John Paul Tabakian, Ed.D. Political Science 2 Modern World Governments Fall 2017 / Spring 2017 Power Point 10

Transcription

1 John Paul Tabakian, Ed.D. Political Science 2 Modern World Governments Fall 2017 / Spring 2017 Power Point 10

2 This Week s Lecture Covers: Iran Current Policy Challenges Institutions Of The Islamic Republic Elections And Parties Political Culture Political Socialization Recruiting The Political Elite Interest Articulation And Aggregation Policy Formulation Policy Outcomes Course Lecture Topics (1)

3 Course Lecture Topics (2) India Current Policy Challenges The Twin Legacies Of Colonial rule And The Anti- Colonial Movement The Givens Of Indian Society Political Institutions And The Policy Process Federal Structure Articulation Of Interests Party System Political Socialization And Political Culture Political Recruitment Policies To Address The Economy, Welfare, Poverty Democracy And Development

4 Country Bio: Iran (1)

5 Country Bio: Iran (2) Population: 66.3 million Territory: 636,296 sq. miles Year of Independence: 550 B.C. Year of Current Constitution: 1979, amended in 1989 Language: Persian, regional languages Religion: Twelver Shiite Muslim 90%, Sunni Muslim 10%, non-muslims less than 1%

6 Iran Population

7 Background: Islamic Republic Of Iran (1) World s only theocracy A form of government in which ideally all laws are grounded in religion and express the will of God, and the clergy exercises supreme power

8 Background: Islamic Republic Of Iran (2) Established in 1979 A few months after a popular revolution uniting poor and middleclass, religious and secular people overthrew Mohammad-Reza Shah Pahlavi the last ruler of the country s ancient monarchy. Ruholla Khomeini charismatic clerical leader who had authored a blueprint for theoretic government in the 1970s, led the 1979 revolution Opposed democracy on religious grounds Sovereignty belongs to god alone Divine law, know as the shari a, as interpreted and applied by the ulema (religious scholars in the Muslim world) takes precedence over laws made by human legislators.

9 Background: Islamic Republic Of Iran (3) Developed a very lively political system after Khomeini s death in 1989 Presidential, parliamentary, and local elections offer Iranian citizens a choice of candidates advocating differing policies. One of many paradoxes found in Iran

10 Current Policy Challenges (1) Iran is the first country in which Islamists have had to deliver on the promises of a society characterized by social justice and moral propriety. During the first decade of the Islamic Republic Some redistribution of wealth New leadership came mostly from humble or middle-class backgrounds and adopted populist policies that somewhat bettered the lot of the poorest. Rural development Health Women s education Roads Poverty, inequality, and underemployment continue to be major public grievances.

11 Current Policy Challenges (2) Job creation has been very inadequate. Need to increase economic output. Population grows by one million a year. Discontent spurred out migration from the country One in four Iranians with higher education live abroad Subsequently, Iranians often have family abroad in the U.S., Canada, and Europe Corruption Dissatisfaction with the status quo among some of Iran s ethnic minorities

12 Historical Legacy (1) Never formally colonized by Europeans Borders arise from historical balance of power between its shahs and their neighboring rules. Current Iranian state was set up in the early 16 th century by the Safavid dynasty. Establishment of Twelver Shiism as the official state religion and the conversion of most Iranians who had been Sunnis to Shiism Political center of the Shiite world

13 Historical Legacy (2) Twelver Shiism Split between Sunnis (90% of all Muslims) and the Shiites came about after the death of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad Shiites believed that descendants of the Prophet could be the only rightful successors/leaders-- Imams. Third Imama, Husayn, whose martyrdom in 680 C.E. symbolizes for Shiites for the struggle of the just against the unjust. Most Shiites believe the Twelfth Imam was the last of the Imam, thus their name. Believe he is alive and will come forth and show himself to establish a just rule at the end of time He is a messiah-like figure. Role and function of the ulema

