Interpretational Frameworks

Transcription

1 Interpretatinal Framewrks A Lecture by Alan R. Gibsn US I Pre AP Tday, schlarship n the American Funding is fractured, splintered. It is cnducted by a diverse grup f schlars frm several disciplines, including all srts f plitical scientists, histrians, lawyers and legal therists, and ppular bigraphers The divisin in schlarship des nt mean that things are in disarray, nly that they are cmplex. Indeed, we are experiencing a flurishing f excellent histrical and theretical writing n the American Funding. But that writing is infrmed by ne single visin r grand framewrk f interpretatin and a series f very imprtant questins remain cntested. The unusual divisiveness f the American Funding is recent; really it seems t have begun in the 1970s and 1980s. Prir t that, three successive paradigms f interpretatin abut the American Funding sequentially replaced each ther - The Prgressive, Liberal, and then Republican Interpretatins. - Alan R. Gibsn

2 The Prgressive Interpretatin (Dminant Interpretative Framewrk frm the late 19 th century t the beginning f the Cld War) Central Schlars and Key Wrks Charles Beard, An Ecnmic Interpretatin f the Cnstitutin (1913) Methdlgical Assumptins (primarily true f the early Prgressives). Ecnmic interests are fundamental r primrdial. Ideas are surface reflectins r justificatins fr underlying ecnmic mtives. Schlars must penetrate the pageant f ideas t discver the reality f ecnmic mtives belw the surface. American histry is best understd as a series f struggles between agrarian and cmmercial classes. The American Revlutin was fught fr ecnmic reasns, nt n the basis f principles such as N taxatin withut representatin. The Revlutin invlved bth an internatinal struggle with Great Britain ver hme rule and a scial struggle within the clnies fr wh shuld rule at hme. Prgressives believe that the plitical elite mbilized the masses t fight the Revlutin fr hme rule against Britain, but nce the masses mbilized they began lking at their selfinterest a classic case f getting the genie back in the bttle. (i.e. putting the masses back in their rle f subservience). In ther wrds, the mbilized the masses t assist in the fight against Britain, but then turned their struggle t gain authrity and pwer at hme. The perid in which the Articles f Cnfederatin gverned America was nt a perid f crisis r a critical perid. It was a time f prsperity, grwth, and many unrecgnized accmplishments. The Framers f the Cnstitutin were immediately and directly interested in the utcme f their labrs at Philadelphia. They were creditrs and members f the cmmercial classes wh wrte and ratified the Cnstitutin that they did t advance and prtect their ecnmic interests. Prgressives think the scial and ecnmic interests f certain funders drve the Revlutin and Cnstitutin. They are suspicius abut claims f revlutinaries, and see their rhetric as prpaganda, masking their hidden interest pssible hidden even t them. They argue that the funders may have believed what they argued, but these arguments were surface ratinalizatins frmed by their self-interest. In ther wrds, they wuld have argued differently if their self-interest was different. The Cnstitutin was an ecnmic dcument. The psitive pwers in the Cnstitutin, including the pwers t lay and cllect taxes, t regulate interstate and freign cmmerce, t raise and supprt naval frces, and t depse f western lands, were designed t benefit the interests f capitalists. The Cnstitutin als explicitly frbade the state legislatures frm emitting paper mney as currency r passing laws impairing the bligatin f cntracts. The Cnstitutin was an anti-demcratic dcument. It featured a series f checks and balances that were meant t break up the attacking frces f the majrity and prevent majrity rule. In particular, separatin f pwers, bicameralism, extent f territry, and especially judicial review were designed t prevent the peple frm directly ruling.

