CultureGram: Afghanistan 2016

Transcription

1 CultureGram: Afghanistan 2016 Land and Climate Located in central Asia, Afghanistan is roughly half the size of Peru and a little smaller than the U.S. state of Texas. Afghanistan is a landlocked country of rugged mountains. The most prominent mountain range is the Hindu Kush, which extends about 600 miles (966 kilometers) from the far northeast to the southwest, effectively bisecting the country. Mount Noshaq, which lies on the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, is Afghanistan's highest peak and reaches 24,550 feet (7,483 meters). The Wakhan Corridor (the extreme northeasterly part of Afghanistan, which borders China, Tajikistan, and Pakistan) sits at the junction of the highest mountain systems in the world (including the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and others), which together are sometimes called the "roof of the world." North of the Hindu Kush, the Turkestan Plains run down to the Amu Darya (River) on the northern border. After broadening into the Hazarajat central plateau, the mountains disappear into western deserts such as the Registan. Northern Afghanistan is subject to major earthquake activity. For water, Afghanistan relies on four major river systems: the Amu Darya, the Kabul, the Helmand, and the Hari Rud. Many villages in Afghanistan use a qanat well system (a string of connected wells) to irrigate more arid parts of the country. The climate varies according to elevation and location. Generally, the capital city of Kabul (at 6,000 feet, or 1,829 meters) has cold winters and temperate summers; Jalalabad (1,800 feet, or 549 meters) has a subtropical climate; and Kandahar (3,500 feet, or 1,067 meters) is mild year-round. Central and north-eastern Afghanistan experience heavy snowfall during winter. History Ancient Empire and Early Dynasties Located along the Silk Road (a trade route extending from China to Europe), Afghanistan has been the Crossroads of Asia since ancient times and thus subject to repeated invasion. Emperors and conquerors (Persians, Greeks, central Asians, and others) throughout history have attempted to control or pacify the region's inhabitants, most often finding them fiercely independent and formidable military opponents aided by the country's natural defense mountains. Islam was introduced in the seventh century and flourished in the Ghaznavid Empire ( ). Great destruction occurred in the 13th century with the Mongol invasions of Genghis Khan. His Turko-Mongol descendant Tamerlane (also known as Timur) established the Timurid Dynasty ( ), famed for its arts and architecture. The Mughal Dynasty ( ) rose to control eastern Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent, while the Persian Safavid Dynasty ( ) held western Afghanistan. Afghanistan's roots as a modern state are in the Durrani Dynasty, founded in 1747 by Ahmed Shah Durrani. The Great Game and Independence During Durrani's reign, Afghanistan was caught in the 19th-century struggle for territory and influence between the Russian and British empires (called the Great Game); Afghanistan was used by the British as a buffer between Russia and India, Britain's colony. While Afghanistan was never ruled by a European power, Britain had nominal control over the country's foreign policy. Afghanistan achieved full independence from Britain after the Third Anglo-Afghan war in Despite the efforts of Shah Amanullah Khan (leader of Afghanistan at independence) to modernize and Westernize the country, his reforms were largely rejected by the conservative religious leaders 1