14 Historical Legacy Constitutional In Iran (1) In 1905 widespread dissatisfaction with the way the country was governed Led to a popular movement that would rest the constitution from the shah in December 1905 Shiite ulema played major role in the constitutional movement Powers of the monarchy needed to be curtailed

15 Historical Legacy Constitutional In Iran (2) Believed the citizenry had the right to elect a representative parliament Shah could name a prime minister only in agreement with parliament. Parliament could hold the government accountable. Constitutionalist ulema found ways to justify them in Islamic terms. Ayatollah Muhammad-Husayn Na inni His argument implied the novel idea that as long as the Twelfth Imam chose to remain in hiding, the believers themselves were his deputies. Reconciled Shiism s core beliefs with modern notions of constitutionalism and is a legacy that the revolutionaries of 1979 could not ignore as they set out to create an Islamic state.

16 Historical Legacy: The Pahlavi Monarchy (1) In a 1907 secret agreement Britain and Russia divided Iran into two spheres of influence. During WWI, belligerents repeatedly violated Iran s neutrality and fought each other on Iranian territory. Created strife in Iran

17 Historical Legacy: The Pahlavi Monarchy (2) 1921 coup d etat put an end to the rule of the old establishment Between 1941 and 1953 Iran s political system included three main camps: Pro-Western conservative establishment (Shah and landlords) Pro-Soviet communist Tudeh party Neutralist National Front, which aimed at establishing the full rule of law within the country and consolidating its standing among nations. Mohammad Mossadegh: nationalizing the Iranian oil industry British plotted his overthrow; accomplished with the help of the U.S. Central Intelligence (CIA) in August 1953

18 Historical Legacy: The Pahlavi Monarchy (3) Reverted to royal autocracy as the second ruler of the Pahlavi dynasty (1963) White Revolution Land reform and granting suffrage to women Westernizing policies Traditionalists rioted New opposition: Ruhollah Khomeini Riots suppressed with violence Khomeini arrested and exiled: settled in Najaf in Iraq until 1978 when he was expelled by Saddam Hussein until his triumphant return to Iran in 1979

19 Historical Legacy: The Pahlavi Monarchy (4) Demands for free elections Shah s regime increasingly contested at home but it continued to receive support from the West in general and in the U.S. in particular Opposition to the Shah also became opposition to the U.S. Evidence suggests that Shah was successful at manipulating U.S. policymakers to achieve his ends rather than it being the other way around.

20 Historical Legacy: Islamic Revolution And Iran / Iraq War (1) 1977 Jimmy Carter president of the U.S. Focus on human rights Shah had terminal cancer; began liberalizing Iran s political system Groups pushed for greater reforms Revolutionary uprising Khomeini 1979 New Constitution Maintained a parliament elected by universal suffrage Shah replaced by an elected president Principle of velayat-e faqih guardianship of the jurisprudence

21 Historical Legacy: Islamic Revolution And Iran / Iraq War (2) 1979 to 1981 Competition for power; violence Khomeini gains the upper hand and began instituting Islamic law in all spheres of public life. Iran-Iraq War Legacy of Oil Wealth: A Rentier State Sustain themselves independently of social pressures and powerful interest groups

22 Iranian Regimes

23 Institutions Of The Islamic Republic (1) Multiple power centers Leader Highest authority in the Islamic Republic Combines religious and temporal authority Assembly of Experts Choose the Leader President Elected by universal suffrage every four years Must be a Twelver Shiite and a male; does not have to be a cleric

24 Institutions Of The Islamic Republic (2) Parliament Unicameral, the Majles, comprises about 290 members Must be Muslims but the Constitution provides for five members of Parliament to represent Christians (3), Jews (one) and Zoroastrians (one) Two features of the political system seriously limit the Majle s legislative role. Many policies, rules, and regulations are set by unelected specialized bodies. All its bills are subject to the veto of the Council of Guardians.