3 The Prgressive believes that the real Revlutin was frm 1776 t In thse years f war and the Articles f Cnfederatin, the state legislatures became increasingly representative, mre demcratic, less elite, and terms f ffice were shrt. State Cnstitutins were mre demcratic weaker executives (gvernrs), greater access t vte, and the legislatin tended twards the scially just aimed at making life better fr the cmmn man (e.g. paper mney, tax breaks fr thse at the bttm, stay laws, paying debt in kind ). The Prgressives see t many cntradictins in the rhetric f the Funders (whether it s liberal r republican): The Prgressives questin the slavery rhetric f the revlutinaries. These rebels claim that taxatin withut representatin was akin t slavery, can t be taken seriusly because it is incnsistent with the fact that clnists wn actual slaves. This issue was raised during the Revlutin and in Philadelphia s Cnstitutinal Cnventin. The Prgressives als questin the rebel s claims fr hme rule and the anti-imperialist claims made against England as incnsistent with treatment f natives (i.e. gencide pushing them ff f their land). The questin becmes, Hw can yu champin self-rule and self-determinatin when yu push the natives ff their land against their will? Prgressives als questins the rebels claim that the Revlutin was a struggle fr equality as being incnsistent with prperty qualificatins t vte and the disenfranchisement f wmen, etc. The questin becmes, Hw can yu say yu re fighting fr equality when yu have prperty qualificatins t vte? and dn t allw wmen t vte? and disenfranchise mst free blacks? Prgressives argue that the Cnstitutin is a betrayal f the Revlutin. It undes much f the mvement tward greater demcracy. In their view, the Cnstitutin if hw the elite were able t get the genie back in the bttle. Plitical Implicatins The Prgressives sught t criticize the Framers and the Cnstitutin t bring them dwn frm their pedestal and t pave the way fr cnstitutinal refrm. They viewed the Cnstitutin as a cumbersme, aristcratic dcument that was nt fit t gvern a mdern, demcratic gvernment.

4 The Liberal Interpretatin (Dminant Interpretative Paradigm during the Cld War and Very Influential Tday) Methdlgical Assumptins Mst prpnents f the liberal interpretatin argue that ideas matter. Unlike the Prgressive interpretatin, the liberal interpretatin is an idelgical interpretatin an interpretatin f the American Funding based n the ideas that are said t have been dminant in it. In ther wrds, histrians wh subscribe t the liberal interpretatin believe that the rhetric was real; the funders were primarily mtivated by their system f beliefs, rather than being cnsciusly r subcnsciusly mtivated by ecnmic self-interest. Many prpnents f the liberal interpretatin believe that ideas serve as mtives fr behavir. Sme prpnents f the liberal interpretatin als suggest that the liberal principles n which the American regime is funded are timeless truths. They are the true principles fr gvernance. Thus, Prpnents f the liberal interpretatin believe that the American plitical system and American plitical culture are best understd as the realizatin f the ideas f the Jhn Lcke, especially as these ideas were embedded in the Declaratin f Independence. These ideas, accrding t thse wh hld the Lckean r liberal interpretatin, express the deepest cmmitments, the mst firmly held cnvictins, f Americans. These ideas include the belief that all men are created equal. Equality, accrding t the prpnents f this interpretatin, meant plitical equality the idea that everyne is equal in the state f nature. N ne has dminin ver anther. Of paramunt imprtance are Lcke s three unalienable rights life, liberty, and the pursuit f happiness. In Lcke s view, yu apprpriate nature thrugh yur labr, and yu tk as much prperty as yu needed t supprt yurself yu d nly take as many apples as needed there is n waste. But silver and gld des nt deterirate, s when it became a currency, ne can acquire mre than is needed, thereby creating inequality. T Lcke, this is a gd thing fr efficiency will increase dramatically therefre imprving the standard f living fr all. Legitimate gvernments are based upn the cnsent f the gverned. Cnsent establishes a legitimate frm f gvernment. Cnversely, neither frce, nr reasn, nr virtue, nr Divine rdinatin ( Divine Right f Kings ) is a surce f legitimate rule. The prtectin f inalienable rights is the principle gal f gvernment. The Framers established a natural rights republic. The American plitical system was nt established t try t imprve the suls f the peple, t prmte hmgeneity f pinins, passins, and interests amng the peple, r t imprve the excellences f the few. The Framers were cmmercial republics wh praised cmmerce and the market mdel because they believed that, althugh men culd nt be expected t exercise virtue cnsistently r t faithfully pursue salvatin, they culd be expected t pursue systematically their physical and material desires. At a brader level, this was said t intrduce cnstancy and predictability int sciety, t encurage an interdependent and peaceful wrld, and t prvide a humane, prsperus, and stable plity.

