Lecture/Tutorial/Reading notes

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1 Lecture/Tutorial/Reading notes Week One readings Chapter 2 of Textbook Tutorial Questions 1) When did modern international relations begin? Modern international relations began around the 19 th century. Prior to this time, South-East Asia had been the most powerful region. Western society began to experience rapid development and growth, to the extent that GDP growth decreased substantially in Asia and began to rise throughout Europe. This is now referred to as The Great Divergence, an event facilitated by the development of western constitutions that decreased civil disruption, participation in interstate wars which amplified technological advancements and military organisation, scientific evolution and geographical advantages. Europe and America enjoy moderate climates which automatically lead to healthier people/less disease and contaminants. The overall nature of western culture also contributed to its rise. Marriage practices encouraged monogamy, which lead to fewer children. Naturally, this equals less poverty. 2) How important was the treaty of Westphalia in the creation of an international society? The Peace of Westphalia marked the beginning of sovereign recognition this was the first occasion that control over a geographical region by a single government was acknowledged. The treaty was set to prevent Europe from intervening in state religion, which was the primary cause of war in the epoch. Yet, some argue that the Peace was mainly to solidify the victory of the Religious wars by France and Sweden in light of this, it may not have contributed to the formation of an international society to a great degree. Under the treaty, states were to keep the religion that they had as of January 1 st, 1624, and the freedom of polities to choose their own state religion was removed. Considering the above, Westphalia s main contribution was the principle of nonintervention in the affairs of a separate, sovereign state. It was the first time that such an idea had been formally acknowledged. 3) What features differentiate feudal international orders from modern international orders? Feudal international orders were characterised by the need to negotiate for survival. Sedentary communities expanded and elected leaders to engage in diplomatic negotiations, which was supposed to prevent attacks on tribes through ensuring that organised trade was established. Modern international orders developed due to increased independence and inter-dependence, facilitated by increased communication and faster travel. Industrialization contributed to this, through steamships, railway and the telegram. The Establishment and Evolution of a Global International System 1

2 The nature of international relations changed drastically from 1648 onwards Since, there has been ONE global system comprised of military/political and economic interaction. Scale of European international system expanded 15 th -century opening of searoutes around Africa and across the Atlantic/voyages across the Pacific. 16 th -century global system of navigation was in place generated global trade. Mid 19 th century Europe had penetrated most nations full global system was in place. Around 1500 the modern state evolved around Europe. Shift from Feudalism to a Wesphalian system The Peace of Westphalia (1648) marked the beginning of a sovereign system of states. Collapse of the Carolingian Empire had extended across territory, brought some peace after the fall of Rome. Empires survived, but came to resemble modern states. Political organisation was not as clear as it is today there were conflicting loyalties and disputes of authority. Within 400 years of the state s first appearance, it replaced all other political units. Rise of the Modern State Previously, we had city-states, city leagues and empires. The state mixes both capital and coercion in its formative process it is characterised by control over regions and the cities within them. The state was more effective in mobilising human potential for population, so it worked in economic and military terms. Generated an effective economic environment caused the previous political units to adopt the same structure and function. New system of borders was beneficial for merchants they could lower transaction costs through centralising the minting of coins and standardising measures. Taxes were standardised. The environment became more stable and predictable. Loyalty to military was defined where one must contribute was clear. Could impose rules on populations. States could combine coercion and capital for military endeavours empires relied on coercion and city-states on capital. Norman Invasion relied on merchant class, modern state emerged as the result of brokerage between rulers and power groupings within the state (landlords and merchants) Could finance the more technical methods of warfare (warships/canons) Introduction of taxation could rely on surveillance rather than coercion to secure revenue. Evolution of the Modern State 2