25 Institutions Of The Islamic Republic (3) Council of Guardians Six members of the ulema and six lay Muslim lawyers. Ulema appointed by the Leader; lawyers nominated by the Judiciary but approved by the Parliament

26 Institutions Of The Islamic Republic (4) Expediency Council A council for determination of what is in the interest of the regime Collective body for arbitration of conflict Anchored in constitutional revision of 1989 Leader appoints over 30 members of this council Help the leader formulate overall state policy An honestly undemocratic Constitution Multiple power centers

27 Women In Parliament

28 Formal Constitutional Power Structure

29 Elections And Parties (1) The Pre-revolutionary legacy Very limited competitive elections Suffrage for women Minimum voting age 15 Post-revolutionary parties Islamic Republican Party Factionalism Khomeini could arbitrate Ideological differences became the basis of factional politics 1990s Khatami s election; more political parties appeared on the scene

30 Elections And Parties (2) Presidential elections 1980 first ever presidential election Victory of a lay Islamist: Banisadr Impeached by Parliament and deposed by Khomeini in 1981 His successor and prime minister killed by a bomb two months later The next four elections: Khomeini associates Result: participation went down Khatami outsider ; appealed to those who had been humiliated by the regime Promised greater cultural openness and personal freedom 2005 elections: arch conservative mayor of Tehran, Mahud Ahmadinejad Some question as to voter fraud allegations

31 Elections And Parties (3) Parliamentary elections Divided into multimember constituencies Largest is Tehran with 30 MPs Each voter can write down the names of as many candidates as there are seats in a constituency. Top vote-getters in each constituency are elected provided they receive over 50% of the total vote. Second round determines the remaining MPs from among the runner-ups.

32 Electoral Participation

33 Elections And Parties (1) Elections of 2004 Council of Guardians disallowed about 2,000 reformist candidates, including about 80 sitting MPS (unprecedented) Call for a boycott of the election 50% of the population still went to the polls

34 Elections And Parties (2) Local elections Constitution of 1906 provided for elected local government councils but these were never constituted. Similar provision of the 1979 Constitution first put into action in Iranians for the first time went to the polls to elect city, town, and village councils. Reformists won control over most councils; stymied by conservatives Voters stopped participating. Elections in 2003 only 15 turnout in Tehran- even though the freest election in Iranian history. Mostly conservatives voted. Result: very conservative council December 2006 new elections Participation increased; Ahmadinejad conservatives won only a few seats; rebuke for the President s handling of the economy.

35 Political Culture (1) System level Iranian nationalism/ancient Persia Vanguard of the Islamic world s struggle against Western domination Ethic nationalism has become stronger among Iran s non-persian populations right to develop nuclear energy Government used this issue to shore up their legitimacy.

36 Political Culture (2) Process level Islamic revolution increased participation in politics Some disaffected Extreme individualism and lack of trust of government Long history of despotism Periodic emergence of charismatic leaders

37 Political Culture (3) Policy level Oil- Iranians have tended to expect the state to provide welfare and material well-being for everybody and alleviate the gap between rich and poor. Corruption Suspicion of private enterprise Populism

38 Political Socialization Educational system The military Religion and religious institutions Mass media Family and social groups

39 Expressing Trust

40 Religious Impact

41 Religious Beliefs & Practices

42 Recruiting The Political Elite Who governs Iran? Under the Shah Small class of educated and secular Iranians who had personal loyalty to the monarch Under the Islamic Republic Personalism Revolutionary pedigrees Clergy recruited into the state Nonclerical parliamentarians and ministers tend to emerge from educational and military institutions Many of the new elite have come from the ranks of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and the Basij. Kinship ties

43 Interest Articulation And Aggregation Forms of interest articulation and aggregation Noninstitutional Clientelism and patron-client networks Institutional Voting Weakness of party organizations Unable to maintain party organization and formalized links to the citizenry Institutionalized groups Professional organizations Nonassociational social groups Demonstrations and public protests

