Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

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2 Cover and section photo credits Cover Photo: Marshall Islands (Jaluit Atoll Lagoon, Marshall Islands) by Keith Polya is licensed under CC BY 2.0. Country Overview: Jaki-Ed Weaving in the Marshall Islands. Two Women are Presenting Their Traditional Weaving Skills. February 3, Disaster Overview Section Photo: N-GI EBEYE (Marshall Islands) by U.S. Navy Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Laurie Dexter/Released is licensed under CC BY-SA Organizational Structure Section Photo: New Speaker Kenneth Kedi congratulates new President Casten Nemra (Marshall Islands) by RNZI Giff Johnson. Infrastructure Section Photo: The Marshall Islands-Majuro-Window (Majuro, Marshall Islands) by Stefan Lins is licensed under CC BY-SA Health Section Photo: Improving Water, Power and Health Services in the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands) by Asian Development Bank. Women, Peace and Security Section Photo: N-WD (Marshall Islands) by U.S. Navy Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Carlos M. Vazquez II/Released is licensed under CC BY-SA Conclusion Section Photo: Majuro Cooperative School Photo. com/2013/11/manitday2015.jpg?w=1200&h=600&crop=1 Appendices Section Photo: The Marshall Islands-Majuro-Rusty (Marshall Islands) by Stefan Lins. March licensed under CC BY-SA Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

3 Table of Contents Welcome - Note from the Director...7 About the Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance...8 Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series Overview...9 Executive Summary...10 Country Overview...12 Culture Demographics Ethnic Makeup Key Population Centers Vulnerable Groups Economics Environment Geography Borders Climate Disaster Overview...22 Hazards History of Natural Disasters Climate Change Infectious Disease Endemic Conditions Organizational Structure for Disaster Management...30 Community Based Disaster Risk Management in RMI Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency Response U.S. Government Agencies Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

4 Disaster Management Organizations in RMI Laws, Policies, and Plans on Disaster Management Education and Training Disaster Management Communications Early Warning Systems Responsible Agencies for Flood and Storm Warning Military Role in Disaster Relief Foreign Military Assistance Foreign Assistance and International Partners Infrastructure...42 Airports Seaports Land Routes Roads Railways Waterways Schools Communications Utilities Power Water and Sanitation Health...48 Health Overview Structure Healthcare System Challenges in the Healthcare System Communicable Diseases Non-Communicable Diseases Women, Peace and Security Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

5 Conclusion...58 Appendices...60 Department of Defense DMHA Engagements in the Past Five Years (FY ) Hyogo Framework for Action Country Progress Report Force Protection/Pre-Deployment Information Passport/Visa Emergency Contact Information Currency Information Travel Health Information RMI Government Ministries, Offices and Committees Country Profile Government Military Participation in International Organizations International Agencies Acronyms and Abbreviations References (Endnotes) List of Figures Figure 1: Marshall Islands Map Figure 2: Ethnic Composition of Marshall Islands Figure 3: PIC Nationally Defined Hardship and Defined Poverty Lines Comparison Chart Figure 4: RMI Environmental Vulnerability Index Figure 5: Marshall Island Sea Levels Figure 6: WHO Country Health Information Profiles (2011) Figure7: HFA Level of Progress Figure 8: Secretariat of the Pacific Community Development Goals Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

6 List of Tables Table 1: World Bank 2015-Labor Regulation and Insurance Programs Table 2: Estimated Losses and Casualties Caused by Natural Perils Table 3: FEMA-History of Natural Disasters in RMI Table 4: Marshall Islands: WHO Statistical Profile Table 5: WHO Current Health Indicators Table 6: HFA Country Progress Report Priorities and Progress Achieved Table 7: HFA Country Progress Report Future Outlook Areas Table 8: Communicable and Non-Communicable Disease Traveler Recommendations Table 9: The Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014) List of Photos Photo 1: Republic of the Marshall Islands National Flag Photo 2: Reagan Test Site, Kwajalein Atoll, RMI Photo 3: 2013-Forum Leaders Meeting-Republic of the Marshall Islands Photo 4: United States and Marshall Islands National Flags Photo 5: Wake Atoll National Wildlife Refuge Photo 6: Public Utility on Ebeye, Marshall Islands Photo 7: Ebeye, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership Photo 8: Gugeegue, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership Photo 9: A Female Trainer at the Canoe of the Marshall Islands Disclaimer This report has been prepared in good faith based primarily on information gathered from open-source material available at the date of publication. Most of the information used was from United States (U.S.) or other government sources and is thus considered to be in the public domain. Such sources include the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Fact Book, U.S. Department of State (DOS), and foreign government s web pages. Where possible, a link to the original electronic source is provided in the endnote (reference) section at the end of the document. Other sources used include Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) home pages, Relief Web, United Nations Development Program (UNDP) or other United Nations (UN) agency web pages, World Bank, and Asian Development Bank (ADB). While making every attempt to ensure the information is relevant and accurate, Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (CFE-DM) does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information in this publication. 6 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

7 Welcome - Note from the Director Dear Reader, CFE-DM provides education, training and research about disaster management and humanitarian assistance, particularly in international settings that require coordination between the Department of Defense (DOD) and civilian agencies. In line with its charter, CFE-DM has created reference books on disaster management roles, processes, capabilities and vulnerabilities. This Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series is designed to provide decision makers, planners and responders a baseline of understanding of national disaster management plans and structures, including information on key domestic disaster response entities, basic regional background, and local and international humanitarian organizations present in the region. The Indo Asian Pacific region is the nexus of naturally occurring weather phenomena and tectonics resulting in powerful cyclones, volcanos, earthquakes and tsunamis that can be very destructive. 1 The seismically and volcanically active littoral area stretching from New Zealand up the eastern edge of Asia to Alaska and down the western coastal areas of North and South America is known as the Ring of Fire- 75 percent of earth s volcanoes and 90 percent of earthquakes occur in this region. 2 During the period on average, more than 200 million people were affected and more than 70,000 people were killed by natural disasters annually. 3 These handbooks provide a context for country and regional-specific factors that influence disaster management. Sincerely, Joseph D. Martin Director Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

8 Information about the Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance Overview The CFE-DM is a U.S. DOD organization that was established by U.S. Congress in The Center is a direct reporting unit to U.S. Pacific Command and is located on Ford Island, Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii. CFE-DM was founded as part of the late Senator Daniel K. Inouye s vision. The Senator had witnessed the effects of Hurricane Iniki that struck the Hawaiian Islands in 1992, and felt the civilmilitary coordination in the response could have been more effective. He set about to establish the CFE-DM to help bridge understanding between civil and military responders, and to provide a DOD platform for building DMHA awareness and expertise in U.S. forces, and with partner nations in the Asia-Pacific. While maintaining a global mandate, the Asia-Pacific region is our priority of effort and collaboration is the cornerstone of our operational practice. Mission The Center s mission is to advise U.S. Pacific Command leaders; enable focused engagements, education and training; and increase knowledge of best practices and information to enhance U.S. and international civil-military preparedness for disaster management and humanitarian assistance. Vision CFE-DM exists to save lives and alleviate human suffering by connecting people, improving coordination and building capacity. Contact Information Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance 456 Hornet Ave JBPHH HI Telephone: (808) Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

9 Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series Overview The Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series is intended to provide decision makers, planners, responders and disaster management practitioners with an overview of the disaster management structure, policies, laws, and plans for each country covered in the series. Natural and man-made threats most likely to affect the country are discussed. The handbooks also provide basic country background information, including cultural, demographic, geographic, infrastructure and other relevant data. Conditions such as poverty, water and sanitation, vulnerable groups and other humanitarian issues are included. A basic overview of the health situation in the country and disease surveillance is also covered. The handbooks include information on key national entities involved in disaster management, disaster response and preparation, and the military s role in disaster relief. Information on United Nation agencies, international NGOs, major local NGOs, and key U.S. agencies and programs in the country, are also provided. The overall aim is to offer a guide that brings together important information about disaster management and response for each country in an effort to provide a basic understanding for the reader. Information in the handbooks are compiled and based primarily on trusted, reliable, publicly available sources. Much of the information used is from U.S. or other government sources, United Nation sources, NGO websites, scholarly references, foreign government websites, and various media sources. When available, a link to the original internet source is provided. Each handbook is a working document and will be updated periodically as new, significant information becomes available. We hope that you find these handbooks informative, relevant, reliable, and useful in understanding disaster management and response for this country. We welcome and appreciate your feedback to improve this document and help fill any gaps to enhance its future utility. Feedback, comments, or questions can be ed to cfe-dmha.fct@pacom.mil. You may also contact the Center for Excellence at: (808) Please visit our website ( cfe-dmha.org) to view the latest electronic versions available or to request a hard copy of a disaster management reference handbook. Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Summary The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) comprises 29 atolls and five low-lying islands, including the atolls Bikini, Ebetem Kwajalein, Ebeye Enewetak, Majuro, Rongelap, and Utirik. Twenty-two of the atolls and four islands are inhabited. RMI is located in the North Pacific Ocean approximately half the distance between Hawaii and Australia. RMI accounts for approximately 181 square kilometers (69.8 miles). The estimated population, according to the World Bank is approximately 53,158. An estimated 70 percent of the population lives in the capital, Majuro Atoll. RMI consist of low lying atoll islands with the highest recorded point on the atoll, Likiep at 10m (32.8 feet) above sea level. 4 RMI is a relatively isolated nation, with most of its small land area being separated by vast stretches of ocean. The nation s limited available resources also contribute to making RMI vulnerable to climate change. Census updates reveal nearly 99 percent of RMI population lives in low-lying coastal areas of the atoll island which make them extremely susceptible to natural disasters, rendering a majority of the country s economy, population, infrastructure and livelihoods vulnerable. 5 People living in these islands are vulnerable to slow- and rapid-onset disasters related to climate change, including rising sea levels, and shifting rainfall and storm patterns. Under the Compacts of Free Association (COFA) between the U.S. Government and the Government of RMI, USAID provides supplementary assistance to disaster management and reconstruction efforts for these independent nations. 6 RMI is characterized as a Small Island Developing State (by the U.N.) and has an economy that is heavily dependent on the local government as well as resources provided by the U.S. military to help sustain its economic growth. Although a vulnerable economy, RMI has seen some growth in commercial and small-scale fisheries, aquaculture, agriculture, traditional handmade goods, and tourism. 7 The Government of the RMI has made disaster risk management (DRM) a priority. The National Disaster Management Office (NDMO) in Majuro has the lead role in planning and coordinating disaster risk management initiatives, with disaster management policy and decision making being facilitated by the NDC under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretary. The Government of RMI is committed to strengthening DRM capacity across the country as part of its ongoing efforts to build the safety and resilience of its communities. 8 The National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management (DRM NAP) was developed in 2007 to address the existing gaps with regard to the management of disaster risks in RMI. It is an important and integral supportive element towards the achievement of RMI s sustainable national development imperatives. 9 RMI faces numerous development challenges with geographical, social and economic factors contributing to high levels of vulnerability, and climate change is expected to exacerbate existing challenges. Current progress in disaster risk reduction (DRR) varies. Most progress has been made in addressing water issues and education and awareness on DRR. Progress has been weakest in relation to creating an enabling environment for improved DRM; mainstream DRM in planning, decision making, budgetary processes at the national and local levels; and implementing and enforcing building codes and zoning. Currently DRR is not specified in national budgeting expenditures and RMI faces the challenge of limited technical and financial resources across ministries. The integration of DRR and disaster management (DM) into sustainable development policies, planning and programming needs further strengthening. The level of awareness amongst all national and local level stakeholders and decision makers that DRR and DRM are key development issues also needs to be improved. Little progress has been made in developing local plans for emergency response. Although Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) are working with outer island communities, there is a lack of a coordinated approach to disaster preparedness and response Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