5 T a liberal, self-interest is neither bad nr gd, and there is nthing wrng with it. It is inherent in peple, and it is fruitless t try and suppress it. T a prpnent f this framewrk, the funders believed that crruptin shuld nt be the biggest cncern. Passin is what shuld be f cncern. In ther wrds, peple kill each ther fr idealistic reasns driven by emtin (e.g. in the name f religin). This directly cntradicts what the republicans believe. As such, liberty is nt abut gvernment participatin, but f aviding gvernment infringement n peple s lives. Gvernment exists, as mentined abve, t prtect life, liberty, and prperty. Prpnents f this framewrk wuld argue that the Funders (the liberals amng them) thught f ging int gvernment service like ging t the dentist i.e. I need t, withut it I lse liberty, I dn t want t, but it s smething I need t d. This cntradicts prpnents f the republican framewrk, which argues that the Funders believed ging int gvernment service is a psitive. Central t this is the idea f capitalism private is greatly emphasized ver the public (the reverse f Republicanism). Prpnents f this framewrk wuld argue that the Funders believed that the primary purpse f gvernment was t prtect natural rights, nt f cmmunities but f individuals. Liberals claim t be mre demcratic than republicanism i.e. ne des nt need t wn prperty t vte, ne just needs t be prperly aware f wn self-interest, and that is knwledge the pr can attain. American cmmitments t the principles f the Declaratin and t cmmercial republicanism have translated int the hegemny f liberal values such as the sanctity f private prperty, ecnmic individualism, and demcracy. A liberal wuld argue that their system wuld encurage everyne t be industrius i.e. capitalism wuld liberate us frm gvernment, which is seen as a negative (nly there t prtect individual rights). Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the liberal Funders wuld argue that taxes are a way that gvernment takes yur prperty, which is yur labr, and if yur labr is taken withut yur permissin, yu are a slave. This enables the liberal histrian t explain the Declaratin f Independence and the slavery rhetric f the funders. A liberal histrian wuld argue that the Cnstitutin fulfills the principles f the Revlutin. A Republican histrian wuld argue that Liberalism as an idea didn t yet exist at the time f the funding, and desn t explain the Revlutinary War, but the liberal histrian wuld respnd by pinting t a Cnsumer Revlutin between the year 1720 t 1770 that set the stage fr liberalism and the capitalist market. Plitical Implicatins Many prpnents f the Lckean r liberal interpretatin f the American Funding hld t the idea f American Exceptinalism the belief that the natural abundance and unique settlement f the United States has led t the ubiquity f liberalism and rendered Americans deaf t scialism and inculated against ttalitarianism. The liberal interpretatin has prvided a pwerful explanatin fr the nn-revlutinary character f the American Revlutin, fr the United States early and lasting embrace f capitalism, fr the absence f scialist traditins f plitical thught in the United States, and fr the remarkable stability (with the exceptin f the Civil War) f American plitics and sciety.

6 The Republican Interpretatin (Develped in the late 1960s and dminant in the 1970s and 1980s) Methdlgical principles Prpnents f the republican interpretatin als study the ideas f the Funders, wh they argue fund inspiratin frm the ancients (i.e. Greeks and Rmans i.e. Aristtle) and the Eurpean Renaissance (Machiavelli). Like prpnents f the liberal interpretatin, they therefre reject the Prgressives argument that ideas are nthing mre than surface justificatins. Prpnents f the republican interpretatin are students f American plitical culture, nt American plitical thery. They are histrians cncerned with ppular idelgies. Thus, they d nt necessarily give greater weight t a dcument like the Declaratin f Independence than t any f the plitical pamphlets that were written t justify the American Revlutin. Bernard Bailyn s study, The Idelgical Origins f the American Revlutin the seminal study f the republican interpretatin examined an array f sermns, ppular ratins, and pamphlets t ascertain the ideas that justified the American Revlutin. Prpnents f the republican interpretatin agree with the Prgressives that ideas cannt be said t be the mtives t actin and that we shuld nt study the prfessed beliefs f individuals in rder t establish why they did what they did. Still, cntrary t what the Prgressives suggest, hwever, this des nt mean that ideas are unimprtant. Ideas are imprtant as they becme public and cllective as they becme idelgies r public matrixes f beliefs. Prpnents f the Republican interpretatin began by arguing that the liberal interpretatin was elitist, anachrnistic, and ahistrical. The liberal interpretatin was elitist, prpnents f the republican interpretatin argued, because it examined nly a few dcuments such as the Declaratin f Independence, the Cnstitutin, and The Federalist Papers. Other dcuments are equally gd, if nt better, expressins f the American mind. If these dcuments are examined, a different understanding f the American Funding emerges. Furthermre, the liberal interpretatin f the American Funding, accrding t prpnents f the republican interpretatin, described what America had becme, nt hw it was funded. America was funded, J.G.A. Pcck wrte, n principles that drew back t the ancient republics f Greece, reemerged in English plitical thught in the 17 th and 18 th centuries, and then again reappeared in the American Revlutin. This set f ideas the republican idelgy included the fllwing ideas. The Imprtance f Virtue and the Fear f Crruptin The American Revlutinaries, accrding t this accunt, believed that republics were fragile and required the cnstant exercise f virtue by the citizenry lest the republic perish. The American Revlutin was brn f a fear f crruptin in the British ministry, nt s much a cncern with vilatins f the inalienable rights f the peple. A key cncept is the Republican belief in liberty versus pwer. T a Republican, pwer is cntinually threatening liberty. A virtuus peples was needed t prtect against the crruptive influence f pwer. Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the funders believed that there was a perpetual struggle between pwer (aggressive male) versus the liberty f plitical cmmunities (passive, fragile female). There is a