3 People became citizens rather than subjects sovereignty was in the people rather than the monarch. States more concerned with linking rulers to people, state to society and territory. Rise of an independent commercial class free to implement their own economic strategies. Created a more complex class structure and resource base for the state. Invention of nationalism ideology that locates the right of self-government in a people who share common culture. Ethno form comes when the cultural group is seen as organic and pre-existing. Civic is more contractual. Helped to transform the people from subjects to citizens. Built the inside/outside construction of modern politics. Democracy the state became representative of the citizenry. Consider the democratic peace theory. Notion of human rights became embedded in the system. Move away from the absolutist monarchies to popular sovereignty. These factors created new grounds for cooperation and conflict. Weak states come about were the government and society have failed to integrate where the state cannot meet the needs of the collective society. New grounds for competition economics, technology, development, living standards the nature of the state means that it still belongs at the centre of the international system. Created non-hegemonic principles. It created new reasons for war, but also diminished the need for war in many respects. Worked toward developing an inter-dependent society of states. Spread of the modern state European imperialism played a large part. In 1500, Europe controlled 7% of the world s land area, by 1800 they controlled 35%. By 1914, they owned 84%. Britain possessed much overseas territory 30 million square KM. By the beginning of the 20 th century, modern state was the most dominant player in the international system yet, there were still empires and tribal societies. In 1914, there were 44 states, in 1930 there were 64, 1960 there were 107, by 2000 more than 190. Not all of them had managed to shift sovereignty from the rulers to the people. Created a uniformed political landscape. The Development of Non-State Units TNC s corporations that exist internationally. Began to awarding rights to trade to specific merchants for a fixed period included the power to make treaties and collect taxes. Eventually became private properties. TNC s underpinned by the notions of partnership, corporation, limited liability and public listing (info on the stock exchange) Modern TNC s began to emerge post 1830 no longer needed an Act of Parliament in order to form one. Modern TNC was first seen in 1870 with the introduction of FDI, which was sought to reduce transport costs and find better places for production. By 1990, there were close to 40,000 TNC s. 3

4 IGO s some consider them to be actors, while others do not. This author believes the Un to be merely a communication facilitator I disagree. It is an actor in itself that can place pressure upon states to act, and has colossal power to diminish their international reputation. Began to evolve through the growth of the middle class. Place a lot of pressure on states, but are not overall contenders for the role of dominance. INGO international non-governmental organisation. Week one, Lecture One 24 th /7/2017 Introduction & Early International Systems o International relations began to emerge after WWI. o Subject covers theoretical approaches. Subject Structure o Part one the history of international politics examines different kinds of international political systems, and discusses how modern international politics came into being. o Part two theories of international politics examines theoretical approaches/analytical frameworks for studying international politics. o Part three Issues in International Politics contemporary issues, poverty/uneven development, warfare, human rights, humanitarian intervention, refugees, climate change and nuclear weapons. o Essay questions for assessment one (750-word essay) published at the end of this week. Hunter Gatherer Bands The International o States have not always existed early communities were structured as hunter-gatherer bands without hierarchy, which characterises modern states. o HGB s interacted/exchanged and fought with one another exchanges of surplus, but no production for surplus. o No enduring political institution (no surplus) o Agricultural/Neolithic Revolution communities began to settle, populations began to grow the first states ostensible. o Distinction between domestic and international emerged (inside/outside) Nomads and Empires o International politics was driven by Nomads and empires o Nomads pastoral farmers/no fixed territory. o Exchanges and interactions at border zones. o Raids/conquest adding aspects of Nomadic culture. 4

