Was America Imperialist? Or Was America Exceptional?

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1 American upon the Global Stage Was America Imperialist? Or Was America Exceptional? 1994 DBQ To what extent was late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century expansionism a continuation of past United States expansionism and to what extent was it a departure? History of American Foreign Policy Neutrality & Isolationism Neutrality Proclamation (1793) & Washington s Farewell Address (1796) Failure of Diplomacy--Jay s Treaty (1794) & XYZ Affair (1797) Setting Boundaries & Continental Expansion Louisiana Purchase (1803) War of 1812 as Second American Revolution Monroe Doctrine (1823) Manifest Destiny Participation in the Imperial Scramble Was it imperialism? Colonialism Sphere of Influence Open Door Policy Gunboat Diplomacy Dollar Diplomacy Cultural Imperialism Definition of New Imperialism: The extension of a nation s authority by territorial acquisition -OR- by the establishment of economic & political hegemony over other nations. Factors to Consider Intent or Purpose of Initial Involvement Religious Mission Economic Markets, Resources & Investment Diplomatic Ties Military & Strategic Need Method of Takeover & Control Duration of Involvement & Exit Strategy Liberation & Independence Protectorate

2 Annexation Basis for Imperialism Economic Basis--Growing importance of foreign trade as domestic markets were saturated. Military or Strategic Basis--Connected to Economic Basis, spurred by Mahan Thesis in The Influence of Sea Power upon History Exacerbated by International Competition--Perceived carving up of the globe, America s primary competition was Germany, another New Imperialist power. Imperialism Justifications & Influences Social Darwinism Right of Conquest Social Gospel Duty of Civilization Pan-Americanism Regional Responsibility Nationalism & Jingoism Everything filtered through the yellow press Sensationalism sold better than fact; Politicians sought out the Pulitzer & Hearst papers to publicize their proposals (Modern Navy) Spanish-American War America s Splendid Little War or the First Imperialist Quagmire Spanish Misrule in Cuba One of the last colonies of Spain; Stalemate of the Ten Year s War followed by emancipation & Hispanization in 1880s; Jose Marti (Washington & Jefferson rolled into one) mobilizes mixed-race forces & begins attacks in 1894; Spain sends more than 200,000 troops to suppress rebellion & General Weyler institutes policy of Reconcentration Camps that leads to ~100,000 deaths due to inadequate food & sanitation; Spain granted limited autonomy in American Concerns in Cuba Cuban Sugar Industry Estates transferred to American ownership in 1880s; 90% of Cuban sugar exports were to US; Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894) took sugar of the Duty-free List placing American producers in Cuba at a disadvantage. Policies of the McKinley Administration

3 McKinley elected on a more aggressive, Imperialist platform; Replaced Cleveland who had stressed neutrality. Competition among Hearst & Pulitzer Cuba was the front-page story for months; You furnish the pictures & I ll furnish the war. De Lomé Letter Besides the natural and inevitable coarseness with which he repeats all that the press and public opinion of Spain has said of Weyler, it shows once more what McKinley is: weak and catering to the rabble, and, besides, a low politician, who desires to leave a door open to me and to stand well with the jingoes of his party. February 9, Military History Spain agreed to US demands End Reconcentration Camps & sign armistice with Cuban rebels; Giving in to media & public pressure, McKinley declared that this was not enough. Combat in Cuba Spanish fleet blockaded in Santiago Harbor; Outgunned by USS Oregon which steamed in from Pacific; US army forces took high ground with little opposition; 379 American battle deaths but 5,000 deaths due to disease US combat in the Philippines Largely a fluke, as Roosevelt ordered the attack though he had no authority to do so; Dewey s fleet saw no opposition from the Spanish fleet; Land forces assisted by Filipino exile Emilio Aguinaldo & the Katipunan. US Combat in Puerto Rico Invaded as an afterthought, possibly an attempt to lay claim to the island before the war officially ended; American troops met no opposition, welcomed as liberators. Cuba as Spoils of War? Cuba on the Road to Independence Teller Amendment declared that American intent in war against Spain was not territorial acquisition; Military Government until 1902 improves financial, medical & educational facilities until withdrawal of troops; Platt Amendment introduced into Cuban Constitution Ostensibly to protect Cuba while it was vulnerable to foreign interference; Restricted Cuban treaties with other nations;