11 Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

12 COUNTRY OVERVIEW Country Overview RMI adopted its Constitution in 1979 and signed the Compact of Free Association (COFA) with the U.S. in RMI became a member of the UN in The natural beauty and rich culture of RMI attracts tourists from around the world. Pristine coral reefs teeming with marine life make RMI a premiere dive destination. Yet the country faces formidable challenges in the form of rapid population growth and accelerated sea-level rise, among others. RMI offers great potential for small-scale tourism and economic investment. The country s open investment climate and close relationship with the U.S., under COFA, make it particularly attractive to investors, which in turn help further the ultimate goal of sustainable economic development. 11 Marshall Islands, officially Republic of the Marshall Islands, consists of some of the easternmost islands of Micronesia. The Marshall Islands are composed of more than 1,200 islands and islets in two parallel chains of coral atolls the Ratak, or Sunrise, to the east, and the Ralik, or Sunset, to the west. The chains lie about 125 miles (200 kilometers) apart and extend some 800 miles northwest to southeast. 12 (Figure 1) 13 Occupied by the U.S. in World War II, following heavy fighting at Kwajalein and Enewetak, the Marshall Islands were made part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under jurisdiction of the U.S. in Bikini and Enewetak served as an official testing ground for U.S. nuclear bombs ( ). The tests stopped in 1958 and cleanup efforts began in the late 1960s. During the trial resettlement of the Bikinians, however, their atoll was found to be too contaminated for permanent habitation, and by the late 1970s the people had to be evacuated once again. The Enewetak people were returned to their homeland and a program to monitor Bikini was put in place. 14 Figure 1 depicts the RMI map. 15 Photo 1 on page 13 depicts RMI's national flag. After voting to separate from the other entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, in 1978, the Marshall Islands drew up a constitution that voters approved in It formed the republic and established an internal self-government. In 1982 the government signed the COFA with the U.S. This agreement, Figure 1: Marshall Islands Map 12 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

13 Photo 1: Republic of the Marshall Islands National Flag approved by the voters in 1983, requires that the U.S. remain responsible for defense and external security and that it provide financial assistance for the republic. The compact entitles the U.S. to use the missile testing range on Kwajalein Atoll, and provides for the republic to become fully independent and to alter its status with the U.S. at any time, subject to approval of the residents through plebiscites. Photo 2 depicts a Standard Missile-3 (SM-3) being launched from the USS O Kane in a joint Missile Defense Agency, U.S. Army and U.S. Navy test conducted April 15, The SM-3 successfully intercepted a target missile launched from the Reagan Test Site, located on Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. 16 In 1983 the islanders reopened negotiations on the compact s provision regarding compensation for the people of the four atolls affected by the U.S. nuclear tests. The U.S. agreed to set up a separate fund for the people of the four atolls and established an open-ended fund to cover personal injury claims among the islanders; it also agreed to set up a joint U.S.- Marshallese claims tribunal. A further agreement set up a fund to improve living conditions on Ebeye Island, where all Micronesians working on the Kwajalein missile range and base resided. The Trust Territory was dissolved in 1990 with the approval of the UN Security Council, and on September 17, 1991, the Marshall Islands became a member of the UN. 17 Majuro atoll is the nominal capital of the republic. Government offices are located in the town of Delap-Uliga-Djarrit, named for three islands that were once separated but were later joined by landfill. The Marshalls were administered by the U.S. as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986, when the Trust Territory was dissolved by the U.S. government. 18 None of the 29 low-lying coral atolls and the five coral islands in the Marshall group rises to more than 10 meters above high tide. The islands are coral caps set on the rims of submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor. The island units of the Marshalls are scattered over about 180,000 square miles of the Pacific. The largest atoll in the group and in the world is Kwajalein, which has a land area of only six square miles but surrounds a 655-square-mile lagoon. RMI s nearest neighbors are Wake Island (north), Kiribati and Nauru (south), and the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM)(west). 19 The native people of the Marshalls, the Marshallese, are Micronesians. The most populous atolls are Majuro and Kwajalein, which offers employment at the U.S. missile testing range; together they have almost three-fourths of the country s total population. The rest of the population lives in traditional villages on the outer islands away from the two urban centers. American missionaries arrived in the Marshalls in the 1850s and had notable success. The Marshallese today are predominantly Christian. The Marshallese and English languages are spoken, but only minorities are fluent in English. 20 Photo 2: Reagan Test Site, Kwajalein Atoll, RMI 2011 Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

14 COUNTRY OVERVIEW Culture Cultural values, beliefs and customs, incorporate a unique Marshallese culture and society. The right of land is a focal point for native Marshallese citizens. All Marshallese have land rights as part of a clan, or jowi, that owes allegiance to an Iroij (chief), is supervised by the Alap (clan head), and supported by the Rijerbal (workers). The Iroij have ultimate control of such things as land tenure, resource use and distribution, and dispute settlement. The Alap supervises the maintenance of lands and daily activities. The Rijerbal are responsible for all daily work on the land including cleaning, farming, and construction activities. The society is matrilineal and, therefore, land is passed down from generation to generation through the mother. 21 With the land to tie families together into clans, family gatherings tend to become large events where family and friends gather to celebrate. One of the most significant family events in the Marshallese culture is known as the Kemem, or the celebration of the first birthday of a child, where relatives and friends come together to celebrate with an elaborate feast of traditional Marshallese foods and cultural songs. 22 Most Marshallese natives practice the Protestant faith, and as a whole they are very religious. While the largest church in the nation is the United Church of Christ, there are many other Protestant denominations represented, like Assembly of God, Baptist, and Seventh Day Adventists. The Catholic Church also has established a strong presence in the islands. In recent years, the Church of Latter-day Saints has also become established. Moreover, the Marshallese recognizes Sundays as a day of rest and utilizes Sundays as a day for relaxation and attending worship services. 23 Demographics Understanding the demographic context of RMI provides insight into socio-cultural factors that will affect disaster management effectiveness and disaster vulnerabilities. It is important to reflect gender, ethnicity, vulnerable groups, and economics in the planning and implementation of disaster preparedness, mitigation, and response activities to address gaps and risks. Ethnic Makeup The residents of RMI are regarded throughout the world for their friendly and peaceful demeanor. Marshallese nationals are known for their open and welcoming nature. They are rendered as placing a high value on family and friends, as it is an important trait of their culture. Their kind nature and cooperation are necessary elements of survival in this small island nation. 24 The concept of family and community thus remain inextricably intertwined in Marshallese society. People still consider grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins and distant relatives among their closest family. Their strong family ties contribute to close-knit communities rooted in the values of caring, kindness and respect. While the local population is mostly indigenous, there are many mixed German, Japanese and American- Marshallese. 25 Figure 2 depicts the ethnic makeup of the Marshall Islands. 26 Figure 2: Ethnic Composition of Marshall Islands Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

