BASIC TEXTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Transcription

1 BASIC TEXTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

2 Also by Evan Luard BRITAIN AND CHINA NATIONALITY AND WEALTH * CONFLICT AND PEACE IN THE MODERN INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM THE CONTROL OF THE SEABED * INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES: The Emerging Framework of Interdependence *SOCIALISM WITHOUT THE STATE TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY * THE UNITED NATIONS: How it Works and What it Does * THE MANAGEMENT OF THE WORLD ECONOMY *ECONOMIC RELATIONS AMONG STATES *INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY *A HISTORY OF THE UNITED NATIONS Volume 1: The Years of Western Domination, Volume 2: The Age of Decolonization, THE GLOBALIZATION OF POLITICS *THE BALANCE OF POWER: The System of International Relations, Also published by Palgrave Macmillan

3 Basic Texts in International Relations The Evolution of Ideas about International Society Selected and introduced by EVANLUARD M MACMILLAN

4 the estate of Evan Luard 1992 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place, London WC1E 7DP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 1992 Published by MACMILLAN ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Basic texts in international relations: The evolution of ideas about international society I. Luard, Evan ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI /

5 Contents Preface Acknowledgements Publishers' Note xiii XV xxi PART ONE THE NATURE OF MAN Introduction 3 1 The Ancient Chinese View 5 Shang Tzu- The Necessity of War 7 Mencius- The Iniquity of War 8 Han Fei-tzu - Power Abroad Depends on Order at Home 10 Mo Tzu- Warfare Harms the State which Conducts it as Well as Mankind as a Whole 12 Hsun-Tzu- Conquest Will Not Win Control of Territory Unless Accompanied by Righteousness 15 2 The Ancient Greek View 18 Plato - Justice among States 19 Aristotle- Peace as the End of War 23 3 The Christian View 26 Augustine - The Universal Love of Peace 28 Thomas Aquinas - The Duty of Rulers in Peace and War 29 Erasmus- Man's Natural Inclination to Peace 32 Penn - Justice as the Means to Peace 35 4 The Philosophers' View 38 Hobbes- Human Nature and Conflict 40 Rousseau- Human Nature and War 44 Hume- Human Nature and the Relations of States 46 5 The Citizen as a Restraint on War 50 v

6 vi Contents Paine- Wars are Made by Governments, not Peoples 51 de Tocqueville - Citizens Love Peace but Soldiers Love War 53 Cobden- War Will Be Prevented by Giving Citizens the Vote 57 6 The Citizen as a Stimulus to War 59 Fichte - Love of Fatherland Entails a Willingness to Fight for It 61 Mazzini- National Sentiment Gives the Right to Make War 64 Spencer- War Secures the Survival of the Fittest 66 7 Class Consciousness as a Restraint on War 70 Marx and Engels - The Victory of the Proletariat Will End National Differences 71 Kautsky - Capitalist Patriotism and Proletarian Patriotism 72 Lenin- A War Made by the Bourgeoisie Should Not Be Supported by Social Democrats 76 8 Personal Aggressiveness as a Source of War 82 Freud- The Urge to Destruction as the Source of War 84 Glover- Repression and Unconscious Sadism as the Source of War 87 Lasswell - Anxiety and Insecurity as the Source of War 90 Durbin and Bowlby- Aggression, Love-Hate, Displacement and Projection as the Source of War 93 9 Social Inftuences Affecting the Disposition to War 99 Buchanan and Cantril - The Individual's Attitude to International Society 100 Lorenz - Social Restraints on Aggressiveness 104 Ardrey- Man as a Territorial Animal 107 Kelman - The Effect of Social Factors on International Relations 109