44 Policy Formulation (1) State institutions mentioned in the Constitution In theory, no state policy may contradict Islam, so those who determine this have a preponderant voice in setting policy. The Leader The Expediency Council The National Security Council The Council of Guardians Executive branch and parliament

45 Policy Formulation (2) State institutions not mentioned in the Constitutions Supreme council for the Cultural Revolution Power centers and the difficulty of coordination Multiple power centers so policies are often not coordinated Judiciary Revolutionary Guards

46 Policy Formulation (3) Economic policymaking One of the most contentious topics 1980s liberal approach: private sector and market mechanisms Mixed results Led to hardship and therefore faced opposition Khatami s efforts limited due to economic foundations and parastatal organizations autonomous and privileged access to resources and markets.

47 Comparative Growth Rate

48 Policy Outcomes Incoherent policies Sometimes paralysis Example of cultural policy: banning of music Spreading progress and prosperity State educational system astonishingly good Science and literacy Birth control Health care Roads and the provision of basic services

49 Comparisons Of Development

50 Policy Outcomes: Islamization Of Society Alcohol consumption banned except for the non-muslim minorities Veiling enforced in public spaces State committed in theory to the minimizing contact between unrelated men and women Religious content of education is vastly expanded Gruesome physical punishment to chastise adulterers, homosexuals, and other offenders of religious morality Outwardly a success; but underneath the surface bootlegging, prostitution (driven by poverty), over 2 million Iranians are drug addicts, corruption Religious practice has become more private Anticlericalism

51 Policy Outcomes: Gender Relations Legal restrictions on women s rights Many ad hoc discriminations instituted by the Islamic Republic Fields of study closed to women Women s sports restricted; attire incompatible with veiling Women increasing their participation in public life Many are working outside of the home 60% of the student body at universities restrictions on what they can study having been gradually lifted More novels- written by women Women compete in sports but at locations to which men are not admitted Mal-veiling Islamic feminism

52 Policy Outcomes: Foreign Policy Under the Shah U.S. an ally 1990s national interest Third Worldist Desire to escape the hegemony of Western world Main issue confronting current Iranian diplomacy is the nuclear program.

53 Iran And Its Challenges Faced many challenges and has survived Reopening of the debate: What is the proper relation between religion and politics in Iran?

54 Country Bio: India (1)

55 Country Bio: India (2) Population: 1,103,37 billion (2005) Territory: 1,269,338 sq. miles Year of Independence: 1947 Year of Current Constitution: 1950 Number of Constitutional Amendments: 93 (as of April 2006) Language: English, Hindi (primary tongue of 30% of the people), Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kasmiri, Sindhi, Sanskrit Note: There are 24 languages, each of which is spoken by a million or more people Religion: Hindu 80.5%, Muslim 13.4%, Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.9%, Buddhist 0.8%, Jain 0.4%, other 0.6% (Census 2001) Scheduled Castes 16.2% of population Scheduled Tribes 8.2% of population

56 Background Poverty and underdevelopment New sense of optimism Integration into a global market economy But will it bring sustained growth Good case for cross-cultural comparisons of the transition to democracy Has democratic political system Secular constitution Liberalized but still mixed economy Mass poverty Complex ethnic composition

57 Current Policy Challenges New international environment has posed a sharp challenge to India s traditional policy of non-alignment Panchasheela Indo-Pakistani rivalry source of great anxiety Potential for nuclear war 1998 nuclear tests Series of negotiations and confidence-building measures Kashmir Key strategic partner with U.S. South Asia policy Poverty Mass literacy Few elite institutions: IIT, IIM No infrastructure for mass literacy Education is the responsibility of India s regional governments Infrastructure problems in road transport and shipping facilities

58 The Twin Legacies Of Colonial Rule And The Anti-colonial Movement Historical controversies Highly organized feudal state in India versus segmentary early state Colonial rule Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha nonviolent resistance Cross-community coalitions Hindi-Muslim unity Indian National Congress India Act of 1935 Impact of British rule on India Congress Party India became independent in 1947 Jawaharlal Nehru- India s first prime minister

