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1 Ackerman, B., 49 Alarcón, F., 203, 207 Alemán, E., 37n42 Alfonsín, R., , 146 7, 152 6, 158 9, 165 Alianza Democrática M-i9 (AD M-i9 or M-i9), 175 7, 179 Alvear, M.T, 121 Arato, A., 44n3 Argentina 1853 constitution, constituent assembly, constitution, 72, constituent assembly, constitution, 72, 74 congressional censure in, 145, 147, Olivos Pact (Pacto de Olivos), 156 presidential electoral formula in, 126, 159, 164 presidential powers in, , , 141 4, presidential reelection in, 94 5, 120 1, 126, 131, 135 6, 145, 147, 149, 150 5, 164 reform of presidentialism in, 36, 144 5, 155 Ayala Mora, E., 215 Barco, V., 169, 174 Betancur, B., 169, 173 4, 191 Bolivia 1961 constitution, 72, amendment, 37, 72, constitution, 228 presidential powers in, 37 reform of presidentialism in, 36 Borja, R., Brams, S., 66 Brazil 1988 constitution, 72, 74, 97 8, amendment, 72, 74, amendment, 39, 72, 74 open party lists in, 30 presidential powers in, 39, 97 8, 165 presidential reelection in, 94 5, reform of presidentialism in, 36 Bucaram, A., 195, 198, 202 3, 211, 221 Buchanan, J., 49 Buquet, D., 51 Calvo, E., 47n9 Cardoso, F.H., 94 5, 228 Carey, J., 82, 241 Castro, J., 182 Cepeda Espinosa, M. J., 173n17, 180 Cheibub, J.A., 82 Chile 1925 constitution, 25, amendment, 72, 74, 98, amendment, 72, 74, 98, constitution, 32n amendment, 72, 74 open party lists in, 30 presidential powers in, 38, 98, 165, 231 Colombia 1886 constitution, 38,

2 280 Colombia (cont.) 1945 amendment, amendment, 72, 74, 98, 165, constitution, 33, 37, 72, 74, amendment, 30, 72, amendment, 72, 74, 95 congressional censure in, 174, 180, 189 constituent assembly 1991, constituent assembly elections, institutional crisis in, 109, 166 7, multiple closed lists in, 30 1, presidential election formula in, 89n38, 91 presidential powers in, 37, 39, 98, 101, 104, 165 presidential reelection in, 33, 95 state failure in, 167, state of siege, 173, 175, Colomer, J., 24n14, 25n15, 51, 89 Concentración de Fuerzas Populares (CFP), 197, 198 Consejo para la Consolidación de la Democracia, 145 Constitutional change balance of power shifts and, 46 7, 110, , causes of, 45 8 frequency of, institutional crisis and, 46 7 regime transition and, 1, 9, 17, 46 Constitutional choice cooperative models and, 2, 7, 14, 49 50, 54, 66, 104 diffusion and, 10, 48 9, 87, 103 4, 227 8, 231 distributive models and, 2, 7, 50 2, 66, 71, 104, 166 economic conditions and, 10, 69, 88, 94, 97, 104, 107, 109, electoral uncertainty and, 9 11, 14, 54, 60 1, 69, 71, 105, 107 8, 167, 176 8, 193, 205 6, historical legacies and, 3 5, 10, 58 9, 102, 242 institutional crisis and, 9, 14, 54, 70, 108, 166, 174 6, 193, 196, 202 3, 222, social pluralism and, 10, 88, 104, 228 two-level theory of, 52 5, variations in, 71 2, Constitutional design dominant parties and, 66, 67, 91, 95, 104, 113, 134 7, 228 governance problems and, 2, 8, 10, 41 2, 161, 199, 221, multiparty coalitions and, 8 9, 68 9, 72, 79, 104, partisan interests and, 8 9, 44, 49, 51 2, 55, 59, 61 2, 67 8, 84, 107, 227, 232 reform trends in, Constitution making nature of, 44 5 Constitutions amendment and replacement of, and formal rules, 5 6, 13, 19, 44, judicial