15 Key Population Centers The 2011 Census accounted for an estimated population of 53,158 persons currently residing in RMI. 27 The previous Census, in 1999, revealed 50,840 persons and therefore, a total population growth rate of 0.4 percent is estimated between 1999 and Prior to the Census, there were projections that RMI population would have 55,000 to over 60,000 people, but due to massive outmigration in recent years, it is estimated that around 11,000 Marshallese have left the country. Majuro and Ebeye are the most densely populated regions and account for the largest concentration of the current population at nearly 74 percent. All outer islands populations, except Jaluit, Lae, and Lib, have decreased since Majuro and Ebeye populations have increased indicating people migrating from the outer islands to areas which offer access to more resources. Ebeye is still the most crowded place in the Republic with 9,614 people per square mile. Small and young children, ages 0-14, continue to constitute the largest portion at 40 percent of the population. RMI has very high fertility rates although the 2011 census indicates fertility rates have decreased since the 1999 census. 28 Vulnerable groups Gender Inequality Gender inequality continues to be one of the obstacles for long-term development in the Pacific, including RMI. 29 According to the latest research conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO), all of the Melanesian countries, except Fiji, are not on track to achieve the promotion of gender equality and empower of women. While there have been substantial improvements toward gender equality in school enrollments, the Pacific Island nation s progress on empowering women for economic participation and women s participation in political leadership is relatively slow. This gender inequality measure has been attributed to patriarchal cultures, common in the Pacific Island region, which discriminate against women, compared with the other regions. 30 In addition to discrimination against women, violence against women continues to be common practice across the Pacific. The 40th Pacific Islands Forum in 2009, highlighted sexual and gender-based violence as a national and regional development issue demanding attention at the highest levels and affirmed the need to eliminate it. The Pacific Islands Forum further suggests that political commitment to combat genderbased violence is of utmost importance within the region to help mitigate gender inequalities. However, practices in law enforcement and justice systems are not conducive to tackle violence against women within the region and although progress is being made in some Pacific Island countries, the legal capacity to enforce change is lacking. Additionally, access to information on the handling of violence against women is limited. 31 Children In RMI, the living conditions and culturally accepted standards of living for families, women and children vary, drastically to some extent, from one island to another. Notably, in some regions, such as Majuro Atoll or Ebeye Island, access to household electricity and sanitary drinking water is increasingly difficult. Additionally, the lack of equal distribution of activities and resources, such as nutritious food, clean water, transportation and medical care, throughout the islands of the archipelago commonly results in populations limiting themselves to low paying farming jobs. Moreover, considering the minimum hourly salary in RMI is two dollars, it is easy to understand the level of instability present in some areas where resources are scarce. Families have minimal incomes with which to provide for their children and to acquire resources for their families. As a result of reduced access to clean drinking water and basic services in the poorest regions, children are particularly vulnerable to diseases such as dysentery, fever, and various respiratory diseases. Marshallese health indicators also note the growth rate of children is lower than average. A lower growth rate for children in the region can be attributed to certain dietary deficiencies. Additionally, while lower growth rates have been indicated there is also a disparity of childhood immunizations and a lack of appropriate medical treatments. 32 Photo 3 depicts children gathered during the 2013 Forum Leaders Meeting in RMI. 33 According to the DOS, RMI is not party to the 1980 Hague Convention against child abduction, therefore children are not protected, by law, against abduction, sexual abuse and neglect. The level of prevention practices against child abuse and abduction is even poorer and these practices are becoming increasingly common in the region. Additionally, the Criminal Code does Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

16 COUNTRY OVERVIEW not define corporal punishment against a child as an offence which renders children vulnerable to various forms of abuse. In addition there are currently no regulations relating to child pornography. In the Marshallese culture child labor is common and, the right to work does not include a minimum salary for minors, which is especially significant given that the sectors in which children work involve intensive labor. In RMI, it is typical for children in the Atolls to help their parents in work related activities such as fishing, agriculture, and retail, as well as in other small businesses. 34 Child labor increases the vulnerability of young children and is commonly associated with child abductions within the region. As with the majority of children s rights, Marshallese children do not have a right to education, in fact the extent to which their right to education is respected depends on their parents living standards. It is common for children of poorer parents to have limited access to education or to be removed from school to help work and provide income to support their families. In RMI, due to the difficult living conditions, very low salaries, and often considerable geographical remoteness, it is becoming very difficult to guarantee children s attendance. 35 Photo 3: 2013-Forum Leaders Meeting-Republic of the Marshall Islands Poverty The World Health Organization (WHO) indicates gaining access to quality and verifiable data in RMI continues to remain a challenge. This challenge can be attributed to the consumption from subsistence fishing and farming is difficult to assess. Additionally, it has been estimated that RMI is not on track in reducing the portion of population under the basic-needs national poverty line. In most PICs (Pacific Island Countries), 20 to 30 percent of the population lives below the nationallydefined hardship threshold, though this rate is considerably higher for the Marshall Islands. Figure 3 depicts the nationally defined hardship and national poverty lines in RMI. 36 The region as a whole is unlikely to achieve the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger in the immediate future, as approximately 25 percent of households in the Pacific region still live under the basic-needs poverty line. Rapid urbanization, along with the growth of informal settlements and the continued increase in the migration of residents from the outer islands to the more urbanized regions is leading to urban poverty. New settlements in over populated areas (in relation to resources per capita) of RMI often have inadequate water and sanitary facilities which further exacerbate poor living conditions and poverty, thus increasing public health risks and the vulnerability of the poor. 37 Food poverty, as defined by the WHO, is the inability to obtain nutritious, wholesome and affordable foods. According to the WHO indicators, food poverty continues to be an increasing concern in the Pacific region. Because of the natural conditions, RMI has concentrated production of a limited number of food commodities, which make them extremely vulnerable to conditions of endemic food poverty. Additionally the dependency on food imports to the region has increased in recent years due to a decline in traditional crop 16 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

17 Figure 3: PIC Nationally Defined Hardship and National Defined Poverty Lines Comparison Chart production and a rapid rate of urban migration. Notably, there is a link between food poverty and obesity, which continues to gain recognition as a major public health issue in the Pacific. 38 Table 1 depicts the minimum wage for full-time worker in RMI (US$). 39 Economics RMI economy is weak and fragile and is heavily dependent on the local government and resources provided by the U.S. military to help sustain its economic growth. RMI is classified by the UN as a Small Island Developing State (SIDS). The economy remains relatively small, with an estimated current-dollar Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of approximately US$100 million as of The vulnerable economy of RMI further relies heavily on RMI government and U.S. military expenditure and employment, but has seen some growth in commercial and small-scale fisheries, mar-culture (aquaculture), agriculture, traditional crafts manufacturing (handmade local crafts), and tourism. 40 The 2011 Census showed 31,307 people (aged 15 and older) as RMI Working Age Population compared to 28,692 recorded in the 1999 Census. From the labor force 12,312 had jobs and 612 did not have jobs according to the Census, thus translated into a 4.7 percent unemployment rate (i.e., 612/12,924) compared to 30.9 percent unemployment rate revealed by the 1999 Census. The reason for very low unemployment rate was due to inclusion of a question on the Census Questionnaire of home production which includes fishing, making handicrafts, farming, etc., for sale or own consumption in the 2011 Census, which was absent in the 1999 Census Questionnaire. It was indicated that 40 percent of workers in the Republic work for pay in the private sector, 34 percent work for pay in the government, and 21 percent produce goods mainly for sale (home production) as the three Minimum wage for a full-time worker (US$/month) Standard workday Maximum working days per week Table 1: World Bank 2015-Labor Regulation and Insurance Programs Major restrictions on night work? Unemployment protection scheme? Health Insurance for permanent employees? Kiribati No No Specific Limit 7 No No No Marshalls No Specific Limit 7 No No No FSM No Specific Limit 7 No No No Palau No Specific Limit 7 No No No Samoa No Specific Limit 6 No No No Tonga No No Specific Limit 6 No No Yes Vanuatu No Specific Limit 6 No No Yes Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

18 COUNTRY OVERVIEW major categories of employment by class of workers. Over 17 percent of males work in the private sector as compared to 36 percent females; and 36 percent of males work in the government as compared to 31 percent females. 41 National Investment Policy Statement RMI government encourages private sector development to help meet the nation s development goals. The developmental goals of RMI include increased employment opportunities for Marshallese citizens, enhanced human resource development, increase in foreign exchange, and import alternatives. Additionally, RMI government is particularly interested in encouraging private investments in the nation s fisheries, tourism industry, manufacturing and agriculture sectors. Furthermore, RMI government understands that the domestic private sector is currently too fragile to make significant economic contributions in this regard and therefore RMI government actively seeks out direct foreign investments to assist in the developmental goals of the nation. 42 Incentives under the COFA with the U.S. As a general rule, all articles wholly grown, made or produced in the RMI have duty-free access into the U.S. except for the following categories of products: Watches, clocks and timing apparatus provided for in Chapter 9.1 of the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the U.S.; Buttons (whether finished or not finished) provided for in item of the above named Tariff Schedule; Textile and apparel articles which are subject to textile agreements; Footwear, handbags, luggage, flat good, work gloves, and leather wearing apparel which were not eligible for the Generalized System of Preferences in the Trade Act of 1974; and Tuna canned in oil. 43 if the sum of the cost or value of the materials produced in RMI, and the direct costs of processing operations performed in RMI are not less than 35 percent of the appraised value of the merchandise at the time of its importation into the U.S. In other words, only 35 percent of the customs value of the U.S. import must be contributed in RMI. As much as 15 percent of the value of the product may be contributed to this 35 percent added-value requirement when materials produced in the customs territory of the U.S. are used. 45 The cost of processing operations in RMI can include the following: All actual labor costs involved in the growth, production, manufacture, or assembly of the specific merchandise, including fringe benefits, on-the-job training, and the cost of engineering, supervisory, quality control, and similar personnel; Dyes, molds, tooling, and depreciation. Oil machinery and equipment which are allocable to the specific merchandise; Research, development, design, engineering, and blueprint costs insofar as they are allocable to the specific merchandise, and; Costs of inspecting and testing the specific merchandise. 46 Photo 4 depicts the U.S. and the Marshall Islands national flags flying side by side in the Marshall Islands. 44 Articles exported from RMI qualify for this duty-free treatment Photo 4: United States and Marshall Islands National Flags 18 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