2 (for his progressive attitudes, including those toward women) and tribal leaders (who were afraid of a strong centralized government). In 1929, Amanullah Khan was deposed by Habibullah Kalakani, a Tajik who led the revolt against Amanullah. Less than a year after assuming office, Habibullah was overthrown by Nadir Shah, who tried to pacify the concerns of the religiously conservative while still implementing reform. In 1973, Muhammad Zahir Shah, successor and son of Nadir Shah, was ousted by his cousin Prince Muhammad Daoud Khan in a bloodless coup. Prince Muhammad Daoud established the Republic of Afghanistan and made himself president. During his time in office, Prince Muhammad Daoud tried to decrease Afghanistan's reliance on the Soviet Union. Soviet Era Although Prince Muhammad Daoud was supported by the national Communist Party, the United States and regional powers (including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Iran) were concerned about Soviet influence in Afghanistan. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) coordinated with these regional powers to supply and arm local rebel groups in order to counter Soviet power in Afghanistan. For its part, the Soviet Union was concerned about Afghanistan's relationship with the United States and its connection with these Islamic states. Five years after Muhammad Daoud came to power, the Soviets, in coordination with sympathetic elements in the army, aided in a military coup. Once in power, the Soviet-backed communists instituted a number of reforms that were strongly opposed by many of Afghanistan's devoutly Muslim citizens. Soon, an anticommunist rebellion, which was supported by the United States, broke out in Afghanistan. Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in 1979 to prevent the communist government's collapse. The resulting Soviet-Afghan War caused widespread destruction, killed 1.5 million people, and drove more than 6 million refugees into Pakistan and Iran. The Soviet troops withdrew in February 1989 and put in place a puppet regime led by Muhammad Najibullah. Following the Soviet withdrawal, civil war broke out between the communist government of Najibullah and Muslim mujahideen (Islamic fighters) from several political parties. In 1992, Najibullah's government was defeated by mujahideen. Rise of the Taliban Between 1992 and 1996, different factions of mujahideen in Kabul began fighting each other for control of the country. In 1994, one group of mujahideen, known as the Taliban ("Students," referring to Muslim youth studying Islam), took control of the city of Kandahar and promised to bring order to the city. The Taliban began punishing mujahidin commanders from other groups for atrocities they had committed against civilians. These Taliban fighters received direct support from Pakistan and many war-weary Afghans. The same year, militia factions who had been fighting for control of Kabul were defeated by Ahmad Shah Massoud, leader of Shora-Nezar (Northern Alliance), an alliance of militias opposed to the Taliban. Massoud sought to build a national dialogue including the Taliban but was rejected in his offers of incorporation. In 1996, the Taliban captured Kabul, and by 2000, the group controlled 90 percent of the country. Support for the Taliban slipped after it imposed strict laws based on its interpretation of shariʿah (Islamic law) and on pre-islamic Pashtun tribal codes. A terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in New York City in September 2001 caused the United States to join with the Northern Alliance in ousting the Taliban, which was sheltering al-qaeda terrorists accused of masterminding the attack. U.S. forces and the Northern Alliance gained control of Kabul and other key cities in November Transitional State Locally elected and tribal officials met in June 2002 to create a two-year transitional government. They chose Hamid Karzai as president. A constitution was approved in January 2004, and Karzai won presidential elections in October His administration sought to rebuild a devastated infrastructure, bridge longstanding differences among the nation's tribes, and combat a lucrative drug trade, which is based on crops of opium poppies (used in making heroin and other opiates). Troops from the United States and other nations continued operations to establish security and fight Taliban and al-qaeda militants. 2

3 Although Karzai won a second term in 2009, the elections were fraught with allegations of fraud, which undermined confidence in the results. Karzai went on to issue a decree that gave him complete control over the Electoral Complaints Commission, which had helped to expose the fraud in the 2009 elections. He also blamed foreign observers for the election fraud and accused United Nations (UN) and European Union (EU) officials of plotting against him. U.S. Troop Withdrawal and Taliban Resurgence In 2009, President Obama bolstered U.S. troop levels in Afghanistan by 30,000 but confirmed that troops would begin withdrawal in two years. In mid-2010, the website WikiLeaks released thousands of classified documents regarding the war in Afghanistan that damaged diplomatic relations between countries. NATO agreed in late 2010 to hand over control of Afghanistan's security forces, which was accomplished in U.S. troop withdrawal began in mid-2011 and continued steadily through 2015, with a plan in place to remove nearly all troops by the end of However, in October 2015, President Obama postponed the withdrawal of U.S. troops because of the precarious security situation in Afghanistan. In June 2016, President Obama announced that 8,400 U.S. troops would remain in Afghanistan until 2017, rather than decreasing the number of troops to 5,500 as previously announced. The U.S. military presence in Afghanistan continues to be controversial, and the military's use of drone strikes in Afghanistan has been widely criticized for the resultant civilian casualties. Though the strength of the Taliban fluctuated throughout the U.S.-led military campaign, by 2016 the Taliban had regained substantial territory and was in control of more areas of Afghanistan than at any point since the U.S.-led invasion of Recent Events and Trends Presidential elections: Afghans participated in the country's first open presidential election in April 2014 and again in a runoff election in June. Challenges to this election included violence against voters and reports of voting irregularities like ballot-box stuffing. After a total ballot recount, Ashraf Ghani was declared the winner in September He formed a new government and appointed Abdullah Abdullah as the chief executive officer, a new position that shares power with the president. Afghan peace talks: In July 2015, the Taliban elected a new leader after the death of the group's founder, Mullah Omar, was confirmed. Peace talks with the Taliban have been postponed following the announcement of the new leader, Mullah Akhtar Mansoor. Divisions within the militant group threaten the continuance of peace talks with the Afghan government. Civilian casualties: In April 2016, the UN reported that the number of Afghan casualties for early 2016 reached nearly 2,000 wounded or killed. Earlier in 2016, the UN announced that over the course of 2015, the Afghan people experienced the highest level of civilian casualties in the country since the UN began recording the data in 2009: more than 3,500 civilian deaths and more than 7,400 civilian injuries, bringing the total number of civilian casualties to more than 11,000. The increase in civilian casualties in 2015 was largely the result of the battle over the city of Kunduz, in addition to continued military action by coalition forces and insurgent groups and suicide attacks from the Taliban. Source: 3

