The Wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopian government in the 1940 s

Transcription

1 In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, ed. by Svein Ege, Harald Aspen, Birhanu Teferra and Shiferaw Bekele, Trondheim 2009 The Wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopian government in the 1940 s Momoka Maki 1 Emperor Haile Sellassie attempted to re-establish the centralized government after the liberation from Italian occupation in The years between 1941 and 1945 were some of the most chaotic in modern Ethiopian history. The new government confronted many challenges throughout Ethiopia. The Wayyane happened in 1943 was one of the largest revolt against the Government. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the Wayyane from the perspectives of the participants and to analyze the causes and consequences of the Wayyane. Introduction After the withdrawal of Italian forces from Ethiopia in 1941, Emperor Haile Sellassie attempted to re-establish the centralized government. The years between 1941 and 1945 were some of the most chaotic in modern Ethiopian history. Emperor Haile Selassie and the British government, which supported the emperor and promoted the Italian withdrawal from Ethiopia, tried to establish a new empire. The new government confronted many challenges throughout Ethiopia. In 1943, shortly after the political reform, there was a major revolt against the central government in Tigray. This revolt, called the Wayyane, was organized by peasants whose aim was to take over the military camp and provincial government. Gebru Tareke s study 2 is the most important and the only comprehensive work on the Wayyane. He used the Ministry of Interior s material, in the main, to analyze the central government s policy toward the Wayyane, and provided important information on the government s attitude. So far, few attempts have been made to analyze the internal structure of Wayyane. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the Wayyane from the perspectives of the participants and to analyze the causes and consequences of the Wayyane. To analyze the Wayyane, I used data from interviews with participants in Tigray 3, British records, Foreign Office and War Office papers, and records from the Ethiopian government. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. First, I analyze the series of disturbances that occurred before the Wayyane in Tigray, and the central government s policy toward Tigray, in order to understand the background of the Wayyane. Then, to describe the Wayyane, as well as the organization and mobilization Institute of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tsuda-cho, Kodaira-city, Tokyo, , Japan. Author s address; hana100@hotmail.com, or, maki100@tsuda.ac.jp Gebru Tareke, Ethiopia: power and protest-peasant Revolts in the Twentieth Century, the Red Sea Press, My research and interview was held between April 2003 to Jan The number of informants is more than 150 in total. I thank the Kodansha Noma Asia Africa scholarship for generous financial assistance for my research during in Ethiopia and in London. 655

2 Momoka Maki of people involved, I examine the characteristics of the leadership and the motives of the Wayyane participants using participant testimonies. Finally, I discuss how the relationship between Tigray and the central government changed as a result of political reform and the Wayyane in the 1940 s. The Social and political background in Tigray Before the Italian occupation the Central government permitted self-governance in Tigray. In the 1930 s, Tigray was governed as two parts by two local nobles; Ras Seyum and Ras Gugusa, both of whom were the grandsons of Emperor Yohannes Ⅳ. Each headed his own administration, military and jurisdiction. They both appointed the governors called Teklenia or Dembenia 4 for each area that fell under their jurisdiction. A tax collector, called Chika-shum, was selected by the community or appointed by the local governor. The noble class of northern Ethiopia was divided into two groups, the Masafint and the Mekuanent 5. The Masafint class was hereditary and occupied the high ranks appointed by emperor; many had marital ties to the Emperor. Most of them received the title of Ras, Dejazmatch(Dej), or Fitaurari(Fit), etc. Members of the Mekuanent class were given their title from the Masafint class and received appointments in the local government as administrators, judges, or police officers. Most of them were rich in their hometowns and were considered as reliable people. When the Italians invaded in 1935, Tigray was the first battlefield; severe fierce battles occurred in Temben and Maichew. The Tigray nobles led most of the Tigray people, including the peasants, against the Italians. However, once the occupation began, Tigray administrators experienced the occupation in different ways. Some of the Masafint nobles were captured or surrendered to Italian forces during the battle; others escaped and continued to fight the occupiers. One exception was Dej. Haile Selassie Gugsa who escaped to the Italian colony of Eritrea soon after the invasion started and was called traitor 6. The Mekuanent class people s attitude toward the Italian occupation was mach more valid than the Masafint nobles. Some continued the resistance against the Italian occupation from the countryside, beyond the administrative center. Some were appointed to the lowest positions in the government and charged with the task of finding and bringing in those who had escaped. Some refused to participate in the colonial administration and went back to the field to tend to the crops. Tigray bordered Eritrea, and there were Tigrayans who lived in Eritrea; Tigray was one of the areas that the Italians ruled effectively, even at the village level. After the people lost their administrator, they submitted to colonial rule by the Italian and Eritrean banda. After the liberation, in the provincial government of Mekele, the political reform led to a centralization of the administration. The emperor and British advisers planned to modernize the administrative system. The central government tried to diminish the control and the influence of the Tigray nobles, especially Ras Seyum who was the most important noble. The central government summoned him to Addis Ababa and forced These titles were mentioned in the interview and also mentioned in the provincial proclamation issued by the Central government in 1941.WO230/16. Teklenia was title for the local administrator and Dembenia was the title for the local administrator in Church land.. Gilkes, Patrick, The Dying Lion: Feudalism and Modernization in Ethiopia, Julian Friedman Publishers, 1975, p25. Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, Addis Ababa University Press, 1991, p