5 Early to Modern International relations o The Peace of Westphalia (1648) o The emergence of a modern system of sovereignty. o Feudal Europe system of overlapping sovereignties/different privileges and roles. o Territory not contiguous. o Lords controlled the means of violence. o Complex relationship between states and Church (Holy Roman Empire), with city states and leagues. Peace of Westphalia o Emerged after the 30-Years war. o Two treaties- Munster and Osnabruck o Treaties between Holy Roman Empire and France/Sweden. o Outcome of Peace sovereignty was established as the organising principles of international politics. o Meant that people would have allegiance to one state rather than overlapping and often conflicting political allegiances. o Inside/outside concept was confirmed. o International Politics has no overarching authority to provide order. Yet, the system would compel states to behave in a certain way. o International law is not like domestic law yet, there is something that exercises similar functions, e.g, the Security Council attempts to. The Evolution of the Modern State o Increasing centralisation of rule-making power o Defining territorial borders o Increased the ability to raise revenue was important for the more technical methods of warfare that were emerging. o Rationalisation development of an administrative apparatus. Increase in surveillance powers/standardised measures and minting of coins. o States were the primary actors by the 19 th century. o Desire for representation began to emerge states rules over citizens sovereignty moved from the main sovereign to the people, who then became the primary source of authority (democracy) o Rise in nationalism ideology that relates to the people of a single territory nations and people have the right to self-determination. Ethnic nationalism based upon the people themselves/belief that they are pure and organic civic nationalism more contractual. o Realists tend to believe that states become formally equal, yet vast disparities between Great Powers, middle powers, big and small states begin to emerge e.g, China is the only state that has global reach on a military level. States are not necessarily uniform. 5

6 The Myth of 1648 o Subject to some debate much recent scholarship has argued that the Peace of Westphalia does not mark the beginning of modern international relations. o Rather, the focus may shift to high politics and diplomacy through long-term processes. o War makes the state and the state makes war (Tilly) o Cultural centralisation o Revolution of military affairs 1648 and IR Theory o European history as starting point for international relations theory. o Democratic Peace theory liberal democracies will not go to war with one another. What are international orders? o constellation of constitutional norms and fundamental institutions which cooperation is cultivated and conflict contained between different political communities normalities, how states are compelled to behave. o regularised practices of exchange among discreet political units that recognise each other as independent. Under this definition, they are more contractual, not based upon fundamental compulsion. o Suzerain superior power controls the external relations of a communities, while giving the latter internal autonomy. o Imperial (empires) direct rule of internal and external affairs of different communities from and imperial centre. 6

7 Week one, Lecture Two From Westphalia to the Concert of Europe o 18 th Century Power balancing of its demise. o 19 th Century Institution building. o Limits to theoretical generalisation After Westphalia o After destructiveness of the thirty-years-war, European states came to see a need to manage relations. o Institutionalised practise: International law treaty law (liberal contract law, based on state consent) o The beginning of diplomatic practices resident embassies. o Diplomats not subject to the law of the land. o Holy Roman Empire became fragmented broke into Austro-Hungarian/Germanic halves. o International principles were not enforced by a hegemon, but the pressure came from peers social sanction. o What relevance did it truly have? Could it have been to solidify the power of the victors of the 30-years-war. Some would argue the concept of capitalism and private property/colonial expansion that swathe concentration of power in Britain. Revolutions o Intellectual revolutions enlightenment thinking pursuit of liberal social contracts everyone is equal, the rise of rights. o Political revolutions American Declaration of Independence (1776) o Declaration of the Rights of man and the Citizen (1789) humanist movement. o Industrial technological advancements. Evolutions in the theory of sovereignty o Jean Bodin sovereignty is absolute and perpetual, there are distinct territorial boundaries. o Thomas Hobbes the sovereign is omnipotent. o Jacques Rousseau sovereignty lies with the people, power is legitimated through laws. Unlike liberal theorists, he believed that liberty existed because of law. The French Revolution o The King and Queen executed 1793 o Revolutionaries sought to wipe away all trappings of the ancient regime. o Attempted to abolish taxes. 7