7 Contents vii PART TWO THE NATURE OF STATES Introduction The Interests of States 118 Thucydides- The Nature of State Interest 120 Kautilya - The Strategy by which Rulers Should Protect their Interests The Competitiveness of States 130 Machiavelli - The Means by which Rulers can Increase their States' Power 132 Bodin - The State's Need of Armed Force to Protect its Interests 136 Rousseau - The Reasons for Mutual Competition between States The Duties of States 143 de Vitoria - The Duty to Respect the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 145 Grotius- The Duty to Make Only Just Wars 149 Wolff- The Duties of States Towards Each Other Reasons of State 156 Louis XIV- The State's Need for Military Triumphs 158 Frederick the Great - The State's Need for Territory 162 Palmerston- The Promotion of the State's Interest the Chief Aim of Policy 165 Meinecke - Raison d'etat The State's Right to Intervene 172 Burke - The Right to Intervene against a Public Menace 175 Mill - The Right to Intervene against an Oppressive Alien Government 180 Palmerston - The Right to Intervene to Secure Justice for a National 186 Gladstone - The Principle of Non-Intervention 188

8 viii Contents 15 The Nationhood of States 193 Hegel- The Absolute Power of the Nation-State 195 Mazzini- The Idea of Nationhood 198 Bismarck - National Honour as a Justification for War 203 von Treitschke- War as the Foundation of the State The Imperialism of States 210 Hobson - The Use of State Power to Sustain Imperialism 213 Lenin - Monopoly Capitalism the Basis of the Imperialist State 216 Schumpeter - Conflicting Interests in Imperialism Geographical Inftuences on States 224 Montesquieu - The Effect of Climate on National Policies 227 Mahan- The Benefits of Sea-Power 231 Mackinder - The Struggle for Control of the Heartland 234 Sprout - The Influence of the Environment on Decision-Makers The Strategic Interests of States 241 von Clausewitz- The Political Purposes of War 243 von Moltke - Germany's Western Frontier 249 von der Goltz- The Growing Scale of Warfare 252 von Bernhardi - The Need to Expand Germany's Power The State's Search for Peace 260 Bloch- The Costs of War in the Modern Age 262 Angell - The Illusory Benefits of Military Victory 264 Wilson - The Coming Age of Peace The State's Search for Power 271 Niebuhr - The Amorality of States 274 Schuman- The State's Will to Power 276 Schwarzenberger - The State's Pursuit of Power 281 Wight - Power Politics 284

9 Contents ix Morgenthau - State Interest Defined in Terms of Power 287 Carr - Power and Morality in International Relations The Motives of States 296 Hoffmann - The Search for Power not the Sole End of States 299 Claude - Is there an Iron Law that States Pursue Power? 305 Deutsch - Power as a Means and Power as an End 308 Holsti - The Objectives of States 311 Luard - Motivations and Norms among States 317 The Decisions of States 324 Snyder, Bruck and Sapin- The Decision-Making Process in International Politics 326 Allison - The Analysis of Foreign Policy Decision-Making 331 Rosenau - The Analysis of Foreign Policy 334 The Defence of the State 339 Brodie - The Principles of Defence in the Nuclear Age 342 Kissinger - The Dilemmas of Deterrence 346 Schelling - The Strategy of Conflict 350 Howard- The Special Character of Modern War 355 The State and the Society of States 361 Waltz- Man, the State and the Society of States 363 Singer- National State and International System 366 PART THREE THE NATURE OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM Introduction The Balance of Power 377 Guicciardini - The Balance of Power among the Italian States 380

10 X Contents Fenelon - The Balance of Power as a Source of Stability 384 Hume - Maintenance of the Balance of Power as a Doctrine of Prudence 386 Vattel - Maintenance of the Balance of Power as a Justification for War 389 von Gentz - The Balance of Power a Safeguard of the Independence of States Systems of Universal Peace 400 Erasmus- The Way to Secure Peace 404 Penn - A Diet of Europe 407 Abbe de Saint-Pierre- A European Union 411 Bentham - An International Code 415 Kant - The Conditions of Peace A System of Great Power Consultation 424 Castlereagh - The Principles of the Concert 428 Palmerston- Weaknesses of the Concert System 432 Gladstone - The Need for Multilateral Action 434 Salisbury - The Need for Consensus among the Powers Maintaining the Balance by Diplomacy 439 Canning- A World-Wide Balance 442 Bright - The Myth of the Balance of Power 443 Palmerston - The Balance of Power Defended 444 Brougham - Maintaining the Balance among European States 445 Brailsford - The Fallacy of the Balance of Power A System of Collective Security 453 Brailsford - A Refonned Concert of Europe 456 Hobson- The Need for a New League of States 460 Woolf- The Need for an International Organisation to Prevent War 462 Zimmern - The League as an Experiment in International Co-operation The Balance of Power in the Modem World 469 Crowe - The Containment of Germany 473 Kennan- The Containment of the Soviet Union 475