7 grand scheme t histry, and pwer usually wins, simply because it has an agenda, and liberty desn t. Pwer undermines virtue thrugh crruptin (luxury, greed, fear). Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the Funders limited suffrage because their republican belief system taught them that ne needs t be cmpletely independent t be virtuus. T be virtuus, ne needed t be independent i.e. must have land. One wh is pr can t help but be dependent yu d have t vte as yur bss wants yu t vte, which wuld give the bss t much pwer (even rich merchants culdn t vte in Ancient Greece because they were viewed as dependent n their custmers). Republicans expect statesmen t sacrifice private interest fr the public gd. Fr example, a republican wuld never sacrifice liberty fr the sake f security. Pwer tempts yu with its prmise f security (peace and stability), and cnvinces yu t freg liberty. Psitive Liberty thrugh Participatin in the Public Realm The American Revlutinaries, accrding t the republican interpretatin, were als cncerned with prmting and prtecting liberty. But they understd liberty nt simply as the prtectin f rights. They als believed that liberty invlved plitical participatin which men required t becme fully human. Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the funders thught the gd life is sacrificing fr the public gd a cmmunal belief. Advancement f the Public Gd was a primary rle f gvernment. The public gd was nt simply the sum f all the particular interests f the peple. It refers t the peple understd as an rganic bdy f peple bund by cmmn interests and a cmmn fate. The Funders especially the Jeffersnians were ppsed t cmmercial capitalism r at least the excesses f capitalism. Here, prpnents f the republican interpretatin stress the imprtance f Jeffersn s idea f the independent yeman. This helps explain why Jeffersn wanted t redistribute land t create mre landwning virtuus citizens. This framewrk allws us t take the revlutinary rhetric seriusly. Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the funders believed that we need a mixed gvernment because each type f pure gvernment (i.e. mnarchy, aristcracy, demcracy) can degenerate. T explain further, a mnarchy can devlve int a tyranny, an aristcracy (rule by the wealthy few) can crrupt int an ligarchy, and demcracy can devlve int mb rule. S, as prpnents f this framewrk argue, the Funders devised a gvernment that cmbines the three types (i.e. President represents the ne, the Senate represents the few, and the Huse represents the many. Plitical Implicatins Prpnents f the republican interpretatin were histrians wh denied any explicit cntemprary plitical mtives.