59 The Givens Of Indian Society: From Hierarchy To Plurality (1) Religious diversity and political conflict Hindu s divided Jammu and Kashmir have Muslim majority Punjab has a Sikh majority Several other small states have a Christian majority Ayodhya Hindu nationalism Partition of British India and the creation of Pakistan Sikhism Castes and politics Jatis basic social units that still govern marriages, social networks, food taboos, and rituals in India In the past it regulated the choice of occupation: hereditary and caste-specific More than 2,000 jatis in India; divided into four varnas The Brahmins priests Kshatriyas rulers and warriors Vaisyas mercantile class Sudras service groups, agriculturists, and artisans Dharma Dalits

60 The Givens Of Indian Society: From Hierarchy To Plurality (2) Language Key component of identity Divided into two main groups: Indo-Aryan languages of the North and the Dravidian languages of the South Largest single language is Hindi, which, along with English, is recognized as an official language of India. Social Class Did not develop a revolutionary peasant movement Industrial working class is quite small and only a fraction is unionized Middle peasant cultivators Pressures of mechanization; more landless

61 Changing Opinions

62 Communist Polarization & Political Attitudes

63 Political Institutions And The Policy Process Like many former British colonies, India adopted a parliamentary democracy Has survived many challenges including political change, societal change and wars Decentralization of power; devolution; rule of five The President Designed with the British monarch in mind; in practice, the office combines ceremonial roles with some substantive powers Power formally vested in the president, and he is expected to exercise these powers on the advice of the Council of Ministers, with the prime minister at its head. The Prime Minister Controls and coordinates the departments of government and determines policy through the submission of a program for parliamentary action If he commands a majority in the Lok Sabha, his government is secure.

64 Separation And Division

65 Political Institutions And The Policy Process: Parliament (1) Upper House the Rajya Sabha (the Council of States) has some features of the U.S. Senate (India is a federation) Lower House Lok Sabha (House of the People) 545 members; 543 are directly elected and two are nominated by the president of India as representatives of the Anglo-Indian community Simple majority; single member constituencies; 5 year term; can be dissolved Guaranteed representation of former untouchables and trials in the Lok Sabha reserved seats Designed to be an instrument of democratic accountability

66 Political Institutions And The Policy Process: Parliament (2) Zero hour Ultimate control over the executive lies in the motion of noconfidence Rajya Sabha consists of a maximum of 250 members, of which twelve are nominated by the president for their special knowledge or practical experience. The legislative process generally follows the British practice. Once both houses pass a bill, it requires the president s assent to become a law. Joint sessions are used to resolve conflicts. Lack of party discipline

67 Political Structure

68 Prime Ministers & Presidents

69 Political Institutions And The Policy Process: Judiciary Constitution committed to individual rights of equality and liberty System that is both independent from external control and free to interpret the law Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction in disputes between the Union government and one or more states, or disputes between two or more states It has appellate jurisdiction in any case, civil or criminal that involves a question of law in the meaning and intent of the Constitution Supreme Court determines the constitutionality of any enactment.

70 Political Institutions And The Policy Process: Bureaucracy Bureaucratic apparatus that is both professionally organized and politically accountable Enormously complex system that combines national or all-india services with regional and local services IAS, IPS

71 The Federal Structure Fear of balkanization Special features of the Indian Constitution Produce highly centralized form of federalism Division of powers between the central government and the states with a bias in favor of the center The financial provisions affecting the distribution of revenues Kashmir Test of the integrative ability of the Indian political system Union List Special powers: emergency powers; use of executive powers, special legislative powers State List Pattern of cooperation between center and the states

72 The Articulation Of Interests (1) Trade Unions and Employer s Associations Under India s labor law, any seven workers can set up a trade union All India Trade Union Congress All India Railwaymen s Federation Interest groups closely affiliated with parties Indigenous Interests Satyagraha Chipko Indian Peasant Union Kisans

73 The Articulation Of Interests (2) Local Politics Social activists Dharna Gherao Rajiv Gandhi

74 The Articulation Of Interests (3) Democracy and the challenge of governance Indian case demonstrates how transactional politics within firm boundaries laid down and defended with overwhelming force by the state have helped in the functioning of representative political institutions.