19 Products made in RMI are also not presently subject to any quota restrictions into the U.S. market. This is particularly relevant in the area of textile production. Textile imports into the U.S. are generally subject to highly restrictive quotas based on the country of origin. 47 RMI has a GDP of approximately $144 million and a per capita GDP of approximately $2,900. Key sectors in the economy include: 48 Agriculture and fisheries: 31.7 percent Industry: 14.9 percent Services: 53.4 percent (2004 est.) Important export products include: copra cake, coconut oil, handicrafts and fish. Important industries include: copra, tuna processing, and tourism, craft items from seashells, wood and pearls. As with most Small Island States, the value of imports ($54.7 million) greatly exceeds the value of exports ($9.1 million). A combination of Government downsizing, drought, a drop in construction, the decline in tourism, and less income from the renewal of fishing vessel licenses have restricted GDP growth to an average of one percent over the past decade. 49 Environment For many years, RMI Government has been concerned with the issue of global climate change. A major study on the detection and possible impacts of climate change and sea level rise in RMI was commissioned in the early 1990 s. It was completed in 1992 by a team from RMI Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), led by a Harvard scientist working on contract with the government. The report has since been included in the bibliography of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 50 The physical characteristics of RMI would give any visitor the best indicator as to why the RMI Government is so concerned with sea level rise. Approximately 1225 islets in 29 atolls scattered over 3/4 million square miles, the average height above sea level is 7 feet or 2 meters. The highest land area is on Likiep Atoll, where the elevation reaches a maximum altitude of only ten meters. Fragile coral reefs fringe the atolls, and serve as the only line of defense against the ocean surge. The clearance over the reef in the sections that are covered by water is usually no more than a couple of feet. In other places, the reef is commonly slightly submerged. 51 RMI lie in open ocean, and the islands are generally very close to sea level. The vulnerability to waves and storm surges is precarious. Although the islands have not been completely free from weather extremes, they are more frequently referred to in folklore as jolet jen Anij (gifts from God). The sense that RMI was a God-given sanctuary away from the harshness of other areas is therefore part of the socio-cultural identity of the people. However, given the physics of wave formation and the increasing frequency and severity of storms, RMI will likely be at even greater risk. The relative safety that the islands have historically provided is now in jeopardy. It is likely that evacuation would have to be effected long before inundation is total. 52 The Marshallese would become among the first of many environmental refugees. This would be a devastating disruption not only for the culture and the people of the island countries, but also for the countries that would need to accommodate the refugees. The impact of this is not limited to the Marshalls and its immediate neighbors, but extends far wider into the global environment. RMI are often referred to as a front line state with regard to the climate change issue. It is important to realize that once the potentially catastrophic effects begin to appear there, it is likely already too late to prevent further warming that will threaten virtually all of the world s coastal regions. 53 For these reasons, RMI has participated actively in negotiations for the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and its protocols, and continues to do so. 54 Geography RMI is located in the central Pacific, approximately midway between Hawai i and Australia. RMI is made up of 29 low-lying atolls and five islands, together comprising 70 square miles. This is in contrast to the 700,000 square miles of ocean, which forms part of its Exclusive Economic Zone. The atolls and islands are unusual in that they are essentially coral caps set on underwater dome volcanoes rising from the ocean floor. The atoll and islands lie in two parallel chains: Ratak (Sunrise) to the east; and Ralik (Sunset) to the west. The two atoll chains are approximately 129 miles apart and are aligned diagonally northwest to southeast between 160 E 173 E and 04 N 15 N. The capital is situated on Majuro atoll in the southeast, which has a land area of 3.56 square miles. The distance between Majuro and the furthest outlying atoll (Ujelang) is approximately 700 miles. Majuro lies Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

20 COUNTRY OVERVIEW some 2,300 miles southwest of Honolulu and nearly 2,000 miles southeast of Guam. Over two thirds of the population of RMI is concentrated on Majuro and Kwajalein. These two atolls are essentially urban in nature while the remainder of the atolls and islands commonly referred to as the outer islands are rural. Administrative district centers are located at Majuro, Kwajalein, Jaluit and Wotje. 55 Photo 5 depicts Wake Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, Marshall Islands. 56 Borders While RMI does not share any land borders, the Marshall Islands shares maritime borders with: Kiribati, the FSM, Nauru, and Wake Island. Geographically RMI are relatively close to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines. 57 Climate The weather in RMI is tropical - hot and humid, but tempered by trade-winds, which prevail throughout the year. The average temperature hovers around 80 degrees Fahrenheit and rarely fluctuates. This is one of the most outstanding features of the climate; in fact, the range between the coolest and the warmest months averages less than one degree Fahrenheit. Unusually, the nights, although they feel cooler, are actually 2-4 degrees warmer than the average daily minimum; this is because the lowest temperatures usually occur during heavy showers in the daytime. Like elsewhere in the Pacific, the skies are quite cloudy. Tropical storms are very rare; although, in the last three years there have been three major cyclones. Much more common are minor storms of the easterly wave type, especially from March to April and October to November. 58 Rainfall varies greatly throughout RMI. In the wet, southern atolls, rainfall can average as much as 160 inches per year, while the dry, northern atolls may only average 20 inches. When rain does fall, it is often heavy. There is also a wet and dry season, with the wettest months being between May and November. Weather data for RMI is provided by the Majuro Weather Station. The station at Majuro is located on the southeastern end of the Majuro Atoll. This atoll is approximately 160 square miles in area with a lagoon of about 150 square miles. The lagoon is oblong, 22 miles long and about 4 miles wide. The station is located at Delap. 59 Photo 5: Wake Atoll National Wildlife Refuge 20 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

21 Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

22 DISASTER OVERVIEW Disaster Overview Hazards The Pacific is one of the world s most disasterprone regions. The small island countries that dot this vast ocean are exposed to floods, cyclones, storm surges, and droughts as well as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. While RMI is not directly in the typhoon corridor, it is exposed to a number of hazards and vulnerabilities that are linked both to its physical characteristics and unsustainable development processes. Key natural hazards that have the potential to negatively impact RMI include: Tropical storms and typhoons, high surf, and drought all expected to increase in frequency and intensity due to climate change. However they are considered to be at low risk to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunami; and Key man-made or human-induced hazards include: fire, contamination of water supply, outbreaks of epidemic diseases, exposure to hazardous waste, and commercial transport accidents (including marine oil spills). 60 Figure 4 depicts the Environmental Vulnerability Index for RMI. 61 Factors contributing to the high risk profile of RMI include the following: 62 Aspects of vulnerability to hazards, resistance and damages caused by the impacts of natural disasters; RMI is vulnerable to high winds, extreme wet seasons, isolation, limited resources, low lying lands, population density, coastal erosion and rising sea levels; RMI is categorized as being a highly vulnerable nation according to the Environmental Vulnerability Index; Natural disasters and rising sea-levels continue to post the highest risk to the small island nation; and Poverty and weak economy contribute to the vulnerability of RMI. Climate change also poses a serious threat, as the region is experiencing major temperature fluctuations, changing rainfall patterns, intense storms, and rising sea levels. In a region where natural events can have such devastating consequences, effective disaster management and risk reduction are critical to protect people and the environment as well as achieve sustainable growth. 63 The major climate-related natural hazards impacting the RMI are sea level rise, droughts, and tropical storms and typhoons. These are discussed in detail below: 64 Sea level rise Shoreline erosion caused by sea level rise is already a significant problem across RMI. According to a study conducted in 1992 of Majuro atoll by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the U.S. (NOAA), a three-foot rise in sea levels would completely inundate the atoll, and defense mechanisms to protect the atoll from a one-infifty year storm event would be impossible. It is recommended that a full retreat of the entire population of the Majuro atoll and the RMI must be considered in planning for worst-case sea level rise scenarios. 65 Droughts Wet season rainfall supplies the majority of freshwater to RMI. However, El Niño conditions in this part of the Pacific can shift rainfall patterns, bringing significantly less rainfall than in normal years and leading to drought conditions. Droughts are especially damaging in the atolls lacking sufficient rainwater harvesting/storage capacity to withstand dry periods, as is the case with most of the outer atolls of the dry North (Utrik, Ailuk, Likiep, Wotho, Lae, and Namu). The El Niño event of 1997/98 was one of the most pronounced drought periods in RMI, bringing only eight percent of normal rainfall in a four month period and leading the government to declare the entire archipelago a disaster area, and severely impacting Laura atoll s fresh-water lens. More frequent El Niño events could increase the intensity and occurrence of these drought events, with important implications for disaster management and response in RMI. 66 Tropical storms and typhoons Strong winds, wave run-up, and overtopping of beach berms and protective structures are significant sources of flooding and damage across RMI. Such was the case in 2008, when one of the worst recorded disasters in the nation s history took place. A combination of factors, including three major storms in two weeks and high tides, together flooded (via storm surges) a large part of the Majuro atoll, damaging more than 300 homes and forcing 10 percent of the population to temporary shelters. 22 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