interpretation and, 6 written and unwritten, 5 6, 44 Coppedge, M., 105 Costa Rica 1913 amendment, 25, 72, constitution, 35, 72, 75, 227 presidential powers in, 39, 104 De la Calle, H., 178, 183, 188 Democracia Popular (DP), 197, 204, Diamond, M., 40n12 Dominican Republic 1924 constitution, constitution, 72, amendment, 72, 75, 91 presidential election formula in, 91 presidential powers in, 39 Duran-Ballen, S., 198, 200, 203, 204, 217 Duverger, M., 25, 92 Echeverry Uruburu, A., 183n36, 191 Ecuador 1946 constitution, 72, constitution, 33, 72, 75, amendment, 72, 75, 197, constitution, 36, 72, 75, 98, constitution, 72, 75, 95, 136 adoption of qualified plurality in, 29, 36, 219 constituent assembly 1998, constituent assembly elections, executive-legislative conflicts in, institutional crisis in, 109, 194, presidential election formula in, 29,

3 281 presidential powers in, 35, 36, 98, 165, presidential reelection in, 33, 95, 136 Electoral rules congressional election formulas, 25 7 Duverger s Law, 25 and party systems, 25 presidential election formulas, 27 9 presidential reelection, 32 4 presidential term, 32, 32n34 Electoral uncertainty electoral volatility and, 177, 196, 205, 222 levels of, 61 patterns of competition and, 61, 108 Elkins, Z., 20n7, 49n10, 56, 88n34 El Salvador 1983 constitution, 39, 72, 75 presidential powers in, 39 Elster, J., 44n2, 44n4, 57n24, 59n27 Espinal, R., 91 Febres Cordero, L., 199, 201, 202, 217 Ferejohn, J., 5 Freidenberg, F., 30n26 Frente Radical Alfarista (FRA), 203, 205, Frye, T., 51, 61n33, 64 Galán, L. C., 175, 182, 184, 189n44 Gallagher, M., 27n21 García Lema, A., 153, 154, 156, 156n45, 157 Gargarella, R., 24n12 Gaviria, C., 176, 178, 183, 184, Geddes, B., 42, 46, 51 Gil Lavedra, R., 156n44 Ginsburg, T., 20n7, 44n4, 52, 56, 88n34 Golder, M., 29, 81, 81n17 Gomez, A., 176 Greif, A., 18 Grindle, M., 161 Grofman, B., 58 Guatemala 1945 constitution, 35, 72, constitution, 33 presidential reelection in, 33 Hardin, R., 6 Hartlyn, J., 23n11 Honduras 1924 amendment, constitution, 72, constitution, 33, 72, 76 presidential election formula in, 29, 89n38 presidential powers in, 35, 231 presidential reelection in, 33 Horowitz, D., 49 Hurtado, O., 200, 202, 204, 207, 215, 217 Institutional crisis and constitutional performance, 9, 11, 14, 47, 54, 60, 69, 108, 109, 233 and electoral uncertainty, 54, and popular demands, 46, 59 60, 108, 109, 193 Izquierda Democrática (ID), 197, 198 Jackman, R. W., 105 Jillson, C., 53, 53n17 Jones, M., 28, 80, 144n12 Katznelson, I., 4 Katz, R., 23 Knight, J., 50, 66n41, 69 Laitin, D., 18 Lebensohn, M., 131 Levinson, S., 5, 19 Levitsky, S., 4, 18n1, 95n48 Lijphart, A., 24, 26, 27n20, 40n44, 48, 51 Lleras, C., 182, 183 Lopez Michelsen, A., 173, 174, 182 Luna, F., 124n23 Lutz, D., 19, 22n10 Madison, J., 37n41, 238 Mahoney, J., 18, 105 Mainwaring, S., 239 McGuire, R., 53, 53n17 Mejía Acosta, A., 197, 199, 202n22, 219n61 Mejía Montesdeoca, L., 207, 213n52 Menem, C. S., 94, 95, 139, 141 4, 147 9, Mexico 1917 constitution, 72, amendment, 31 2, 72, amendment, 37, 72, amendment, 37, 72, 76 congressional election formula in, 25 6 presidential election formula in, 29 presidential powers in, 37, 39