75 The Articulation Of Interests (4) The Military Professional and apolitical character of the army Office corps of India has remained nonpartisan even during political turmoil. Absence of leadership vacuum at the upper and middle levels of the system and the fragmented character of the command structure = relative immunity of the Indian political system from a military takeover

76 Riots In India

77 The Party System The Congress System The Congress Party The Bharatiya Janata Party The Communist Party The social bases of the parties Congress Party cuts across all social groups and cleavages of India; catch-all party Hindu nationalist BJP is very much a party of the Hindu-Hindi-belt has extended somewhat beyond the upper social order and Hindu upper caste Communist parties (CPM and CPI) attracts more support from lower social classes and the more educated voters.

78 The Political Socialization And Political Culture The interaction of tradition and modernity W.H. Morris-Jones: three idioms: the modern, the traditional, and the saintly Political learning Schooling is limited, and primary schooling is not a federal subject Mass illiteracy Liberalization and penetration by the electronic media Elections Participation has stabilized around 60%

79 Turnout

80 Percentage Of Votes

81 Social Profiles

82 Efficacy & Legitimacy

83 Political Recruitment Percentage of politicians of rural origin has grown in the Lok Sabha over the years Percentage of Brahmins has dropped significantly Many regional governments have become important recruitment ground for new leaders and a school for training these potential leaders.

84 Policies To Address The Economy, Welfare And Poverty Politics of incremental growth and redistribution Mass poverty has always been high on the nation s political agenda National Development Council Eliminated famine and a reliance on imported food Green Revolution Food procurement Planned development based on mixed economy commanding heights dominated by the public sector achieved some welfare and some negative side-effects Quota-permit-raj Corruption and inefficiency Manmohan Singh - liberalization

85 Real Growth Rates

86 Conclusion: Democracy And Development What kind of democracy will emerge over the nest decades in India? An elitist, affluent, and secure India A majoritarian democracy, reforming but still poor, armed with nuclear teeth, threatening its neighbors Democratic potential of politics from below Its million mutinies ensconced in the context of a responsive state and elites well versed in the art and science of governance, can pave the transition to liberal democracy despite predictions to the contrary.

87 Cultural Conflict New Cold War? Tensions between civilizations are supplanting the political and ideological rivalries persistent during the Cold War. Samuel Huntington argue, "the values that are most important in the West are least important worldwide. World politics will be directed in the future by conflicts that according to Kishore Mahbubani will be between "the West and the Rest". Samuel P. Huntington adds "...and the responses of non- Western civilizations to Western power and values.

88 Conflict, Violence, And War 1. Non-Western civilizations isolate themselves from the Western-dominated global community. 2. "Band-Wagoning" can lead non-western countries to join with the West and accept its values and institutions. 3. Non-Western countries can attempt to "balance" the West by developing an alternative economic and military power and ally with one another to effective counter Western dominance.

89 Causes Of War Nationalism Ethnicity Religion Culture Natural Resources

90 Kin-Country Syndrome States try to rally support from states that share a similar culture. Replaces political ideology and traditional balance of power as the principal basis for cooperation and coalitions.

91 Redefining Civilization Identity Samuel Huntington s Three Requirements For Torn Countries To Redefine Its Civilization Identity: The Country s economic and political elites have to enthusiastically endorse the transition. Its public has to endorse whatever new definition is adopted. Dominant groups in the recipient civilization have to embrace the convert.

92 West Vs. The Rest Samuel P. Huntington stresses that civilizationconsciousness is increasing and that global politics will be focused on "the West and the Rest". This applies to conflicts between the Western powers, especially the United States, against "others". The first conflict(s) will be between the West and several Islamic-Confucian states. Samuel Huntington made these arguments in the article The Clash of Civilizations (1993).