23 Figure 4: RMI Environmental Vulnerability Index Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

24 DISASTER OVERVIEW The impacts of natural hazards in RMI are exacerbated by the underlying conditions of vulnerability noted in the GFDRR, World Bank, and SOPAC assessment. The conditions noted in the assessment included: Extremely high population density, especially on the two urban islands of the archipelago (Ebeye and Majuro); High levels of poverty (20 percent of the population lives on less than US$1/day); Low elevations average elevation of most islands is approximately two meters above sea level, with the highest recorded point on the atoll at 10 meters above sea level (Likiep), and the majority of the population living along the coastline; Dispersed archipelago (the islands are spread across three quarters of a million square miles) making administration, communications, and operations challenging; Limited and fragile island ecosystems and fresh-water resources (vulnerable to overuse, contamination, and droughts); and A weak economic base heavily dependent on donor support. 67 Table 2 depicts the estimated losses and casualties by natural perils in RMI. 68 History of Natural Disasters Pacific: Drought - Sep RMI declared a state of emergency on 3 February after 13 atolls formally requested assistance from the National Government to address water shortage challenges associated with the droughts. 69 Marshall Islands/Kiribati: King Tides - Mar On 3 Mar 2014, tidal surges during the morning and afternoon high tides caused inundation to communities on low-lying atolls of RMI. Waves washed over shorelines, sending water, rubbish and debris across roads and properties. There were no reports of fatalities or serious injuries. The government declared a state of emergency, set up an Emergency Operations Centre (EOC) held National Disaster Committee (NDC) meetings with humanitarian partners. In Majuro, a total of 70 homes were damaged to varying degrees, from complete destruction to minor damage. The total number of evacuees peaked at 940; by 7 Mar, 160 people were still displaced and had been relocated to churches in Uliga and Rita. The outer islands of Mili, Maloelap, Kili and Wotje were also affected, with severe impacts to Arno. Tinak Health Centre was completely destroyed, and Malel and Kilange Health Centers were low on medical supplies. Most breadfruit, pandanus and banana trees destroyed, and shops lost all food stock. Many household water catchments were damaged and community tanks contaminated. Around 80 percent of sanitation facilities were affected, with sewage reported in some locations. The tidal surges also caused damage to five islands in Kiribati. Most of the impact was to Marakei Atoll (population 2,872), with approximately 44 homes damaged and evacuees sheltered in community halls. There was also damage to sea walls and causeways on the main island, Tarawa. Access to clean drinking water was a key concern as groundwater sources were contaminated. The government requested the support of Kiribati Red Cross Society in carrying out initial damage assessments. 70 Marshall Islands: Drought - May The government declared a state of emergency for the northern Marshall Islands on 19 Apr 2013 due to a prolonged dry season and severe drought experienced in Wotje and the atolls north of Majuro. On 8 May, the state of emergency was elevated to a state of drought disaster for a period of 30 days. The severe drought conditions damaged or destroyed agriculture on many islands of the northern atolls. In addition, deteriorating health was reported in many locations. Four clusters (Health, Food Security, Logistics and WASH) were established and government cluster leads prepared specific response plans with support from the UNDAC Team. On 29 May, the government issued an Intermediate Response Plan for the drought stricken northern atolls. The plan required US$4.6 million for WASH, Health, Food and logistics needs for the 6,384 people affected. On 7 Jun, the state of drought disaster was extended for an additional 30 days into early July. As of 30 Sep, the affected populations continued to recover from drought effects as normal seasonal rainfall remained ongoing. 71 Table 3 depicts the U.S. FEMA s (Federal Emergency Management Agency) history of Disaster Declarations in the Marshall Islands from 1987 to Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

25 Risk Profile: Tropical Cyclone Mean Return Period (years) AAL Direct Losses (Million USD) (% GDP) 1.9% 21.1% 42.5% 78.9% Emergency Losses (Million USD) (% of total government expenditures) 0.7% 7.3% 14.6% 27.2% Casualties Risk Profile: Earthquake and Tsunami Mean Return Period (years) AAL Direct Losses (Million USD) (% GDP) 0.1% 0.2% 1.5% 3.8% Emergency Losses (Million USD) (% of total government expenditures) 0.0% 0.1% 0.5% 1.3% Casualties Risk Profile: Tropical Cyclone, Earthquake and Tsunami Mean Return Period (years) AAL Direct Losses (Million USD) (% GDP) 2.0% 21.9% 43.3% 78.9% Emergency Losses (Million USD) (% of total government expenditures) 0.7% 7.5% 14.9% 27.2% Casualties Table 2: Estimated Losses and Casualties Caused by Natural Perils Date State/Tribal Government Incident Description 03/20/1998 Republic of the Marshall Islands Severe Drought 10/06/1994 Republic of the Marshall Islands High Surf, Wave Action 12/16/1992 Republic of the Marshall Islands Typhoon Gay 02/07/1992 Republic of the Marshall Islands Tropical Storm Axel 12/06/1991 Republic of the Marshall Islands Typhoon Zelda 01/16/1988 Republic of the Marshall Islands Tropical Storm Roy 04/27/1987 Republic of the Marshall Islands Fire Table 3: FEMA-History of Natural Disasters in RMI Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

26 DISASTER OVERVIEW Climate Change Climate change impacts are already being felt across the RMI, including increased intensity and frequency of extreme events and droughts. Already, some of the country s northern atolls are suffering more frequent drought conditions, and much of the archipelago is under threat from storm surges and flooding. The country s First National Communications to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) engaged in a consultative process across all relevant stakeholders of RMI to identify needs for adaptation action in several key sectors, including water resources, coastal and marine resources, and public health. Adverse impacts on these sectors are projected to increase in response to a changing climate. RMI has a warm, tropical climate yearround, with average temperatures around 27 degrees Celsius and annual precipitation of approximately 3500 millimeters (mm). Two seasons are recognized, a wet season that occurs between May and November and a drier season between December and April. Climate in this part of the Pacific is governed by a number of factors including the trade winds and the movement of the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), a zone of low-pressure rainfall that migrates across the Pacific south of the equator. Year to year variability in climate is also strongly influenced by the El Niño conditions in the southeast Pacific, which bring drought conditions to RMI. 73 Figure 5 depicts the change in sea level from 1945 to Infectious Disease The Pacific Islands experience a number of endemic and introduced communicable disease threats. Since 2000, the region has experienced outbreaks of cholera ( in RMI), measles (2003 in RMI), and a number of emerging vector-borne disease outbreaks caused by dengue (2004 in RMI). The vulnerability to outbreaks in the U.S.-affiliated and other pacific islands is heightened by limited epidemiologic and laboratory surveillance capacity, travel patterns that facilitate disease translocation, and geographic remoteness. This may delay and limit external assistance, small populations with limited specialized human resources, and health care systems with limited surge and tertiary care capacity. Moreover, the introduction of new pathogens into immunologically naïve island populations can result in high attack rates. Increasing rates of non-communicable diseases, including diabetes and associated conditions, further threaten the resilience of these communities to communicable disease threats. The World Health Organization (WHO), the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) each support national and territorial health authorities in the USAPI in strengthening detection and response capacity for communicable diseases. A key framework for coordinating technical assistance in the region is the Pacific Public Health Surveillance Network (PPHSN). This network was established in 1996 as a collaborative partnership between 22 Pacific Island Countries and associated territories alongside technical assistance partners in order to strengthen communicable disease detection and response capacity. SPC, WHO, and CDC representatives currently serve on the PPHSN Coordinating body, along with members from Fiji National University, the Pacific Island Health Officers Association, and representatives from Pacific Island health ministries and departments. 75 Endemic Conditions Environmental conditions plague RMI. RMI lies in open-ocean, and the islands are generally very close to sea level. The vulnerability to waves and storm surges is precarious. Given the physics of wave formation and the increasing frequency and severity of storms, RMI will likely be at even greater risk as the effects of climate change continue to affect the island nation. The relative safety that the islands have historically provided is now in jeopardy, and it is likely that evacuation will have to be implemented long before inundation of the islands and atolls is complete. Due to the low lying geography of the nation potable water continues to be an endemic environmental issue. Flooding, typical of the nation, causes overflow and runoff of waste products in to the scarce potable water resources available. 76 Photo 6 depicts a resident of RMI gathering running water at the public utility on Ebeye. The water is turned on for only 45 minutes once a week. Public distribution points like this one are an important source of drinking water for households Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

27 Figure 5: Marshall Island Sea Levels Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

28 DISASTER OVERVIEW Photo 6: Public Utility on Ebeye, Marshall Islands Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

29 Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

30 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Organizational Structure for Disaster Management The Chief Secretary is responsible to the Cabinet for ensuring that adequate disaster management measures exist at all times within RMI. Formalized Disaster Management first entered the political arena in RMI in 1987 with the passing of a National Disaster Management Plan. It became firmly entrenched seven years later with the enactment of the Disaster Assistance Act, which provided for the establishment of a National Disaster Management Committee and a National Disaster Management Office (NDMO) located in the Office of the Chief Secretary. The year 1994 also saw the passing of a Hazard Mitigation Plan, a National Disaster Manual, and an Airport Disaster Plan. A Drought Disaster Plan was passed in 1996, followed by the drafting of a revised National Disaster Management Plan in The most recent legislative activity on the Disaster Risk Management front was the development of a Standard Hazard Mitigation Plan in If the U.S. President declares a State of Emergency for RMI, a hybrid FEMA/USAID/ Government assessment team will carry out a Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA). Because of FEMA regulations, the mobilization of such a team follows specific guidelines and the assessment report cannot be shared with other stakeholders outside of the U.S. Government. It is therefore important that other international actors work early on and closely with RMI Government and IOM, which has presence in RMI as the USAID implementing partner, and can act as the linkage with the wider humanitarian community so that there is no duplication of efforts. 78 FEMA and USAID have been meeting since 2008 to fine tune existing protocols and procedures and they have conducted an operational blueprint meeting. A specific mechanism exists in RMI in terms of resource mobilization in line with the recently amended Compact of Free Association with the U.S. and the role of USAID and FEMA (the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency). In November 2008, an amended Article X came into force. 79 Under the amended Agreement, RMI will be able to request disaster assistance from USAID in a declared state of emergency, after utilizing the national Disaster Assistance Emergency Fund, (established by the amended Agreement as a first resource for disaster response), and requesting international assistance through the UN. Existing DRM arrangements have to date been heavily focused on the conventional approach to Disaster Management; i.e. preparedness, response and recovery, with less attention being focused on the equally critical component of disaster risk reduction. The current context of institutional change provides a window of opportunity to not only review existing DRM legislative and institutional arrangements, but also to ensure a better balance between the response based DM and DRR in RMI. 80 USAID shall be responsible for the provision of emergency and disaster relief assistance in accordance with its statutory authorities, regulations and policies. RMI may additionally request that the President of the U.S. make an emergency or major disaster declaration. If the President declares an emergency or major disaster, FEMA and USAID shall jointly (a) assess the damage caused by the emergency or disaster and (b) prepare a reconstruction plan including an estimate of the total amount of Federal resources that are needed for reconstruction. USAID shall carry out reconstruction activities in RMI in accordance with the reconstruction plan. For purposes of the U.S. Government s Disaster Relief Fund appropriations, the funding of the activities to be carried out pursuant to this paragraph shall be deemed to be necessary expenses in carrying out the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act. 81 The National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management (DRM NAP) provides a roadmap of how RMI will go about implementing the strategy of establishing a coordinated and effective national disaster risk reduction and disaster management system for all hazards. While disaster management to date has been largely the preserve of the NDC and its operational arm, the National Emergency Management and Coordination Office (NEMCO), this DRM NAP strives to mainstream DRM into a broader sectoral arena. This is because DRR requires an integrated and crosssectoral approach, one in which disaster risk considerations form an integral consideration in all development related planning. This includes 30 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