3 The Wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopian government in the 1940 s him to accept the new administration. The first proclamation of the Tigray administration was issued by the central government in November In that proclamation, the central government appointed Ras Seyum as governorgeneral of Tigray and, three sub-provincial governors were also appointed; Dej. Gabrehiwot to Adowa (western Tigray), Dej. Kassa to Adigrat (central Tigray) and Dej. Abbay to Mekele (southern Tigray). All of them were Tigrayan nobles and had experienced in the local administration before the Italian invasion 7. The proclamation made no mention on the appointment of director-general, who was second in provincial administration under the governor-general. The central government appointed Fit. Kifle Dadi 8, the famous Amhara administrator, as director-general of Tigray after the Gaz operation, and prohibited Ras Seyum from returning to Tigray. The director-general could exercise administrative power without the influence of Ras Seyum and carried out political reform under the direct control of the central government. Fit. Kifle Dadi appointed numerous Amhara officers to the Tigray provincial office, and played the main role in establishing the new administrative system. The Background of the Wayyane: the Gaz and the Wajirat incident Although the Wayyane was the largest and most famous revolt in Tigray, other disturbances occurred in the process of decolonization that illustrates the social confusion in Tigray. Two notable incidents took place before the Wayyane; the raiding of the Wajirat and Raya Azebo people 9 against the Afar and the conflict between the Wajirat and the sub-provincial governor. Although Gebru s work 10 mentions these incidents, his interpretation differs from participant testimonial. The raiding against the Afar by the Wajirat and the Raya Azebo people occurred in 1941 soon after the Italian withdrawal. Raids among the Raya, Azebo, Wajirat and Afar had been going on for centuries. The act of such raid was locally known as Gaz 11. In addition to the temporary gains of livestock, the raids caused regional instability. Raiding was prohibited during the Italian occupation but recommenced upon their withdrawal in the first post-italian occupation raid occurred in June British military personnel reported the outbreak of Gaz to the Ethiopian central government. Gaz raiders were estimated as being and in number; they attacked the Afar for nearly a year. The British military and the Ethiopian central government feared that the practice of Gaz would upset regional stability. The Gaz raiders went to the Awsa area near Dijibouti through Wollo province. Gaz raiders and a British military patrol clashed near Sordo around Dese on October 29 th, 1941, killing one British officer and 10 soldiers; nearly 50 from Gaz raiders were also killed 12. While this clash with the British military was an unintentional, it resulted in a governmental policy aimed at suppressing the raiders. A military force, numbering about soldiers, was dispatched in May 1942 with the aim of suppression. Gaz raiders feared a confrontation 7 WO230/16 8 Fitaurari Kifle Dadi was appointed in November Gebru mentioned the first Director-General of Tigray after liberation was Alemayehou Tenna. Gebru, op. cit., p Raya and Azebo are Muslim Oromo living between Tigray and Wollo. Trimingham, J. S. Spencer, Islam in Ethiopia, Oxford University Press, 1952, pp Gebru, op. cit., pp Tarekegn Gebreyesus, "Gaz", in Siegbert Uhlig(ed): Encyclopedia Aethiopica, vol.2 (D-H), Wiesbaden, Trimingham, op. cit., p In order to organize the Gaz, they elect the leader of Gaz, called Abo Gaz, Trimingham, op. cit., p WO230/16 657