4 Allowed the US to intervene to restore order or in cases of mutual protection; Promised to lease facilities to US (Guantanamo Bay) Puerto Rico as Spoils of War Made into a US Protectorate by Treaty of Paris (1898) Foraker Act (1900)--Appointment of civilian government Insular Cases ( ) deal with questions of: Right of US to acquire territories Yes. Whether all Constitutional protections applied to people of those territories No, only the fundamental ones, because some populations were not fit enough. Overall question of whether the Constitution followed the flag Not necessarily. Jones Act (1917) US Citizenship for Puerto Ricans. Puerto Rico made a Commonwealth in The Philippines as Spoils of War? Engendered the most debate Most complex in terms of negotiations with Spanish; US took Manila after Spain sued for peace; Largest land mass & populations of Spanish possessions (7 million Filipinos); Major arguments made by the Military, Businessmen & Missionaries to keep the islands; Philippines seen as most foreign acquisition: Need for standing army for occupation; Competition for labor, relocation of factories; Fears of mogrelization of white race. McKinley s calls for Benevolent Assimilation Believed that an inner voice told him to take the Philippines to Christianize & civilize them; Fit with argument that Filipinos were not ready for independence, would be preyed upon by other Imperial powers; US did a great deal to advance infrastructure, sanitation & public health with little profit to US. Filipinos under Aguinaldo had expected independence Defeat of Spanish was not possible without; Wanted less sanitation & more liberty; Insurrection did not survive the capture of Aguinaldo. Philippine Insurrection Filipinos early on switched to Guerilla tactics Infuriated American soldiers, led to atrocities;

5 Nearly 5,000 American soldiers killed (primarily from disease); more than 50,000 Filipino soldiers killed in combat; More Filipinos killed in captivity after US Military applied General Order 100 denying POW status allowing torture such as Water Cure Civilian casualties grew as war dragged on US Military relocated civilians into protected zones around towns & villages, similar to Spanish Reconcentration camps; In Batangas nearly 300,000 civilians died as malaria & dysentery spread through the zones. Legacy of Philippine Insurrection Most Filipinos accepted the paternalistic policies of the Philippine Commission led by William H. Taft, who referred to Filipinos as is little brown brothers. Final legacy came with Senate Investigation & War Trials that publicized the combat tactics High-ranking officers defended their Kill & Burn policy; General Hell Roaring Jake Smith court-martialed for Samar campaign where he issued the order to kill everyone over the age of ten and turn the region into a howling wilderness. Philippines gained official independence in 1946; US maintained lease on Subic Bay & other military bases. The Progressive Movement Domestic American Imperialism? Origins of Progressivism Definition: Gradual, sometimes middle-class movement focused on improving, quieting & leveling--not radical--reform. Origins Cyclical trends--reform decades of 1840s & 1870s; Building on the Populist Movement, especially the Omaha Platform that called for Income Tax & Government ownership of infrastructure; Early reformers such as Henry George, Edward Bellamy, Thorstein Veblen & Charles Seldon. Progressivism as a Middle-class Movement Rose in response to more radical Socialist challenge Eugene V. Debs (Presidential candidate in 1904, 1908 & 1912) & Victor Berger (Socialist mayor of Milwaukee, WI); Fear of growing immigrant influence; Intellectuals such as Jack London, Helen Keller & Charlotte Perkins Gilman.

