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1 On Clausewitz

2 Also by Hugh Smith NAVAL POWER IN THE PACIFIC (co-editor with Anthony Bergin) THE STRATEGISTS (editor)

3 On Clausewitz A Study of Military and Political Ideas Hugh Smith School of Humanities and Social Science, University College, University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy

4 Hugh Smith 2004 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act First published 2004 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smith, Hugh, 1943 On Clausewitz : a study of military and political ideas / Hugh Smith. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Clausewitz, Carl von, Vom Kriege. 2. Military art and science. 3. Politics and war. I. Title. U102.C6643S dc

5 Contents Acknowledgements Preface vii viii Part 1 Clausewitz s Life and Personality Two chapters outline Clausewitz s life, his personality and his principal writings. 1 Soldier 3 2 Scholar 14 Part II War in the Napoleonic Era Two chapters describe the fundamental changes in warfare and the changing nature of armies in Clausewitz s lifetime. 3 On Warfare 25 4 On Armies 38 Part III On War Two chapters place On War in its intellectual context and describe its main features as a text. 5 The Intellectual Provenance of On War 53 6 On War 63 Part IV The Levels of War Four chapters analyse the four levels which Clausewitz identified in the social and human activity of war. 7 War as Fighting 73 8 War as Contest 85 9 War as an Instrument of Policy Pure War and Real War 111 Part V Strategy Three chapters focus on the campaign as Clausewitz understood it, outlining the nature of strategy, the dynamics of strategy and the qualities required of the successful general. 11 The Nature of Strategy 127 v

6 vi Contents 12 The Conduct of the Campaign Command 156 Part VI Theory and Practice Two chapters analyse Clausewitz s approach to strategic theory and his ideas about the practice of strategy. 14 Theory Praxis 185 Part VII The Political Context Three chapters describe Clausewitz s ideas about the political context of war: politics within the state, the nature of external policy, and the character of international politics. 16 Politics and the State External Policy International Politics 223 Part VIII The Relevance of On War Five chapters look at Clausewitz s ideas as they relate to developments in war since his death in 1831 and to arguments that war has had its day. 19 Clausewitz to Hypermodern War Anti-Modern War Modern War since A Farewell to Clausewitz? 265 Notes 272 Bibliography 289 Index 299

7 Acknowledgements All those who study international relations have at least a passing interest in Clausewitz. I was prompted into a more enduring analysis of his ideas by the late John Vincent, then of the Australian National University and subsequently Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at the London School of Economics. To John, to colleagues at the Australian Defence Force Academy, and to successive classes of postgraduate and honours students with whom I have discussed Clausewitz at length, go my sincere thanks. To my family for their interest and patience over many years goes my deep appreciation. I am grateful to Princeton University Press for permission to use the following publications: Carl von Clausewitz, On War Michael Howard and Peter Paret (editors and translators) 1976 Princeton University Press, 2004 renewed PUP Reprinted by permission of Princeton University Press Carl von Clausewitz, Historical and Political Writings Peter Paret and Daniel Moran (editors and translators) 1992 Princeton University Press Reprinted by permission of Princeton University Press vii

8 Preface On War the lengthy and somewhat disjointed magnum opus of an otherwise obscure Prussian general of the Napoleonic era, Carl Philipp Gottlieb von Clausewitz has occupied a critical place in Western thinking about war for over a century and a half. It has been both vilified and venerated. Detractors have dismissed it as the work of a pseudophilosophical pedant, a narrow-minded Prussian, or an unabashed militarist committed to war as an instrument of policy. Clausewitz, others suggest, has been made redundant by successive revolutions in military technology that began shortly after his death and still continue to transform war. The most radical critics argue that he makes the fundamental mistake of treating war as a rational act. Supporters of Clausewitz have also made extravagant claims. For Bernard Brodie On War is not simply the greatest book on war but the one truly great book on that subject yet written. 1 Only Sun Tzu s The Art of War might be mentioned in the same breath. 2 Though the latter is often cited for its emphasis on winning by diplomatic rather than military means, On War is placed in a class of its own. Comparisons are found only in quite different fields. Amos Perlmutter likens On War to Adam Smith s Wealth of Nations in offering a theory of human behaviour in an important area of human life. 3 The Origin of Species is another parallel: What Darwin accomplished for Biology generally Clausewitz did for the Life-History of Nations nearly half a century before him. 4 General J.F.C. Fuller critically compared him to both Darwin and Marx, claiming that all three based their theories on mass struggle, whether in war, in life, or in economics. 5 On War has attracted interest for many reasons. It offers a view of the place of war in human affairs. It has provided ideas about all-out war and absolute war but also about limited war, the importance of political direction and control, the role of chance and friction, the impact of psychological factors, the conduct of campaigns, and the prospects for a theory of war. Written after Prussia s humiliation at the hands of Napoleon and the country s eventual liberation, On War speaks about national revival and mobilisation of the people. Political and military leaders have thus looked to Clausewitz at times of defeat Britain after the Boer War, the United States after Vietnam and also at times of viii