31 integration of DRM considerations in budgetary allocations. 82 Key sectors for DRM in RMI, as identified in the situation analysis, include: Planning; Finance; Local government; Environment; Fisheries; Health; Agriculture; Tourism; Utilities (Power, Water, Transport, etc.); Private sector; and Civil Society Organizations 83 Community Based Disaster Risk Management in RMI The Draft National DRM Arrangements (2010) for RMI outline a proposed change in the way in which DRM is managed, with a greater focus on DRR. These Arrangements are currently under consideration by the NDC and may be revised to incorporate recommendations and additional outcomes which were highlighted through the progress review of the Disaster Risk Management National Action Plan (DRM NAP) in The DRM NAP ( ) is still being implemented. Its aims are ambitious, and as yet, little dedicated progress has been made in addressing its ten goals. Inclusion of DRR exists to some degree in key ministry s sector plans. Sectors with a more direct or obvious link to DRM (e.g. the National Weather Service) are making considerable progress in terms of mainstreaming DRR, partly because it forms elements of its core business, but also due to deliberate commitment to progress NAP goals. Other sectors, such as the Ministry of Health, are including elements of DRR, however, this is occurring incidentally and the term DRR remains misunderstood to some degree. Given the sparse and scattered nature of RMI s outer islands, activity outside the urban centers of Majuro and Ebeye is overseen and implemented by local governments, community organizations and NGOs. It decentralized due to the geographical nature of the islands. Local governments (e.g. mayors) have legal authority in the outer islands; however, it is traditional land owners who have the legal rights to over-rule local mayors regarding issues on their own land. Local level disaster plans are yet to be developed; however, this is identified as an activity in the NAP. Limited resources (both human and financial) in outer islands are also an issue, and no specific funds for DRR are available. 84 Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency Response Disaster Relief Program Description Pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 404, the DOD can assist foreign countries to respond to manmade or natural disaster situations when necessary to prevent loss of lives. After the local U.S. Embassy has officially declared a disaster, the OFDA assesses the needs and priorities of the country and may request DOD assistance. The assistance may be in the form of transportation, excess property items, Humanitarian Daily Rations (HDR), or some other commodity. The Overseas Humanitarian, Disaster, and Civic Aid (OHDACA) appropriation or USAID may fund transportation of disaster relief. 85 Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency Response When a foreign country suffers a disaster, it may request assistance through the U.S. Embassy. DOS and OFDA validate the request. If deemed necessary, the DOS requests disaster relief assistance from the DOD. Assistant Secretary of Defense (Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict) approves the request and forwards it to Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) for action. DSCA (Programs Directorate) identifies the required supplies (HDRs, Excess Property, etc.) and works directly with the Joint Staff Logistics Directorate (J4) to provide transportation in support of disaster relief efforts. 86 Congressional Notification for Foreign Disaster Assistance Not later than 48 hours after the commencement of disaster assistance activities, the President is required by law (10 U.S.C. 404) to transmit a report to Congress containing notification of the assistance (proposed or provided) and a description of the following is available: the man made or natural disaster for which disaster assistance is necessary; the threat to human lives presented by the disaster; the U.S. military personnel and material resources involved; the disaster assistance provided Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

32 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE by other nations or public or private relief organizations; and the anticipated duration of the disaster assistance activities. 87 U.S. Government Agencies U.S. Government & Overseas Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (USAID) In November 2008, USAID assumed responsibility for disaster response and reconstruction in the FSM and the RMI from FEMA, reflecting the transition of FSM and RMI from U.S.-administered trust territories to independent countries. USAID and FEMA developed an Operational Blueprint to provide a framework for U.S. Government (USG) disaster response and reconstruction in the two nations, under which USAID maintains FEMA s previous commitment to supplementing host government efforts as necessary to provide humanitarian assistance in the aftermath of significant disasters. USAID s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) collaborates closely with FEMA, as well as with USAID/Philippines and USAID s Asia Bureau, to implement programs in FSM and RMI. In Palau, USAID/ OFDA responds to disasters through its normal disaster response mechanisms. An important pillar of USAID s disaster mitigation, relief, and reconstruction program in FSM and RMI is a cooperative agreement between USAID and its primary relief and reconstruction partner in the two countries, the International Organization for Migration (IOM), which maintains offices in Pohnpei and Yap state, FSM, and Majuro, RMI. USAID also maintains a full-time presence in FSM and RMI through a Disaster Assistance Coordinator (DAC). Located in Majuro and working as a member of the U.S. Embassy county team in FSM and RMI, the DAC serves as a liaison with host governments and coordinates USG relief activities in FSM and RMI. USAID recently established a position for Reconstruction Assistance Coordinator based in USAID/Philippines, who helps USAID fulfill the reconstruction component of its mandate as specified in the Operational Blueprint. 88 The DOS is the lead U.S. agency in responding to overseas disasters. Within the DOS, USAID is responsible for coordinating international disaster assistance. Within USAID, OFDA is responsible for coordinating humanitarian assistance. The DOD involvement in overseas humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations must be requested and coordinated with USAID through OFDA and the relevant U.S. embassy. U.S. Embassy Majuro Mejen Weto, Long Island, Majuro Atoll P.O. Box 1379, Majuro, MH T: E: MAJConsular@state.gov W: Ambassador: Karen Brevard Stewart Disaster Management Organizations in RMI Marshall Islands National Disaster Management Office (NDMO) The Director, NDMO is responsible to the Chief Secretary for the identification, development, and implementation of disaster management programs, and for the maintenance, testing, and review of disaster management plans and operational procedures used within RMI. Specific responsibilities include: The upkeep of the Hazard Mitigation Plan and management of RMI Hazard Mitigation Programs; The identification, design, development, implementation and management of disaster preparedness progra ms and activities, and in particular those associated with planning, training, education and awareness; Providing assistance and advice to departments, NGO s and private industry on disaster management matters; Developing and maintaining an Emergency Operation Center (EOC); The testing and review of support plans and operational procedures; Providing a focal point for regional disaster management activities and for IDNDR purposes; and Other disaster management related duties as directed by the Chief Secretary. 89 National Disaster Management Committee (NDMC) The National Disaster Committee is responsible for the provision of technical advice and resource support to facilitate the implementation of disaster management programs. They also ensure that an adequate and reliable disaster control and coordination 32 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

33 mechanism is in place to accommodate effective disaster response and recovery requirements. Major functions of this committee include: The review and approval of hazard mitigation grant program applications as proposed by Government Departments, and Private Non Profit Organizations; The review and approval of disaster management plans, including amendments; The development and on-going review of disaster response and recovery policy and procedures; The coordination of disaster assessment and relief operations including the recommendation to Cabinet on the need for external relief assistance; and Briefing the Cabinet on the status of disaster management arrangements with RMI prior to the commencement of each typhoon season. 90 Emergency Operations Center The Chief Secretary s Conference Room on the third floor of the Capitol Building Complex is designated as the National EOC for all hazard impacts and/or emergencies. The Chief Secretary, with the assistance of a CCG will have responsibility for the coordination of resources in response to a hazard impact or major emergency situation. This function will be performed from the EOC, with the NDMO having specific responsibility for developing the operational procedures to facilitate the coordination process. 91 Laws, Policies, and Plans on Disaster Management Policy The policy regarding mitigation strategies is contained within RMI Mitigation Plan. This plan has been produced by the Ministry of Public Works in consultation with the National Disaster Management Committee, and complies with the provisions of Section 409 of the Stafford Act. The Hazard Mitigation Plan analyzes the risk from hazards, reviews existing laws, programs and regulations and proposes appropriate hazard mitigation measures and actions necessary for the implementation of these measures. 92 National Disaster Management Plan 1997 The Director, NDMO, is responsible for ensuring the annual review of this plan, and is to report the plans status to the Chief Secretary by July each year. Any amendment to the plan must first receive the approval of the NDMC before it is incorporated and disseminated to departments and organizations. A Planning Work Group may be established for the purpose of assisting the NDMO to execute this review function. The composition of this group will be determined by the Chief Secretary and will be based upon the specific plan under review. 93 National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management The Disaster Risk Management National Action Plan is an important and integral supportive element towards the achievement of sustainable national development imperatives. RMI national sustainable development strategy is known as Vision In 2001 the government charted Vision 2018 as the first segment of the government s Strategic Development Plan for the next 15 years. It incorporates the broad Vision of the nation as to where the people would like to be in the year 2018 in terms of sustainable development. In this document the Vision is articulated with respect to the long-term goals, objectives and strategies, which were developed through an extensive consultative process starting with the Second National Economic and Social Summit and then followed by extended deliberations by various working committees established by the cabinet. The second and third segments of the Strategic Development Plan will consist of master plans focusing on major policy areas, and the action plans of ministries and statutory agencies. The National Action Plan (NAP) for DRM is an example of an inter-sectoral action plan. These documents show programs and projects together with the appropriate costing. It is also the intention for all Atoll Local Governments to develop action plans tailored towards the achievement of the national Vision. 94 RMI Emergency Response Plan RMI Emergency Response Plan has been developed in partnership with national stakeholders in 2009, and is currently under consideration of the Chief Secretary s Office (CSO). The Emergency Response Plan describes response functions, lead and support agencies Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