8 o Napoleonic Wars & Concert of Europe Napoleon attempted to overthrow the monarchy in France, appointed himself as Emperor. Won many battles until Waterloo in 1815, where he suffered a colossal defeat. o Coalition of states formed in response to the Napoleonic wars Britain, Prussia, Austro-Hungary, Russia limit the power of the French. o Purpose of the concert of Europe was to uphold the status quo and prevent revolutionary movements. o Britain left quite early in 1822, France joined in Concert of Europe fell in 1823, but France joined Europe as a power. o No major war until 1914 thought to be due to processes of balancing. The Balance of Power o States working to create an equilibrium in the distribution of material power to prevent domination by any single state of alliance of states. E.g, concert of Europe in response to Napoleon. o Patchy evidence - no balancing against US superpower in the 1990 s? It reigned supreme for a whole decade after the collapse of the USSR. o Response of the state depends on both material factors and ideational factors - levels of trust/roles of law and institutions. What are their relationships with other countries. o Theory tends to assume that all states are seeking power believes that states will begin to feel vulnerable. The East Asian International System o The hierarchy until the 1840 s stable for a long time with no balancing. o Authority rested in the emperor. o Defined by clears status and rank between formally independent but not formally equal. o Known as the Qing Dynasty/Empire. o Period was kept stable through fear of mutual destruction. Evolution of Capitalism o Pre-capitalist modes struggled to break free of environmental limits population peaks/troughs couldn t sustain technological innovation over time. o Had believed that wealth was finite. o Transition to capitalism altered human material production. o Moved away from a fixed property based economy, to one which believed money could be accumulated. o Agriculture previously based on small-scale farming moved to commercial mode. o Moved to mass production/wage labour. o Lead to the beginning of globalisation first move toward The Great Divergence. o States that moved into capitalism gained enormous material advantages. 8

9 o Europe leapt over China facilitates the division between the west and the rest sees spread of European states system and practices. o Europe owned an enormous percentage of the earth s territory o Therefore, imperialism facilitated the great divergence. The Atlantic World System o Based on scientific racism states operated on a civilisation test if you were civilised, you could become part of the club of states. o History of interactions among the peoples and empires bordering the Atlantic Ocean rim. o Slave-Trade. o Not until 1992 was the notion of terra nullius overthrown this was seen all around the world, native civilisations overthrown. o The Age of Discovery oppression of those who fell outside of the central world powers. Long 19 th Century and IR Theory o Increasing complexity to global interaction/types of power. o New international systems and actors emerged. o E.g, IGO s, INGO s. o Extension of capitalist markets o Nation building and state rationalisation. o Move from poly-centric international orders to one international order interaction of the main to the peripheral. o Move of power from the monarch to the people. Key Questions for this week 1) Was the Treaty of Westphalia truly the beginning of the modern system of international relations? 2) What part did the rise of capitalism play in the rise of Europe and the great divergence? 3) What facilitated the need for states? What made the state a successful organising principle? 4) Is the balance of power a plausible theory? What evidence is there of it in modern society? 5) Why were international orders needed? What purpose have they served? 9

10 Week two, Lecture One Evolution of Sovereignty o League of nations 1919 national self-determination principle/minority rights recognition. o United Nations charter 1945 o Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 covenants. o Decolonisation movement 1950 s-60 s o Development of the EU 50 s to 90 s o No longer state-centric. o The holders of the recognised units of sovereignty (monarchs to representative governments) shift in who holds it. o Standards of membership who is admitted? Was largely European (standard of civilisations) o Rights and responsibilities of sovereign states particularly those related to international rule and external relations; control people within territories, but also control who enters your territory. Within this territory, you have the ability to pursue economic policies/impose whatever laws one may wish. The Rise and Fall of European Empires o The Great Divergence the wealth of European societies and their technological edge pressures other states to modernise. o Social Darwinism legitimated the possession of power/natural selection. Expansion of European Empires o Emergence of ideologies of scientific racism, nationalism, standards of civilisation. o Standard of civilisation not used to see individual people, used to construct political discourses. o Intra-European tensions global in scope concert must manage these, Berlin conference in 1885 carved up Africa. o Liberia and Ethiopia colonised/tribal areas divided among the powers. The Road to World War 1 o 19 th century was relatively peaceful for Europe. o Outbreak of war in o Many debated causes of war o Background drivers Rapid pace of modernisation, consequence of scientific, political and economic revolutions gave rise to nationalism. o Power balancing among the Great Powers in response to a rising in Germany. o Growing military build between the great powers e.g, France/Russia, Germany/Austria/Hungary. 10