4 Momoka Maki with this large military force and surrendered. They surrendered the stolen livestock and most of their weapons 13, exception of rifles deemed necessary for self defence. This incident revealed the instability of post colonial era rural politics. The other serious situation was also caused by thewajirat. Dej. Abbay Kahsay attempted to rule the Wajirat by force but was overthrown in May Some local governors fought alongside Dej. Abay were killed, but most of them, including Dej. Abbay, were captured by the Wajirat. This incident caused further political instability in southern Tigray. Gebru set out the Wajirat incident as the first stage of the Wayyane 14. His view reflected the government s view, which interpreted all disturbances as revolts against the government. However, it is important to analyze each disturbance separately because many disturbances occurred after the Italian withdrawal and the motivations of the Wajirat and the Wayyane participants differed. The Wajirat refused to be governed directly by the provincial government and they established a self-governaning community assembly, called Demer Gura Garbo 15. Demer Gura Garbo acted as the highest decision-making body of the Wajirat; it also works as the court, the police and also the tax collection. Ras Gugusa, who governed southern Tigray during the 1930 s, attempted to govern the Wajirat, however they continued the practice of Gaz and disturbed the regional order. Although Ras Gugusa appointed his follower as the governor of the Wajirat, the Wajirat rejected his authority and fought against his amry. The Wajirat were largery successful in defeating the governor s forces, and negotiated a self-governing administration in exchange for a honey tax that was paid to the governor. During the Italian occupation, the Italians prohibited Demer Gura Garbo and Gaz, and governed the Wajirat directly. The Wajirat resisted the Italian governance, but they were compelled to surrender to its rule. Although there is no direct evidence, it is reasonable to assume that the Wajirat returned to self-governing rule after the Italian withdrawal. They also initiated the first Gaz against the Afar soon after the liberation, which revealed their intentions to resume their former way of life. After Dej. Abay was captured, the central government send the son of the provincial governor, Dej. Mangasya Seyum 16, to serve orders of extradition for the captured governors. The Wajirat did not challenge the authority of the provincial government and accepted the requests for extradition. Although there were two military camps in Southern Tigray, neither the central government nor the provincial government attempted to attack the Wajirat, which revealed the weakness of the government after the liberation. These two incidents occurred before the Wayyane, and established the resumption of tradition. However, the government and the British viewed these incidents and the Wayyane action as acts of aggression against the central government. 13 Sandford Collection, Wollo File guns and livestock were handed over to the Imperial military. 14 Gebru, op. cit., p Informant, G/M, A/H, Wajirat, May Dej. Mangasya Seyum (1926-) was given the title of Ras in 1966 and was appointed as the Governor- General of Tigray in 1960 after his father s death. 658