9 Preface ix challenge the Soviet Union in World War II and both superpowers during the Cold War. On War was a product of its time. For Clausewitz Prussia s survival as an independent nation was at stake. Napoleon threatened the entire European balance of power, while doctrines of revolution, individual rights, cosmopolitanism and the like threatened order at home. Napoleon also injected a new dynamism into war by enlisting the enthusiasm of the population at large and waging campaigns with unprecedented skill and vigour. Prussia and its army, Clausewitz believed, must reform to counter the threat. Intellectually, too, strategy was in dispute. Was it, as the High Enlightenment thought, a field which could yield analytical propositions like other areas of science; or was it, as the Romantic movement claimed, a human endeavour that was at heart creative and beyond rational analysis? Clausewitz sought to understand war and strategy as phenomena in themselves and to provide an analysis of practical value to commanders. Given its historical context the shelf-life of On War might have been a few decades at best. Whatever their subject most classic texts are soon superseded as their ideas are either absorbed or rejected. 6 Yet On War is still read by both practitioners and professors, remaining a constant reference point in Western thinking about war. If there are rivals in longevity in this field the most apt comparison is Machiavelli s The Prince which significantly also deals with the security of states. Writers after Clausewitz have explored the subject of war in greater detail, even with greater sophistication for example, the application of technology to warfare and the intricacies of nuclear strategy. But noone, to use Isaac Newton s metaphor, has stood on Clausewitz s shoulders? Have later writers allowed themselves to be dominated by Clausewitz s interpretation of war, failing to realise the narrow assumptions on which it is based? 7 Is the continuing preeminence of On War one of the greatest condemnations of the quality of military studies. 8 Or is it simply that On War raises questions about war and politics that, once raised, remain perennial issues for all who think about war and peace? For various reasons Clausewitz has been more open to misunderstanding than many other writers the fact that On War remained unfinished and largely unrevised, the ambivalence surrounding his views on the conduct of war, his advocacy of political control over the military, the diverse reactions which war elicits in people, and his political stance which was both conservative and radical. All of these

10 x Preface have prompted diverse and sometimes dangerous misinterpretations. Giving On War to the military, one later German general said, is like allowing a child to play with a razor blade. 9 On occasions, indeed, Clausewitz has had less cause to fear his critics than to be wary of his professed admirers. 10 Raymond Aron suggests there is less danger of misunderstanding now that he has found his natural home in the universities. 11 While Aron s confidence in the academic world might be justified, one doubts the ivory tower would satisfy Clausewitz. This study does not claim to present the real or definitive Clausewitz. For one thing, he is a moving target. Clausewitz changed his understanding of the nature of war in a fundamental way in 1827 and his ideas were only partially incorporated into the collection of his writings published as On War in 1832, the year after his death. The book contains contradictions and inconsistencies; it mixes the analytical and the normative; and it neglects important aspects of war such as seapower while including trivial matters such as moving cavalry across marshes. Its language is at times brilliant and incisive, at times turgid and obscure. Even where authors have been clear and consistent in their views, intractable problems arise in analysing a work written by another person in another age for another audience. 12 No writer s ideas can be taken out of their historical, social and intellectual context and pickled for posterity. Interpretations of Clausewitz are liable to say as much if not more about the reader s view of war and politics as about the original author. 13 As Michael Howard has warned, [t]oo much should not be read into Clausewitz, nor should more be expected of him than he intended to give. 14 In re-presenting Clausewitz I have tried to do the least amount of violence to the understanding of war he had developed at the time of his death. I focus primarily on On War although other works are cited where they add to an understanding of Clausewitz s ideas. Most references are to the reliable and readable translation of On War by Michael Howard and Peter Paret, published by Princeton University Press in Page references to this edition are given in square brackets in the body of the text. Where I have used the German text, I have relied on the 19th edition of On War, edited by Werner Hahlweg and published by Dümmler in Bonn in These citations are also in square brackets. For Clausewitz s other works an English translation is used where available. On occasions I suggest my preferred translations into English which are given in brackets with the German original.

11 Preface xi My debt to Peter Paret, Azar Gat and Raymond Aron will be apparent. 15 Paret s study sets Clausewitz in his historical and political context while Gat focuses on his place in the world of ideas. Aron s work is a detailed explication of Clausewitz s thought. Their works have been of major importance in the contemporary understanding of Clausewitz but much of this scholarship is intended for specialist audiences. The most accessible introduction to Clausewitz by Michael Howard is eminently lucid but is necessarily short and does not claim to be comprehensive. 16 There remains, I believe, a need for a straightforward and extended exposition of Clausewitz s ideas about war and politics. The present work is not intended to replace a reading of On War. This is partly because the lucidity of Clausewitz s mind can only be appreciated at first hand (albeit in translation), but principally because Clausewitz s work is suggestive rather than definitive, as he himself insisted. On War was intended to stimulate readers to work out their own response to the problems posed by war not to serve as a readyreckoner for commanders in the field or as a manual for statesmen. To paraphrase General Douglas MacArthur, there is no substitute for Clausewitz.

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