4 Analysis: Who are the Taleban? The world first became aware of the Taleban in 1994 when they were appointed by Islamabad to protect a convoy trying to open up a trade route between Pakistan and Central Asia. The group - comprised of Afghans trained in religious schools in Pakistan along with former Islamic fighters or mujahedin - proved effective bodyguards, driving off other mujahedin groups who attacked and looted the convoy. They went on to take the nearby city of Kandahar, beginning a remarkable advance which led to their capture of the capital, Kabul, in September Anti-corruption The Taleban's popularity with many Afghans initially surprised the country's warring mujahedin factions. As ethnic Pashtuns, a large part of their support came from Afghanistan's Pashtun community, disillusioned with existing ethnic Tajik and Uzbek leaders. But it was not purely a question of ethnicity. Ordinary Afghans, weary of the prevailing lawlessness in many parts of the country, were often delighted by Taleban successes in stamping out corruption, restoring peace and allowing commerce to flourish again. Their refusal to deal with the existing warlords whose rivalries had caused so much killing and destruction also earned them respect. Islamic state The Taleban said their aim was to set up the world's most pure Islamic state, banning frivolities like television, music and cinema. Their attempts to eradicate crime have been reinforced by the introduction of Islamic law including public executions and amputations. A flurry of regulations forbidding girls from going to school and women from working quickly brought them into conflict with the international community. Such issues, along with restrictions on women's access to health care, have also caused some resentment among ordinary Afghans. Extending control The Taleban now control all but the far north of the country, which is the last stronghold of the ethnic Tajik commander Ahmed Shah Masood. With 90% of the country under their control, the Taleban have continued to press claims for international recognition. But the Afghan seat at the United Nations continues to be held by former President Burhanuddin Rabbani. 4

5 The UN sanctions which have now been imposed on the country make it even less likely that the Taleban will gain that recognition. The sanctions are intended to force the Taleban to hand over the Saudi-born militant Osama Bin Laden, who is accused by the United States of plotting the 1998 bombings of US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, which killed more than 250 people. The Taleban say that Osama Bin Laden is a guest in their country, and they will not take action against him. Afghanistan has suffered 20 years of war, and this year has brought the worst drought in decades. There is little sign that sanctions will change the Taleban's policies, or weaken their position within the country. Source: Buried Alive: Afghan Women Under the Taliban by Jan Goodwin February 27, Thirty-thousand men and boys poured into the dilapidated Olympic sports stadium in Kabul, capital of Afghanistan. Street hawkers peddled nuts, biscuits and tea to the waiting crowd. The scheduled entertainment? They were there to see a young woman, Sohaila, receive 100 lashes, and to watch two thieves have their right hands amputated. Sohaila had been arrested walking with a man who was not a relative, a sufficient crime for her to be found guilty of adultery. Since she was single, it was punishable by flogging; had she been married, she would have been publicly stoned to death. Afraid of the Taliban's long reach, these Afghan schoolgirls cover their faces to avoid recognition, even in a refugee camp in Pakistan. As Sohaila, completely covered in the shroud-like burqa veil, was forced to kneel and then flogged, Taliban "cheerleaders" had the stadium ringing with the chants of onlookers. Among those present there were just three women: the young Afghan, and two female relatives who had accompanied her. The crowd fell silent only when the luckless thieves were driven into the arena and pushed to the ground. Physicians using surgical scalpels promptly carried out the amputations. Holding the severed hands aloft 5

6 by the index fingers, a grinning Taliban fighter warned the huge crowd, "These are the chopped-off hands of thieves, the punishment for any of you caught stealing." Then, to restore the party atmosphere, the thieves were driven in a jeep once around the stadium, a flourish that brought the crowd to their feet, as was intended. Source: 6