34 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE and their roles for the following: Health and Medical Fire and Rescue Evacuation Community Welfare Logistics Supply Information Management Impact Assessment 95 The Joint National Action Plan for Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) and DRM The Joint National Action Plan for Climate Change Adaption is currently under development, will strengthen the integration of CCA and DRM activities, and ensure that risk reduction activities are implemented in a more holistic manner. It will also facilitate the implementation of the new Climate Change Policy and on-going efforts for DRM. 96 National Energy Policy and Energy Action Plan 2009 The national vision of RMI, as expressed in Vision 2018, the Marshall Islands Strategic Economic Development Plan for is: To become a country within an interdependent world, with an enhanced socioeconomic self-reliance, and an educated, healthy, productive, law-abiding and Godloving people in which individual freedom and fundamental human rights are protected, culture and traditions are respected, and development and environmental sustainability are in harmony. The objective for national energy development is consistent with the above national vision: An improved quality of life for the people of the Marshall Islands through clean, reliable, affordable, accessible, environmentally appropriate and sustainable energy services. Broad goals for the development of energy services are: Electrification of 100 percent of all urban households and 95 percent of rural outer atoll households by 2015; The provision of 20 percent of energy through indigenous renewable resources by 2020; Improved efficiency of energy use in 50 percent of households and businesses, and 75 percent of government buildings by 2020; and Reduce supply side energy losses from MEC by 20 percent by State -Wide Assessment and Resource Strategy The State -Wide Assessment and Resource Strategy (SWARS) identifies the Marshalls highest priorities for forest resource management and needs for assistance from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (FS). State assessments and resource strategies are integral to the Forest Service s State and Private Forestry (S&PF) Redesign and required as an amendment to the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act (CFAA), as enacted in the 2008 Farm Bill. Each State is required to complete a State Assessment and Resource Strategy within two years after enactment of the 2008 Farm Bill (June 18, 2008) to receive funds under CFAA. The 2008 Farm Bill also made the RMI eligible for CFAA programs that are available to states, territories and commonwealths of the USA. The SWARS summarizes information from existing assessments and strategic plans; details may be found in those existing documents, which are attached as appendices. It thus includes two components to the assessment and planning required by the S&PF Redesign approach to identify priority forest landscape areas and highlight work needed to address national, regional, and state forest management priorities. These two priorities are: State-wide Assessment of Forest Resources provides an analysis of forest conditions and trends in the state and delineates priority rural and urban forest landscape areas. State-wide Forest Resource Strategy provides long-term strategies for investing state, federal, and other resources to manage priority landscapes identified in the assessment, focusing where federal investment can most effectively stimulate or leverage desired action and engage multiple partners. The SWARS provides a basis for subsequent annual grant proposals, as authorized under several CFAA programs. The Redesign deemphasizes program-by-program planning and emphasizes program integration to meet island priorities. The SWARS is thus organized around RMI's own priority issues with respect to forests. Issues are defined by the advisory group to the state forester of RMI Ministry of Resources & Development (MRD) as a way of organizing the goals and strategies most relevant to the island and to the SWARS. Crosscutting considerations were also recognized by 34 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

35 the advisory group, as threats, constraints and limitations that affected more than one issue. 98 Education and Training The Secretariat of the Pacific Community s Disaster Reduction Program is a leading provider of Disaster Risk Management training in the region. Drawing on its previous partnerships with The Asia Foundation and USAID s Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, SPC provides support to Pacific Island Countries in the development, delivery and evaluation of DRM training in addition to training and mentoring DRM trainers from across the region to increase national DRM training capacity. 99 Training Courses: SPC offers a range of training courses, which are delivered at the regional, national, sub-national and community level. The courses are adapted to suit the national contexts of each Pacific Island Country. The longstanding courses include: Introduction to Disaster Management Initial Damage Assessment Evacuation Center Management Disaster Risk Reduction Emergency Operations Centers Exercise Management Risk Program Management Training for Instructors Geographic Information Systems for Disaster Risk Management (Basic) Geographic Information Systems for Disaster Risk Management (Advanced) SPC also offers one-off training to meet given needs. Examples of this include: Disaster Risk Assessment Tools and Applications Training for Pacific Disaster Managers Pacific Disaster Net User Training 100 Building National DRM Training Capacity SPC works with prospective and current DRM trainers in Pacific Island Countries to build their capacity to lead the delivery of DRM training. As part of this process SPC provides training for Instructors as a course designed to introduce participants to all aspects of training design, development, delivery and evaluation. Following this, trainers are offered the opportunity to observe and then get hands-on with training delivery, supported by Master Trainers who help trainers prepare, back-stop the delivery and offer constructive feedback to improve trainer confidence and performance. 101 Institutionalizing DRM Training SPC works in partnership with NDMO's in Pacific Island Countries to institutionalize DRM training within established training and education providers. Examples of this include Fiji s Public Service Commission, which now includes Introduction to Disaster Management and Initial Damage Assessment in its portfolio of training available to Public Servants. The Solomon Islands National University, Atoifi Adventist College of Nursing and Helena Goldie College of Nursing include an abridged version of the Introduction to Disaster Management and Initial Damage Assessment courses as part of the curriculum for all nursing students. In partnership with SPC, Fiji National University offers a full (four course) Post Graduate Certificate in Disaster Risk Management. 102 USAID/OFDA USAID/OFDA supports disaster preparedness in RMI through capacity building activities for local and national government officials by way of The Asia Foundation s (TAF) Pacific Islands Disaster Risk Management Program 2. In FY 2010, USAID/OFDA awarded $750,000 to TAF s three-year program for national and regional disaster management trainings in FSM and RMI, as well as 12 other South Pacific nations. The program also includes initiatives to develop and adapt training materials relevant to the region for use by national governments. 103 Disaster Management Communications There is not currently a national database for disasters, nor are there established mechanisms for accessing DRR information. The EPA intends to establish a comprehensive website containing disaster information; however, technical capacity and lack of funds are proving difficult obstacles to overcome. Progress has been achieved in capacity building in mapping with the expansion of geographic information systems (GIS) software. Two EPA staff undertook a GIS course through the University of the South Pacific (USP). The College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) assists Marshall Islands Conservation Society MICS with mapping tasks. CROP organizations such as SOPAC and SPREP have provided assistance in GIS capabilities over the past few years. Digital Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

36 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE mapping provides relevant data on disaster vulnerability and information sharing allows various ministries and NGOs access to the data collected. Several ministries and NGOs run successful public awareness campaigns on various aspects of DRM. Public awareness initiatives exist within the MoH and the EPA, both drawing upon various forms of media (radio, newspaper) and targeted educational products in Marshallese. WUTMI is also active in public awareness on a range of issues, and reach outer islands via their vast network of members. The U.S. Land Grant, implemented through CMI, includes public outreach and involves capacity building for agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, cooking and nutrition. The NGO Youth-to-Youth in Health undertakes elements of risk reduction via their program relating to health, well-being and disease. Most information relating to DRM is distributed in the outer islands by initiatives run by NGOs such as MICS and Women United Together in the Marshall Islands (WUTMI), which provide effective information and educational materials (often in Marshallese). CMAC members effectively share information, and given their wide membership, which spans the local to the national level, they are able to share relevant lessons learned in an effective manner. In times of disaster, radios are relied upon heavily for distributing information. 104 The National Weather Service (NWS) communicates on a regular basis with U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) counterparts on potential events which may lead to disasters, e.g. typhoons, drought, high seas etc. NWS has also trained five people from outer islands on early warnings for disaster events and cell phones were distributed for this purpose. Other equipment NWS has access to includes radios, chatty beetles (early warning devices), batteries and solar power equipment for times of disaster. The Office of the Chief Secretary is responsible for warning the public of disasters, and has radio contact with all outer islands. Most schools also have radios, which can be used for distributing early warnings. Some WUTMI members have personal radios, and MICS has a radio network of radios on outer islands. The media, via the radio station, is active in distributing warnings in times of disaster. 105 All Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) have meteorological services. During the past decade there has been significant development and general improvement in their capacity and capabilities. PICTs, working closely together with developed Members of SPREP (Australia, France, New Zealand and USA), other countries (including China, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Japan and the UK) and the global network of meteorological infrastructure and services provided through WMO and others, much capacity development and training has been undertaken to improve technical skills needed to deliver weather and climate services in the PICTs. 106 Technical skills for weather services include surveillance, forecasting and warning, supply and maintenance of equipment and data collection and management (including processing, storage, access and exchange of near real-time weather data). Technical skills for climate services include collection of, archiving, quality control and management of historical climate data, supply and maintenance of equipment, analyses of climate data, and capability for seasonal and inter-annual predictions and climate change projections (scenarios). 107 Despite the progress made, much remains to be done to bring many National Hydrometeorological Services (NMSs) up to the level that will ensure they can meet their mandates and serve their nations effectively. The current capacity at the national level varies greatly between NMSs. Most NMSs in the region operate with poor infrastructure and limited capability. Their climatological services are generally poorly developed or non-existent. In a number of instances, PICTs rely mainly on external support to provide basic climatological services. 108 Media Broadcast The national radio station V7AB serves as an important communication link with the community at large and more particularly with outer islands. The link is critical for the relay of information and accordingly some control measures must be introduced to ensure that only essential broadcasts are made during periods of highest threat. The director of V7AB is to ensure that all messages are vetted and only urgent or essential service messages are broadcast once stage three of this plan has been activated. All broadcast requests related to the operational situation should be channeled through the EOC for authorization by the disaster controller (Chief Secretary). This will ensure that only accurate and 36 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

