996: 7I9) 90

26 Given these divergent views n the priritisatin f peacebuilding activities, in practice, different agencies and actrs pursing peacebuilding activities, ften tend t priritise measures and activities undertaken by them. This trend, accrding t Tschirgi (2004: 9) has in fact becme an peratinal principle f peacebuilding, and a review f peacebuilding practice thrughut the 1990s reveals that a hierarchy in peacebuilding activities is ften established in the cntext f any given situatin. Explaining this trend, Barnett et al (2007: 45) pine that different agencies and actrs depending upn their knwledge, mandates and expertise in the pst-cnflict field priritise different activities. While this explanatin des justify the activities f different actrs invlved in peacebuilding, actrs and agencies invlved in peacebuilding shuld exercise flexibility and judgement while devising peacebuilding strategies priritising specific activities based n the needs f the individual situatin, given the unique nature f pst-cnflict scieties, the wide range f peacebuilding activities and the lack f a universal mdel fr peacebuilding. The next sectin will examine the actrs invlved in the peacebuilding prcess. PEACEBUILDING ACTORS The actrs invlved in peacebuilding are as diverse as the measures and activities. adpted in the peacebuilding prcess. They range frm gvernments, IGOs, civil sciety, NNGOs and INGOs and reginal rganisatins t truth and recnciliatin cmmissins and ad hc criminal tribunals, and prminent individuals like the special representatives f the UN Secretary General (Keating and Knight 2004: xxxiii). This is primarily because peacebuilding measures, as nted earlier, invlve all levels f sciety and target all aspects f the state structure and thus require a wide variety f agents fr their implementatin. Hwever, in spite f the fact that a wide array f peacebuilding actrs and agents exist and participate in the peacebuilding prcess, there is n universally accepted criterin fr their classificatin r categrisatin. Nnetheless sme f the peacebuilding literature (Maiese 2003, Andersn and Olsn 2003, Tschirgi 2004, Keating and Knight 2004, Culbertsn and Puligny 2007) distinguishes and categrises peacebuilders primarily n 91

27 the basis f their rigin. Thus the crrespnding categries f peacebuilders include insiders-utsiders and lcals-freigners. As suggested by the names f the classificatins, insiders and lcals are actrs wh are "vulnerable t cnflict, because they are frm the area and living there, and wh in sme way must experience the cnflict and live with its cnsequences persnally while utsiders, freigners and external actrs are actrs wh chse t becme invlved in the cnflict and wh have persnally little t lse" (Maiese 2003). Accrding t these classificatins, peacebuilding actrs can bradly be divided int tw main grups - namely internal and external. Internal actrs include all the actrs I agents which are a part f the cnflict inflicted state. This grup essentially cnsists f plitical actrs including leaders f the main plitical parties, gvernments, legislative bdies (where they exist) and all the agents f these entities, military actrs including leaders and members f cnstituted armies r para-military grups f different nature, ecnmic entrepreneurs, members f the indigenus civil sciety including frmal scial rganisatins such as trade unins, NNGOs, cmmunity and religius actrs. Anther imprtant way in which internal actrs in peacebuilding can be identified and examined is by applying Jhn Paul Lederach's mdel f hierarchical interventin levels at which peacebuilding effrts ccur (Fig 2.2). Accrding t the mdel which is essentially a peacebuilding pyramid, peacebuilding ccurs at three levels namely the tp leadership, middle-range leadership and the grassrts leadership. Different grups f internal actrs undertake peacebuilding activities in each f the three levels. Thus the first level cnsists f the tp plitical, military and religins leaders, fllwed by netwrks f cmmunity leaders and grups including academics, intellectuals and indigenus NGOs, while the third and bttm levels cnsist f grassrts leadership such as lcal leaders, cmmunity develpers etc. Thus the internal actrs invlved in peacebuilding, accrding t Lederach's mdel can be divided int three main categries. 92

28 Fig. 2.2 Peacebuilding Pyramid Types f Actrs Appraches t Building Peace level h Tp lehe..,hip MiJitary/plitic<tl/rellglus leaders with hiqh visibility Level2: Middle-Range Le,.dership Leaders respected in sectrs Ethnic/religius luders AcademicJ/intellec'tl.lals Hum<m~rian luders (NGO Derived frm Jhn P~ul L<tder~ch, SIJilding Puce: S1JsUin1ble Riacm:ililt:in ir> Divi<le.d Sdetks (Washin9tn, D.C.: United St~tes Institute f P... ce Press, 1997), 39. Surce: Lederach, Jhn Paul (1997) Building Peace: Sustainable Recnciliatin m Divided Scieties, Washingtn D.C. :United States Institute f Peace Press pp 39. The external actrs n the ther hand primarily include freign gvernments (thrugh their embassies and different cperatin bdies), internatinal and reginal gvernmental and nn-gvernmental rganisatins, internatinal financial institutins, multinatinal crpratins and trans-natinal churches and ther religius mvements. Hwever a mre elabrate and cmprehensive categrisatin f peacebuilding actrs wuld be their divisin int tw main grups- gvernmental actrs and nngvernmental actrs. While the gvernmental actrs wuld include the cnflict-driven state, ther states and internatinal and reginal gvernmental rganisatins, the nngvernmental actrs wuld cmprise f lcal, natinal and internatinal NGOs, civil sciety rganisatins, the private sectr, media and lcal grups. While each peacebuilding prcess will have bth gvernmental and nn gvernmental as well as 93