5 The Wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopian government in the 1940 s Structure of the Wayyane According to the British War Office report on operations in Tigray 17, the Wayyane action occurred in southern Tigray between August and October 1943; participants attacked the imperial military camp before occupying the provincial capital Mekele. The participants were mainly peasants and were estimated to be more than in number. Gebru described the process of suppression and the governmental attitude toward the revolt. He also described the cause of Wayyane action but did not analyze the social and political situation in the local communities in southern Tigray. In this study, I analyze the structure of the Wayyane and its motives of its participants, using testimonials from the participants. Organization and mobilization The Wayyane expanded from southern to eastern Tigray; the main Wayyane participant areas were Mekele, Kilte Awaralo, Tmebem, Enderta, Samre, Hintaulo and Alaje. This was the largest revolt thet had occurred not only in Tigray but in all of Ethiopian during the imperial era. To understand the organization and mobilization of the Wayyane, one needs to examine its leadership and organization. Gebru mentioned that the Wayyane action was led by Blatta Haile Mariam and a number of Masafint 18. However, my research revealed no Masafint s participation; it was impossible to obtain enough information on their activities to assess their imvolement because some of the participants had passed away and some of the nobles had escaped from Tigray during the Derg. The Wayyane area is relatively large and consists of various types of terrain which would have made it difficult for a single leader to organize the whole area in such short time. It is safe to assume that each area had its own leader who organized the community. Gebru s research provided the prisoner list of Wayyane 19, which listed the names of many leaders. I selected several names from this list and obtained information about them from their families and friends. One of them the prisoners I contacted was Bashay Gugsa Mangasya s family. Bashay Gugsa was born in Adisulst in Hintaulo, and he became the leader of this area. His father was a local governor before the Italian invasion. Bashay Gugsa was part of the Italian regime in this area and learned how to use modern weapons under the Italians and said to receive his title Bashay from the Italian 20. He had considerable influence over the whole Hintaulo area and collaborated with the other Hintaulo leaders. Hintalo was believed to be one of the main general assembly areas for the Wayyane. Other communities used Bashay Gugsa s example to organize themselves. Leaders who had enough influence tried to organize the local people. After the liberation from the Italian occupation, every community had many troubles to confront. They would gather together to discuss their problems. The Makuanent class leaders played important roles in the subsequent mobilization; they discussed their community s problems with leaders of other communities. Eventually, each community sent representatives to a meeting in May Droho, which is 1 km from the centre of Hintaulo. Here the representatives discussed their communities problems with the other leaders. The 17 WO32/1082:Tigre Operation 18 Gebru. op. cit., pp Gebru, op. cit, p.240, note Informant; K/F, A/G, Hintaulo, December

6 Momoka Maki leaders discovered that their common problems were the activity of the shifta (bandits) and a lack of governance for establishing order. Not all of the Makuanent class participated in the Wayyane. Some supported the central government side and fought against the Wayyane. Blatta Haile Mariam was different from the other leaders. Most participants viewed his leadership as valid. Someone thought of him as a great military leader; others deemed him shifta because of a confrontation he had with another local noble, which resulted in that noble s death and Blatta Haile Mariam escaped from Enderta with some of his followers 21. However, even in exile, he still had influence in Enderta, Kilte Awalaro and Wukro, because of his family connections and his father s occupation 22. Many leaders names were mentioned in the interviews I conducted, but it is difficult to find them 60 years after the event. Many leaders were from the lower class of Makuanent. They or their fathers had served as the head of community or as tax collector before the invasion. Some worked for the Italian administration and others had refused to participate in the colonial administration. In some areas, the participants explained that there were no leaders and they had simply gathered to discuss their daily problems. Such meetings were customary, even before the Italian occupation, and the elders in the community would lead the meeting. The Motives behind the Wayyane The driving forces behind the Wayyane are debatable. According to British operational report, the Wayyane participants required the return of Tigray governor Ras Seyum from Addis Ababa. Alternatively, some analysts interpret Wayyane opposition as based on antagonism against the new administration led by a central government. The participants were mainly peasants but leaders were from Makuanent class, highly regarded in their communities. The key to understand what caused the Wayyane action lies in learning what was discussed at the general assembly meeting held at May Droho, and what problems each regional leader brought up for discussion. As previously stated, the most common problems were activity of the shifta and the lack of governance for establishing order. The shifta attacked villages stealing food and livestock. The peasants had to defend themselves with no help from the central government. It is unclear whether the central government appointed local governors to Tigray in late 1941 but, if those appointments occurred, it is unlikely that the governors were appointed to deal with the local administration issue, such as community safety. In Hintaulo, Fit. Abesha was reappointed to the governor s position by the central government 23. He attempted to confront the security problem, particularly that of controlling the shifta. He and his followers tried to capture the shifta but in so doing they also threatened the lives of the people. Thus, the Hintaulo people endured hardships brought on by the shifta and the local governor, which created a situation in which the Wayyane could be perceived as a reasonable alternative. Enderta was the one of the main Wayyane areas. It shared a border with the provincial capital Mekele, and was an important military point having the military camps in Endaysos and in Quiha. In 1941, the Imperial military, supported by the British military, replaced the Italian occupation. The imperial military consisted of 21 Informant; H/A, Aragra, June Blatta Haile Mariam s mother was from the Adigrat and his father was Ras Seyum s follower and appointed to the governor of Gujet, near the Adigrat before the Italian invasion. Informant; B/M, Adigdom, January Informant: K/F, A/G, Hintaulo, December