11 Contents xi Morgenthau - The Balance of Power as an Automatic Stabiliser 479 Claude - The Balance of Power's Failure to Secure Peace 486 Wight - Diverse Meanings of the Balance of Power A System of Functional Co-operation 498 Mitrany - Functional Co-operation as the Road to Peace 501 Deutsch et al. - The Process of Integration among States 505 Haas - The Limits to Functional Co-operation The International System 516 Parsons - Interaction within a Social System 519 Easton - Interaction within a Political System 522 McClelland- The Use of System Analysis 528 Kaplan - Six Types of International System 531 Hoffmann- The Weaknesses of Systems Theory Transnational Relations 540 Herz - The Decline of the Territorial State 543 Aron - Transnational Society and International Systems 546 Nye and Keohane - Transnational Relations and World Politics The World Society Approach 559 Burton- International Relations and World Society 561 Mitchell- Relationships within World Society 566 Pettman- World Society as a "System" The International Society Approach 575 Aron - Historical Sociology 578 Luard - International Sociology 584 Bull - Order and Anarchy in International Society 590 Conclusions: The Changing Conception of International Society 597 Index 606

12 Preface Though international relations is increasingly widely studied at universities and colleges in the US and Europe, many of the texts that are widely referred to by teachers, especially the writings of classical authors, are not always readily available to students. The object of this reader is to put together passages from major writers on this topic over the ages, together with a brief commentary, in a form that may be useful to students and to those who teach them. In making my selection of texts I have had three considerations in mind. First, I have sought to present writings that are not confined, as are most of the collections produced in recent years, to those appearing, mainly in academic journals, in the last ten or twenty years alone, but to include relevant passages from important writings over the whole period during which the subject of relations among states has been addressed by serious thinkers: that is, two thousand years or more. It is often the texts of the earlier commentators which are most inaccessible to students and which it is therefore most important should be included in a collection of this kind. Secondly, I have felt that the selection should not be confined to academic writers on the subject. The authors quoted therefore include thinkers of many kinds, philosophers, historians, strategic writers and politicians. Many of these have not regarded themselves as international relations specialists but have none the less had important and influential things to say on the topic. I have been particularly concerned to include the ideas of leading statesmen, who have themselves been involved in the conduct of international relations and whose views on the subject are thus sometimes of special significance. Finally, I have wished to make the selection fairly broadly based in terms of the writers' countries of origin. Earlier collections have tended to be confined almost entirely to American writers. In my view European observers have often had at least as much that was of interest to say on the subject, and I have therefore sought to maintain a roughly even balance between European and American authors. The commentary has been kept to a minimum. But it has been thought worthwhile to point to the historical background against which some of the ideas were put forward and to seek to show how xiii

13 xiv Preface each writer, or set of writers, fits into the general evolution of thinking on international relations over the years. The collection is divided into three main sections, each concerned with different levels of approach - the individual, the state and the society of states: the three main alternative ways of conceiving the subject. Within these broad themes a series of sub-topics have been chosen, on each of which three or four writers have been presented, sometimes putting forward contrasting views. The presentation is thus not strictly chronological; but within each main section there is an attempt to show the way ideas have evolved over time in response to a changing international environment. In this way the whole volume can perhaps give a reasonable idea of the development of thinking on the subject over the centuries. It is hoped that the collection may be of value to students in providing, as a complement to the detailed study of individual authors which they will also undertake, a more general view of the wide range of the ideas that have been put forward over the years concerning international society and relationships within it; and that for other readers it may provide an overview of the kind of opinions that have been expressed by a wide range of thinkers about the principal factors affecting international relationships and the means of establishing a more peaceful world.