8 Scttish Enlightenment (Set frth in the 1970s as a respnse t bth the Liberal and Republican interpretatins and then refashined by sme schlars int a variatin f the Liberal interpretatin) Methdlgical Principles Schlars wh pursue this interpretatin have generally been intellectual histrians, wh trace the transmissin f ideas frm the great thinkers and texts f the Scttish Enlightenment t the American Funders. They investigate the library hldings f the American Funders and search fr qutatins and verbal eches that illustrate brrwings frm the great Scttish philsphers (e.g., Frances Hutchesn, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Lrd Kames). Tw schlarly views: Scttish Enlightenment as a mdern cmmunitarian alternative t liberalism The Funders were heavily influenced by mral sense and cmmn sense philsphy which they interpreted and adpted as rejectins f Lcke s selfish system f ethics and plitics Scttish Enlightenment as liberalism in a different key The Funders were liberals wh saw the ideas f the Scttish Enlightenment as a means f addressing questins raised within liberalism, especially questins abut hw selfish and self-regarding individuals culd be mtivated t bey the law and t engage in the civic bligatins that are necessary t maintain any state. Issues these schlars explre: cnceptual innvatins f the Scttish Enlightenment, including the invisible hand, the divisin f labr, the scial scientific apprach t the study f man, the stadial thesis r fur stage thery f scial and ecnmic develpment, and especially mral sense and cmmn-sense philsphy. the imprtance f mral sense philsphy as a means f explaining hw rdinary peple have access t mral truths. Fr Jeffersn, and dubtlessly numerus ther Americans, mral sense philsphy prvided a fundatin fr rejecting medieval Christian claims fr the authrity f the pius and learned ver mral questins. Much medieval Christian thelgy had taught that, since men were fallen, they lacked immediate access t mral knwledge and therefre had t rely n intermediaries, especially the clergy, t discern mral principles. Americans turned t mral sense philsphy because it prvided evidence that rdinary men culd discern mral principles. The mral sense, Jeffersn argued, made mral knwledge equally accessible t the prfessr and the plughman. Plitical implicatins Anther effrt t find a cmmunitarian traditin within American plitical thught.

9 Enlightened/ Mdern Republicanism (Neither Republican r Liberal idelgy) Methdlgical Principles/Assumptins Histry is prgressive and ges in stages (the alternate view is that things were gd and then became decadent a stry f decline this dismisses that idea). The enlightened view (i.e. prpnents f this framewrk) argues that things are getting better. In ther wrds, we started primitive, then came pastralism (which invlved the dmesticatin f animals, the rigin f scial inequality, sciety becmes mre prductive, and is vilent and brutish), fllwed by the agricultural age (which invlved the enclsure f land, increased inequality, develpment f nuclear families, majr develpments in gvernment and law, and private prperty), which was fllwed by the cmmercial stage (which invlved increased manufacturing). thus, we need nt revere Angl-Saxns r the ancients fr they were nt enlightened, but warlike and ill mannered. Humans are a cmpund f passin, interest, and reasn (the least influential). there are tw types f passins ht and cl (the mral passins). Examples f the cl passins are sympathy, cmpassin, empathy, benevlence, caring, and nurturing, and when aligned with self-interest and reasn, can vercme the ht passins. Examples f the ht passins are lust, hatred, envy and jealusy ( I hate the Cathlics! I will kill them!! ) T a mdern republican, there is n rm fr fanaticism because yu can t have that much certainty abut things (i.e. if yu can t be certain that Cathlics are wrng, yu wn t kill them.) Therefre, peple becme tlerant, mderate and peaceful. The Scial Cntract was a metaphr, but the United States tk it literally (i.e. wrte a cnstitutin). Prpnents f this framewrk d nt accept the liberal view f the gvernment that gverns least gverns best. they say nt really, yu need t train peple t be virtuus, and wrk t create infrastructure peple are naturally lazy need t train them t be disciplined Accrding t prpnents f this framewrk, the ancients were nt virtuus, but were rather crude and warlike men wh saw wives as prperty. (rejecting classical republican framewrk) Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the Funders embraced a mdern republicanism where scieties were cmmercial therefre peaceful (after all, wars are cstly). This mdern republicanism sftens the edges f ur humanity i.e. makes us humane (wash yurself, use a napkin these were new ideas in the 18 th century). Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the Funders did nt think humanity was hrrible (republicans) r as self-interested (liberals). Prpnents f this framewrk argue that the Funders saw their rle as mdern enlightened republicans as the learned, and shuld act as cunselrs t the state and legislatr. T a mdern republican funder, the gvernment des have a rle t play (as ppsed t liberals wh believe that the gvernment shuld play a very limited rle). Withut the gvernment, canals, schls, bridges etc. wuldn t be built, and industrializatin and innvatin wuld be prmted and encuraged. Prpnents f this view hld that the perfect embdiment f this was Alexander Hamiltn. Thmas Jeffersn was enlightened but distrustful f industry and urbanizatin. His slutin was t expand west srry Indians!!! Plitical Implicatins Mderatin.