7 The Wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopian government in the 1940 s soldiers from Amhara and Tigray, in the main. While peasants in rural areas were unaware of administrative changes, they did observe the political and military changes occurring in their communities. According to some informants, imperial military soldiers stole food from the people and established checkpoints near the military camps. The peasants were afraid of the soldiers, whom they perceived as a daily threat. Rumors that the provincial office was staffed by Amhara officers spread from the Enderta and Mekele to other areas. One informant said that he was captured by the provincial government as a suspected Wayyane participant and with people in Mekele 24. The effects of Wajirat incident on the Samre area is important, as it related to the Wayyane action. The governor of Samre, Dej. Atsubaha was killed in the Wajirat incident in May His son Fit. Iyasu said that his father s death caused a serious power struggle in the area, which created a vacuum in which the Wayyane participants were able spread their influence. When Fit.Iysu left Samre to receive his appointment to succeed his father, the follower of Dej. Atsubaha fought the Samre Wayyane and killed him 25. Fit. Iyasu and other participants testimonials clarified that the Wayyane activities expanded rapidly after the Dej. Astbaha s death. This same scenario might also have occurred in other southern Tigray areas. While it is difficult to ascertain the timing and the logic behind the Wayyane against the military camp, the Wajirat incident certainly was a contributing factor. The main agenda of the general assembly was how to manage the community without support from the central government. They decided to enact countermeasures against shifta, in order to protect their communities by their own initiatives. For example, they tried to compel the families of the shifta to persuade them to stop their attacks. Their agenda also expanded to political and social problems. However, the central government saw these actions as a threat to their rule. The general assembly attempted to pursuit those who refused to participate in their activities 26. However, because nearly all the people in southern Tigray participated in the assembly, the punishment was needless 27. The process of the armed Revolt and its aftermath There were no exact records to explain the purpose of revolt and the reason why the Wayyane attacked the military camp. Some informants explained that the Wayyane participants at first called themselves as Arena (stream) and tried to change their life and govern the community by themselves without the intervention of the government. It was said that the attack of the military camp was decided at May Droho and they informed each community. In August 1943, the Wayyane participants gathered near the Quiha military camp. Early in the morning they attacked the Quiha camp. Shortly thereafter they tool possession of the camp and the remaining soldiers. They released the lower-ranking soldiers and acquired more weapons. Next, they attacked the Endaysos camp, and after a fierce battle, captured it as well. Although some general in the imperial military was able to escape to the north, General Isayas was captured by the Wayyane 28. After the victories against the military, the rebels easily captured the provincial capital of Mekele. 24 Informant; M/W, Quiha, June Informant: Fit.Iyasu Atsbaha, Mekele, December His information was also confirmed by Samre informant H/H, Samre, January The punishment were forfeit of cattle or to make wear in women s cloth. 27 Informant B/M, Adigdom, January Informant: B/M, Adigdom, April