14 Acknowledgements The editor and publishers wish to thank the following who have kindly given permission for the use of copyright material: Mrs Berdine Ardrey, for the extract from her late husband Robert Ardrey's book The Terriiorial Imperative (Collins, 1967). Augustus M. Kelley Publishers, for the extracts from Joseph A. Schumpeter's The Sociology of Imperialisms, in Imperialism and Social Classes, trs. Heinz Norden, edited with an introduction by Paul M. Sweeny (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1951), copyright 1951 by Elizabeth Boody Schumpeter. Basil Blackwell Publishers, for the extracts from St Thomas Aquinas' De Regimine Principum and Summa Theologica, trs. J. G. Dawson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978); and for the extracts from Jean Bodin's Six Books of the Commonwealth (1576), trs. M. J. Tooley (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1955), Books v and VI. Mr John Burton, for the extracts from his book World Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972). Carnegie Institution of Washington, for the extract from On the Indians (1532), by F. de Vitoria, ed. Ernest Nys (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1917). Columbia University Press, for the extract from Han Fei-tzu, Eminence in Learning and the Five Vermin, 1964 Columbia University Press; extracts from Hsun-Tzu, Debating Military Matters, 1964 Columbia University Press; and extracts from Mo Tzu, Against Offensive Warfare, 1964 Columbia University Press; all these extracts published in Basic Writings, trs. Burton Watson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964). Columbia University Press, for the extracts from Kenneth N. Waltz, Man, the State and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), 1954 Institute of War and Peace Studies, Columbia University. XV

15 xvi Acknowledgements Constable Publishers, for the extract from H. J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality (London: Constable, 1919). Croom Helm, for the extract from R. Pettman, State and Class: A Sociology of International Affairs (London: Croom Helm, 1979). J. M. Dent, for the extracts from Aristotle, Politics, Book VII, trs. William Ellis (London: J. M. Dent, Everyman, 1912); extracts from St Augustine, The City of God, trs. J. Healey (London: J. M. Dent, 1945); also extracts from Joseph Mazzini, The Duties of Man, trs. Ella Noyes (London: J. M. Dent, 1907). Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., for the extracts from J. G. Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation, trs. R. F. Jones and G. H. Turnbull, copyright 1968 George A. Kelly; also extracts from The Necessity for Choice by HenryS. Kissinger, copyright 1960, 1961 by Henry S. Kissinger. Harvard University Press, for the extracts from Thomas C. Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict, copyright 1960, 1980 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1988 by Thomas C. Schelling; the extract from Immanuel Kant, Thoughts on a Perpetual Peace, in Inevitable Peace by Carl J. Friedrich (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), copyright 1948 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1976 by Carl J. Friedrich; also the extracts from R. C. Keohane and J. I. Nye, Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970), copyright 1970 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Heinemann, for the extract from Norman Angell, The Great Illusion (London: Heinemann, 1909). Professor John H. Herz, for the extracts from his book International Politics in the Atomic Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959). David Higham Associates Ltd, for the extracts from Michael Howard, Studies in War and Peace (London: Gower Publishing, 1970). Holt, Rinehart and Winston, for the extract from H. C. Kelman, "Social-Psychological Approaches to the Study of International

16 Acknowledgements xvii Relations", copyright 1965, in Kelman, International Behaviour (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965). Lawrence & Wishart Ltd, for the extracts from V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, in Lenin: Collected Works, vol. 22 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1964). Leicester University Press, for the extracts from Martin Wight, Power Politics (1946). Professor Charles A. McClelland, for the extract from his Theory and the International System (New York: Macmillan, 1966). McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., for the extract from Harold Lasswell, World Politics and Personal Insecurity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935); and for the extract from F. L. Schuman, International Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1934). Macmillan, Inc., and Routledge, for the extracts from Talcott Parson, The Social System, reprinted by permission of The Free Press, a Division of Macmillan, Inc., copyright 1950 by The Free Press, renewed 1978 by Talcott Parsons. Macmillan Publishing Co., for the extracts from Louis XIV: Memoire for the Instruction of the Dauphin, trs. P. Sonnino (New York: Free Press, 1970) copyright 1970 The Free Press; and extracts from Foreign Policy Decision-Making by Richard C. Snyder, H. W. Bruck and Burton Sapin, copyright 1962 by The Free Press; and extracts from Reinhold Neibuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society (Scribner's Sons, 1932, an imprint of Macmillan Publishing Co.), copyright 1932 Charles Scribner's Sons, copyright renewed 1960 Reinhold Niebuhr. Oxford University Press, for the extracts from Plato, The Republic, trs. F. M. Cornford (1941); the extract from Hegel, The Philosophy of Right, trs. T. M. Knox (1942); the extract from Grotius, The Law of War and Peace, trs. F. W. Kelsey et al. (1925); the extracts from Machiavelli, The Prince, trs. Luigi Ricci, revised by E. R. P. Vincent (1935); the extract from Christian Wolff, The Law of Nations, trs. T. J. Remelt (1934); and the extract from Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trs. Henry Reeve (1946), all published by Oxford University Press.