6 Rise of Muckrakers in major magazines McClure s, Cosmopolitan, Collier s, Everybody s Lincoln Steffens (Machine politics in Shame of the City), Ida Tarbell (Standard Oil), Ray Stannard Baker (Race in Following the Color Line) Central role of women reformers Women s Christian Temperance Union, Anti-Saloon League; Settlement House movement--jane Addams & Hull House; Florence Kelly & National Consumer League often joined forces with Women s Trade Union League. Major, Mobilizing, Solidifying Events Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire--Following a successful International Ladies Garment Workers Strike; Publication of Upton Sinclair s The Jungle followed by passage of Pure Food & Drug Act. Correcting Abuses & Injustices of Urban Industrialization Trust-Busting Elkins Act addressed abuses of railroad rebates; Hepburn Act expanded power of the Interstate Commerce Commission to deal with Bad Trusts Regulation & Consumer Protection Meat Inspection Act provided for safety of meat shipped across state borders; Pure Food & Drug Act provided for true product labeling. Early Environmentalism Preservation accomplished with National Park System; Conservation more popular, especially forestry management. Restoring Control of Gov t to the People Electoral Reform Secret Ballot ended public & recorded voting that often led to coercion & intimidation; Direct Primary took selection of candidates away from the smoke-filled backrooms of thee political parties; 17th Amendment allowed for direct election of Senators. Legislating at the Ballot Box Initiative--Voters could propose laws for consideration; Referendum--Voters could vote on passage of laws directly; Recall--Immediate removal of public officials by vote of the people. Pragmatism, Scientific Principles & Efficient Management

7 Replaced of elected mayors & city councils with City Managers & County Commissions; Instituted Civil Service reform to end spoils system & cronyism; Municipal ownership & operation of utilities; Wisconsin Idea --Incorporating the expertise of university professionals in public policy; Complicated Nature of Progressivism: Drive for efficiency often led to centralization of government policy that were often less than democratic. Emphasizing Social Justice, Humane Treatment & Morality Development of Social Work to formalize charity & welfare; Institutions such as the settlement houses provided direct services to the community; Belief that education for a greater portion of the population would solve problems of the present & future; 18th Amendment finally brought about Prohibition of alcohol. Election of Flood Tide of Progressivism Incumbent Taft the practical Progressive Return of Roosevelt & the Square Deal Control of Corporations, Consumer Protection & Conservation of Natural Resources; Displaces Robert La Follette as the candidate of the Progressive Party. Democrat Woodrow Wilson & the New Freedom Attacked the Triple Wall of Privilege with antitrust legislation, monetary changes & tariff reductions. Eugene V. Debs (Socialist not Marxist) polled nearly a 6%, a million votes. America & the Great War American Neutrality Economic Benefits Private US industry served as arsenal ($2.4 billion) & bank ($3 billion) for Allies; Trade with Central Powers was open, but difficult--no great loss ($169 million) Isolationism Neutrality Re-established cultural & economic ties with England

8 Spread of British propaganda to US 11 million Americans w/parent from Central Power nation; Large urban Irish & Jewish populations did not favor Allies; Division exacerbated natural isolation of Americans. End of Neutrality Progressive Idealism Response to German Actions & Atrocities Final Straw? Zimmerman Telegram Military Mobilization--Volunteerism National Defense Act (1916) Increased the enlistment of Army & National Guard Called for training of Citizen Soldiers Naval Act (1916)--Largest expansion of Navy in US history. Selective Service Act (1917)--Required registration of all males (later 18-45) Specifically intended to prepare the nation for battle; Also meant to instill patriotism & aid in assimilation of ethnic Americans-- Heat up the melting pot Economic Mobilization--Voluntary Compliance It is not the army that we must shape & train for war; it is the nation. -- Woodrow Wilson. Cost of the War $760 million each month; $33.5 billion total, but more than three times that when veterans benefits & interest on loans paid after war. Greatest Need: Mobilizing all resources toward war effort Americans accepted that the war would require sacrifice; But would they accept formal control & regulation? Mobilization & the Food Administration Herbert Hoover s agency relied on Voluntary Compliance to production & consumption Prohibition & 18th Amendment were part of this strategy--restrictions on using grain to produce alcohol Pushed people to grow Victory Gardens & follow wheatless Wednesdays & meatless Tuesdays; Never implemented a system of rations. Voluntary Compliance was a success Farm production increased 25% Food exports to Allies tripled; Policy was used by Fuel Administration & bond drives. Mobilization & War Industries Board