8 Momoka Maki The informants explained that Mekele was overrun with Wayyane participants, and administration officials fled the city. The rebels victory was short lived as the imperial military, along with the British military, advanced to Tigray from Addis Ababa. The final battle took place in the Alaje Mountains. The Wayyane were defeated by the large and fully equipped army. As the remaining participants fled the battlefield, the British military bombed from Alaje Mountain to Mekele 29, and then the city itself. The Wayyane miliatant revolt lasted for three months. After the Wayyane had been suppressed, the imperial military raided southern Tigray, capturing leaders and confiscating weapons. Bashay Gugusa was captured by Imperial military and taken to Addis Ababa with other leaders. Blatta Haile Mariam escaped to the Afar region and remained there until Most of the influential leaders were captured after the Wayyane and taken to Addis Ababa. They were prohibited from returning to Tigray for one year; no one was sentenced to death 30 and all were allowed to return to Tigray except of Bashay Gugsa and Blatta Haile Mariam. Blatta Haile Mariam was sent to Jinka and was not allowed to leave for 30 years. Bashay Gugsa was also not allowed to return to Tigray, because the central government feared his influence 31. However, the central government tried to make use of his military skills and sent him with a group of soldiers to suppress other rebellions in the southern Ethiopia. The imperial military pursued the leaders of the Wayyane and left ruined villages in their wake; soldiers forced people to feed them and killed their live stocks. The central government appointed Ras Abebe Aregay as governor-general instead of Ras Seyum, who was the General of the imperial military and head of the operation against the Wayyane. Ras Abebe Aregay remained in Tigray until 1947 and, under him, the political reform proceeded. Conclusion There has been previous research conducted concerning the Wayyane, but this is the first study that has focused on the participants' experiences. The participants interviewed revealed the social confusion following liberation from the Italian occupation. This study focused on two disturbances that preceded the Wayyane, and analyzed the role each played in the Wayyane. The practice of Gaz was significant because it revealed the region's return to their traditional ways; the Wajirat incident was also important because it signified the region's desire to return to their traditional practice of self-governance. The Wayyane participants tried to govern themselves, selecting lower Makuanent and elders as their leaders. These leaders then discussed their community's problems with the leaders of other areas in the general assembly. While the central government considered the Wayyane as a form of rebellion against its authority, it was also a social demonstration that highlighted certain community needs, such as defense. While the main cause of the Wayyane might never be known, the testimonials I have gathered provide detailed background information about the social conditions at the time that influenced the uprising. Although it is difficult to determine just how much the Wayyane affected political reform in Tigray, it certainly played a part. The central government initiated reform with logistical support from the military. The Wayyane influenced the way the central government re-established order in the region in that it implemented policies with the 29 Gilkes, op. cit., p Informant: A/T, Quiha, October Informant: K/F, A/G, Hintaulo, December 2004, N/K, Addis Ababa, December

9 The Wayyane in Tigray and the reconstruction of the Ethiopian government in the 1940 s goal of preventing similar uprisings in the future. As a result of political reforms after Wayyane, Tigray lost its autonomy and fell under the central government. Bibliography Bahru Zewde A History of Modern Ethiopia, Addis Ababa University Press. Erlich, Haggai Tigrean Nationalism, British Involvement and Haila-Sellasse s emerging Absolutism Northern Ethiopia, , Asian and African Studies, vol.15, pp Gebru Tareke Ethiopia: power and protest-peasant Revolts in the Twentieth Century. The Red Sea Press. Gilkes, Patrick The Dying Lion: Feudalism and Modernization in Ethiopia, Julian Friedman Publishers. Perham, Margery The Government of Ethiopia, Faber and Faber. Tarekegn Gebreyesus "Gaz", in Siegbert Uhlig(ed): Encyclopedia Aethiopica, vol.2, (D-H), Wiesbaden. Trimingham, J. S. Spencer Islam in Ethiopia, Oxford University Press. 663

10