17 xviii Acknowledgements Penguin Books Ltd, for the extract from The Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, trs. Rex Warne (London: Penguin, 1955), translation copyright Rex Warner, Peters, Fraser and Dunlop Ltd, for the extract from Anthony Storr, Human Aggression (London: Allen Lane, 1968), Anthony Storr Prentice-Hall Inc., for the extract from Karl W. Deutsch, The Analysis of International Relations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1968); also the extract from K. J. Holsti, International Politics: A Framework for Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967). Princeton University Press, for the extract from Bernard Brodie, Strategy in the Missile Age, copyright 1959 by Rand Corporation; the extract from Carl von Clausewitz, On War, copyright 1976 by Princeton University Press; the extract from Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Ecological Perspective on Human Affairs, copyright 1965 by Princeton University Press; the extract from Klaus Knorr and Sidney Verba, The International System: Theoretical Essays, copyright 1961 Princeton University Press; the extract from K. W. Deutsch, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area, copyright 1957 Princeton University Press. Random House, Inc., for the extract from lois Claude, Jr., Power and International Relations, copyright 1962 by Random House, Inc.; and the extract from Haps Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, copyright 1948, by Alfred A. Knopf Inc. Professor J. N. Rosenau, for the extract from his The Scientific Study of Foreign Policy (New York: Free Press, 1971). Routledge, for the extract from Friedrich Meinecke, The Idea of 'Raison d'etat' (1924), in Modern History, trs. Douglas Scott (London: Routledge, 1957). Routledge and Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, for the extract from Konrad Lorenz, On Aggression, trs. Marjorie Kerr Wilson, copyright 1963 by G. Borotha, English translation copyright 1966 by Konrad Lorenz, copyright 1983 by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag.

18 Acknowledgements xix The Royal Institute of International Affairs, for the extract from David Mitrany, A Working Peace System (London, 1949). Scott, Foresman and Co., for the extract from G. T. Allison, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1971). Simon & Schuster, and St Martin's Press, for the extract from C. R. Mitchell, "World Society a Cobweb", which was published in Conflict in World Society, ed. M. Banks (1984). Stanford University Press, for the extract from Ernest B. Haas, Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organization, 1964 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. Sweet & Maxwell, for the extract from Georg Schwarzenberger, Power Politics: A Study of War Society (London: Stevens & Sons, 1964). UNESCO, for the extract from Raymond Aron, "Historical Sociology as an Approach to International Relations", which appeared in The Nature of Conflict, Unesco The University of Chicago Press, and Professor David Easton, for the-extract from A Systems Analysis of Political Life, by D. Easton, copyright 1965 and 1979 by David Easton. University of Illinois Press, for the extract from How Nations See Each Other, by William Buchanan and Hedley Cantril (1953). Unwin Hyman, for the extract from J. J. Rousseau, The State of War, trs. M. Forsyth, in The Theory of International Relations (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1970); the extract from E. Glover, War, Sadism and Pacifism (London: George Allen & Unwin 1933); the extract from J. A. Hobson, Imperialism (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1902); and the extract from Martin Wight, "The Balance of Power", in H. Butterfield and M. Wight (eds), Diplomatic Investigations (London: Allen & Unwin, 1966). Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd, for the extract from Raymond Aron, Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations (1966).

19 XX Acknowledgements John Wiley & Sons Inc., for the extract from M. Kaplan, System and Process in International Politics (1957). The executors of the Leonard Woolf estate, for the extract from International Government (London: The Hogarth Press, 1916). Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity.

20 Publishers' Note Evan Luard died on 8 February 1991 before he was able to correct the proofs of this book. xxi