93 American Military Power The main reasons for the US to maintain such a high military expenditure are: US commitments on a global basis. US military forces must be able to project power to regions located thousands of miles away. US forces require high technology in order to defeat its enemies with limited casualties. US maintains a much more expensive all-volunteer force.

94 Biological Weapons Ethics (1) Human beings are the ultimate weapon. Biological weapon development is presented in this PBS Special The Living Weapon. All slides from this point incorporate information from the PBS website dedicated to The Living Weapon : Chapter 1: (2:37) "Teaser" introduction for The Living Weapon on American Experience. Chapter 2: (3:15) In December 1942, the U.S. government holds a secret meeting at the National Academy of Sciences to discuss a biological warfare program.

95 Teaser

96 Discussing Biological Warfare

97 Biological Weapons Ethics (2) Chapter 3: (4:16) During the summer of 1942, the British conduct secret anthrax tests on the Scottish island of Gruinard. Chapter 4: (5:11) American scientists begin secret biological warfare research at Camp Detrick in Maryland. Chapter 5: (4:00) New weapons of mass destruction are deployed during World War II. Chapter 6: (10:32) Surprising news of German and Japanese biowarfare research emerge at the end of World War II.

98 British Secret Anthrax Tests

99 Camp Detrick Maryland

100 WWII WMDs

101 German And Japanese Biowarfare

102 Biological Weapons Ethics (3) Chapter 7: (5:59) The U.S. biological weapons program escalates during the Cold War. Chapter 8: (10:05) In 1954, American scientists begin testing biological agents on human subjects. Chapter 9: (5:13) The U.S. biological weapons program comes under public scrutiny. Chapter 10: (1:38) The United States ratifies international agreements leading to the end of the U.S. biological weapons program.

103 U.S. Biological Escalation

104 American Scientists Testing

105 U.S. Biological Weapons Scrutiny

106 International Agreements

107 Biological Weapons Ethics (4) Title Unknown (Botulism) (9:43) This experiment was conducted to determine whether primates would make suitable research subjects in a study of botulism. Researchers inject a monkey with botulisum toxin to determine if he will exhibit the same effects as human victims. Operation Cover Up (9:04) This film questions how long military personnel would be able to remain in protective suits and gas masks in the event of an operation within a biological or chemical weapons area. Incapacitation by Enterotoxin (5:40) The film shows the effect of enterotoxin, a form of food poisoning, when delivered as an aerosol spray to monkeys.

108 Botulism

109 Operation Cover Up

110 Enterotoxin Incapacitation

111 Making Foreign Policy Foreign policies are the strategies governments use to guide their actions in the international arena. Spell out the objectives state leaders have decided to pursue in a given relationship or situation. Foreign policy process: How policies are arrived at and implemented.

112 Making Foreign Policy (2) Comparative foreign policy. Study of foreign policy in various states in order to discover whether similar types of societies or governments consistently have similar types of foreign policies. Foreign policy outcomes result from multiple forces at various levels of analysis.

113 Public Influences Policy (1) Range of views on foreign policy issues held by the citizens of a state. Has a greater influence on foreign policy in democracies than in authoritarian governments. Legitimacy Propaganda Journalists as gatekeepers

114 Public Influences Policy (2) In democracies, public opinion generally has less effect on foreign policy than on domestic policy. Attentive public Foreign policy elite Rally round the flag syndrome Diversionary foreign policy

115 Legislatures (1) Conduit through which interest groups and public opinion can wield influence. Presidential systems; separate elections. Legislatures play a direct role in making foreign policy. Different rules apply, however, to the use of military force. Rally round the flag. May challenge the president if they have power of the purse.

116 Legislatures (2) Parliamentary systems; political parties are dominant Often parliamentary executives do not need to submit treaties or policies for formal approval by the legislature. Call elections; new executive Legislatures play a key role in designing and implementing foreign policy.