9 Bernard Baruch s agency worked with trade associations to regulate production & costs Late in war after conflicts between military & industry; Some attempts to mobilize labor without recognizing the rights of labor. Most policies were clearly pro-industry Antitrust laws abandoned for duration Competitive bidding was abandoned during war & Cost-Plus contracts guaranteed companies a profit no matter costs cost; Despite pro-industry stance, arguments that arms merchants & bankers brought about--myth Opposition to Mobilization Labor Unrest Over 6,000 strikes during the war, especially those by the Wobblies; Government was forced to form National War Labor Board, prohibiting strikes but also encouraging reform & further recognizing rights of labor. Henry Ford s Unrest Refused to accept War Industry Board s limit on automobile production; Baruch threatened to send troops & seize Ford s plants; These types of threats were used repeatedly but never came to anything. The 14 Points & Treaty of Versailles From Progressive Idealism to Imperialist Reality Wilson s 14 Points--January 8, 1918 Abolish Secret Treaties; Freedom of the Seas; Remove Economic Barriers; Reductions in Armaments; Adjustments in Colonial Claims; Self-Determination, especially in Austria-Hungary; Realignments & Readjustments for Italy, Russia, Belgium, Balkans, Turkey, Poland & France; Formation of League of Nations From 14 Points to Treaty of Versailles Clemenceau, Lloyd George & Orlando were not as idealistic as Wilson & politically more savvy; Political Self-Determination limited to European colonies & denied to those in Africa & Asia. Article 231--War-Guilt Clause Placed sole blame for war on Germany; Obliged Germany to pay $31 billion in reparations;

10 Forced Germany to accept restrictions on military & loss of Sudetenland & Rhineland. German bitterness arose out expectations that Treaty of Versailles would more closely mirror 14 Points. Senate Undermines Wilsonian Idealism Constitution gives the Senate role of advice & consent over treaties negotiated by the Executive Branch. Opposition to League of Nations in Senate Henry Cabot Lodge bogs down Treaty of Versailles; Major fears of US giving up American sovereignty to an international body; Irreconcilables (Borah & Johnson) opposed the League on any terms; Lodge Reservations--Reserved rights of US to have an independent foreign policy. Wilson Overestimates US Idealism Wilson attempted an end-run around the Senate, going directly to the people Went on a whistle-stop tour to drum up support; Fairly successful, but ability to mobilize popular support hindered by a stroke. Wilson s Political Blunder Attempted to win support without the Lodge Reservation; Ordered Democrats to vote w/irreconcilables against treaty; 80% of Senators supported the treaty but was never ratified. US signed separate peace w/germany on July 25, Mobilization gone too far? Opposition to Difference & Dissent during & after the Great War Creel s Committee on Public Information Propaganda seen as necessary for Volunteerism & Voluntary Compliance Established voluntary censorship in press; Supported newsreels, documentaries & anti-german movies including The Kaiser: Beast of Berlin; Sent out Four-Minute Men to directly drum up support. Supported several controversial measures 100% Americanism movement whipped anti-german sentiment against recent immigrants; Creation of Liberty Leagues in communities across the country, advocated spying on neighbors, especially those with foreign-sounding names. Restrictions on Dissent & Speech Espionage Act (1917)--Fines & prison for those making statements that impeded draft or promoted insubordination in the military.

11 Sedition Act (1918)--Went further to include anything that impeded sale of war bonds or any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language used to describe the US government, Constitution, flag or allies. Schenck v. US (1919)--Constitutionality of Espionage Act Supreme Court argued that certain speech did not deserve protection on its very face (Shouting fire in a crowded theater); Determined wartime represented special circumstances; speech representing a Clear & Present Danger could be restricted. Red Summer & Red Scare Red Summer (1919)--Limits of Mobilization Great Migration part of wartime industrial mobilization; Race riots in 2 dozen cities, worst in Chicago. Red Scare ( )--Mobilization Out of Control Anti-Immigrant sentiment turns from Germans to Socialists/Anarchists Real fears of bombings--38 mailed to prominent Americans, one exploded on Wall Street, anarchist blown up outside home of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer; Major strikes continued across the nation; Led to Palmer Raids & deportations of radicals & leftists (4000 alleged communists arrested, 556 aliens deported, most w/out trials) No major violence developed, support for Palmer Raids waned.

American Upon the Global Stage Was America Imperialist? Or Was America Exceptional?

APUSH Kind American Imperialism American Upon the Global Stage Was America Imperialist? Or Was America Exceptional? History of American Foreign Policy Neutrality & Isolationism Neutrality Proclamation