4 282 Moe, T., 50 Molinelli, G., 129n34, 144, 148n23 Morgenstern, S., 86 Movimiento de Salvación Nacional (MSN), 176, 177, 179, 181, 186 Movimiento Popular Democrático (MPD), 205, 211, 213, 218, 221 Mueller, D., 49 Mustapic, A. M., 144 Navarro Wolf, A., 176, 186 Nicaragua 1987 constitution, 39, 72, 76, 97, amendment, 39, 72, amendment, 29, 72, 76 adoption of PR in, 26 adoption of qualified plurality in, 29 presidential election formula in, 29, 136 presidential powers in, 39, 97 presidential reelection in, 136 Nino, C., 42, 150, 157n49 Noboa, R., 203n24, 206n34, 211 Nohlen, D., 30n27 North, D., 50 Nuevo País (NP), 203 O Neill, K., 102 Pachakutik, 203, 205, 214, 218 Pachano Ordóñez, F., 214 Pachano, S., 197 Padilla, A. J., 140n1 Palacios, A., 119 Panamá 1946 constitution, 35, 72, 76 presidential election formula in, 29 presidential powers in, 35, 104 Paraguay 1992 constitution, 37, 72, 76, 136 adoption of PR in, 26 presidential election formula in, 29, 91, 136, 226 presidential powers in, 37, 39, 137 presidential reelection in, 33, 136 Partido Conservador (PC), 168, 177, 188 Partido Demócrata Progresista (PDP), 117, 154n37 Partido Justicialista (PJ), 139, 140, Partido Laborista, 120 Partido Liberal (PL), 168, Partido Peronista (PP), 120, 135, 136 Partido Radical (UCR), 116, 117, 118, 140, Partido Roldosista Ecuatoriano (PRE), 197 Partido Social Conservador (PSC), 176 Partido Social Cristiano (PSC), 197 Partido Socialista Ecuatoriano (PSE), 212n49 Partido Unico de la Revolución, 120 Partido Unión Republicana (PUR), 197n8 Pedersen, M. N., 177n24 Pérez-Liñán, A., 54n21, 92 Perón, J.D., 113, Perú 1979 constitution, 72, 76, 98, constitution, 72, 76, 95, 97, 136, amendment, 72, 76, 36, 227 presidential powers in, 97, 98, 165 presidential reelection in, 95, 136, 228, 231 Pierson, P., 3, 18 Powell, G. B., 24, 40 Pozas-Loyo, A., 52, 66n42, 102 Presidential powers index of, 82 4 legislative, 37 40, 84 non-legislative, 35 7, 84 Przeworski, A., 18, 73n4, 88n35 Rawls, J., 54n20 Remington, T., 50n15, 51n16 Remmer, K., 26n19 Riker, W., 25, 43 Rios-Figueroa, J., 23, 37, 52, 66n42, 102 Rokkan, S., 88 Roldos, J., 198, 198n10, 200, 217 Sampay, A. E., 125n27, Sanchez de Parga, J., 199n14 Sarabia Better, A., 172n20, 184n37 Serrafero, M. D., 117, 122, 128 Shepsle, K., 45 Shugart, M. S., 50, 64, 82, 99 Shvetsova, O., 60 Smith, P., 73n4, 73n5, 119n14 Smith, S., 50n15, 51n16 Sobral, A., Stokes, D., 53n18

5 283 Stokes, S., 143 Stokes, W., 35n38 Thelen, K., 3, 18n2 Tsebelis, G., 24, 51n16, 54n19 Tullock, G., 45, 49 Turbay Ayala, J.C., 172, 174 Unión Patriótica (UP), 175 Uprimny, R., 172 Uruguay 1917 constitution, 25, 72, constitution, constitution, 72, 77, 98, amendment, 39, 72, 77 multiple closed lists in, 30 presidential election formula in, 89n38, 90 presidential powers in, 38, 39, 98, 165 Vanossi, J., 155n42 Vela, A., 207, 212 Venezuela 1961 constitution, 72, amenment, 37, 72, constitution, 36, 72, 77, 91, 95, 136, 226, 228, 36 presidential election formula in, 29, 91, 136, 226 presidential powers in, 104 presidential reelection in, 95, 136, 228 Vera, A., 210, 211, 218n59, 219, 221n65 Vidal Perdomo, J., 171 Viteri, C., 211, 212n51, 213 Weber, M., 6 Weingast, B., 4, 50, 60 Wills-Otero, L., 25n15, 51, 80n14 Yrigoyen, H., 116