37 relevant information is being broadcast and that the public is not being confused by an avalanche of messages. It also ensures that messages relating to those under most threat receive highest priority. Weather service warning messages are exempt from this restriction and should continue to be broadcast as and when received. 109 Early Warning Systems The key to achieving effective response from participating organizations and the community is to have a reliable and equally effective warning and alerting systems in place. Advice on a developing or impending disaster situation will come from two sources: Official source (weather service or police) Unofficial source (member of the general public) It will be the responsibility of the Director, NDMO and/or the NDMC members to verify the accuracy of unofficial reports before activating any organizational response under the authority of this plan. It is the responsibility of all departments and organizations to ensure that their representatives are contactable at all times during working and nonworking hours and particularly so during the typhoon season (August through to January). The Chief Secretary is responsible to ensure that timely and appropriate messages are issued and broadcast to the general public advising of the condition of threat and action that should be taken. Departments and organizations shall assist in this process by ensuring that relevant information is forwarded to the EOC. Details of the national activation system can be found in part five to this plan, while details on the warning system used by the Weather Service are contained within the Typhoon Support Plan. Care should be taken not to confuse the terminology being used in this section. The warning system relates to the system in place that is used to warn the disaster officials and the community that a potential hazard exists. In the case of typhoon or tropical storm, it would be the Weather Service Warning. The alerting system refers to the mechanism for informing and activating the departments and organizations and for alerting the community on the degree of threat, and what precautionary action that should be taken. It is used specifically by the disaster officials and should complement the warning system in place. 110 Responsible Agencies for Flood and Storm Warning The National Weather Service (NWS), Pacific Region Headquarters located in downtown Honolulu, Hawaii has administrative and management responsibilities for all National Weather Service field operations in RMI. The NSW Pacific Region Headquarters operates five Micronesian Offices in cooperation with the Republic of Palau, RMI, and FSM in accordance with the provision of the COFA between the U.S. and each Micronesian government. The five Micronesian Weather Service Offices provide adaptive weather forecasts and warning to their local constituents. The Richard H. Hagemeyer Pacific Tsunami Warning Center located on Ford Island, Hawaii on the island of Oahu serves as the operational center of the Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the Pacific. The TWS locates and detects major earthquakes in the PACIFIC Basin to determine whether they have generated tsunamis and provide timely and effective tsunami information and warnings to the population of the Pacific. 111 Military Role in Disaster Relief RMI has no regular military forces. Under the COFA, RMI defense is the responsibility of the U.S. The U.S. military has one military installation in RMI. U.S. Army Garrison - Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) is home to the U.S. Army s Reagan Test Site (RTS), a premiere asset within the DOD. 112 Foreign Military Assistance RMI is a sovereign nation. While the government is free to conduct its own foreign relations, it does so under the terms of the COFA. The U.S. has full authority and responsibility for security and defense of RMI, and the Government of RMI is obligated to refrain from taking actions that would be incompatible with these security and defense responsibilities. The U.S. and RMI have full diplomatic relations. Marshallese citizens may work and study in the U.S. without a visa, and they join the U.S. military in significant numbers. 113 Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

38 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Foreign Assistance and International Partners Foreign Policy Overview RMI maintains cordial and constructive bilateral relations with regional and global powers as well as taking full part in multilateral international and regional fora. The central pillar of its foreign policy is its close relationship with the U.S., with which it has a COFA, amended in RMI has a history of hosting U.S. military assets, crucially including test facilities for the U.S. strategic arsenal. Notwithstanding its close relationship with the U.S., RMI continues to extend diplomatic recognition to Taiwan in favor of China. By doing so, it has secured for itself extensive funding and aid from Taipei. 114 Multilateral Relations RMI is a full member of the UN (at which it maintains a diplomatic presence) and the Pacific Islands Forum as well as other key Pacific regional organizations including the Pacific Community (SPC) and the Forum Fisheries Agency. It is also a member of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Whaling Commission, and the International Labor Organization (ILO). RMI continues to work towards developing stronger relations with Japan, Australia and other countries in the Pacific region. Since independence, RMI has established relations with 72 countries, including most other Pacific island nations. There are RMI diplomatic missions in Washington, Tokyo, Taipei, Suva, Honolulu and the UN in New York, while the U.S., Japan and Taiwan have embassies in Majuro, where Israel and the Philippines also maintain consulates. The UN is planning to establish offices in Majuro. Although some students from RMI attend the University of the South Pacific in Suva, RMI also takes advantage of its relationship with the U.S. to send Marshallese students to U.S. universities. Financial aid is available to students of the Freely Associated States and their availability has been maintained in the amended Compact agreement. 115 Relations with the U.S. The relationship with the U.S. is the central bilateral relationship for RMI. The successful renegotiation of an amended COFA confirms the mutual benefits of maintaining the relationship. RMI receives financial security and access for its citizens to the U.S., while the U.S. maintains military control over an area of considerable strategic significance and continues to have the use of the Kwajalein missile testing facility. The U.S. lease on the base has been extended from 2016 to 2066, with an option to continue until Another of the key changes in the amended Compact, which came into effect on 1 May 2004, is that budgets and funding are now based on actual performance measures rather than the U.S. issuing large block grant funding as it did in the 1986 to 2003 period. In November 2007, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the COFA Amendment Act of 2007, which made a number of changes to the Compact relationship between the U.S. and RMI, FSM and Palau, most notably making the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) the lead federal agency in providing future disaster-related assistance to RMI and FSM. The amendment also clarifies the eligibility of citizens of Freely Associated States (FAS) residing in states or territories to receive the legal assistance provided by the Legal Services Corporation. In March 2008, the U.S. cut US$6 million from its US$250 million Marshall Islands missile testing operations as part of a four year downsizing initiative, leading to a cutback of seven per cent of its workforce in the region. An estimated 12,000 Ebeye islanders rely on the salaries of the 1,125 Marshall Islanders who work on the base. Claims by RMI for further compensation for the effects of U.S. nuclear testing in the 1950s remain in process. Although the Compact agreement ended further legal claims against the U.S., a changed circumstances clause is being used to petition the U.S. for a further payment. In January 2004, a U.S. congressional delegation acknowledged that the U.S. had an ongoing obligation to resolve the compensation issue. Under the terms of the Compact, citizens from Compact states have the right to live, work and be educated in the U.S., but not to U.S. citizenship. There has been concern regarding the illegal adoption of children from RMI by people in Hawaii and other U.S. locations. Implementation of the Marshall Islands Adoption Law and the establishment in October 2003 of RMI Central Adoption Agency were intended to address this issue, together with the 38 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

39 requested co-operation of the U.S. government. In February 2005, a bill was passed through the Hawaiian State Senate to ban the adoption of Marshallese children unless they have the prior written approval of an appropriate court of RIM consenting to the adoption. The 1958 Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, known as the New York Convention, came into force in RMI on 21 March 2007, bringing the total number of members to 142. Many Marshall Islanders join the U.S. armed forces each year. In June 2007, the first ever Marshallese citizen was selected to enroll in the U.S. Coast Guard Academy. Since 2000, an average of 1,000 Marshall Islanders have moved to the U.S. annually. 116 Relations with Australia The relationship between Australia and RMI is cordial. Australia has provided RMI with patrol boats to aid in policing their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and ongoing funding for the program. For the fiscal year total Australian financial assistance to RMI was AUD3.4 million (US$3.6 million). The entrance of RMI into the Pacific Islands Forum has increased the contact between the two nations, although Australia s primary interests in the Pacific remain focused in Melanesia. 117 Relations with Pacific island states When the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands split into the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas and the freely associated states of FSM, Republic of Palau and RMI, a degree of tension between the entities emerged. These differences have largely been resolved through regular meetings of the leaders of the Micronesian states. Co-operative efforts in patrolling the EEZ have also improved relations. Relations with other U.S. Pacific Territories have been improved by the establishment of a US$30 million Compact impact fund for Hawaii, Guam and other territories affected by the right of citizens from Compact states to enter the U.S. and its territories, and use their educational, health and other social services. In May 2011, this issue again came into the spotlight, with moves in the U.S. Congress and the Guam legislature to block the access of citizens of the Freely Associated States (FAS). These moves provoked concerns in RMI, where any attempts to amend the compact will be closely scrutinized. Relations with Taiwan RMI is one of only six Pacific Island states that give diplomatic recognition to Taiwan, having established ties in November In return, RMI receives generous financial assistance from Taiwan totaling in excess of US$10 million annually. Taiwan agreed to the long-term funding of a trust fund for the Marshall Islands in 2005, when it also dispatched its first volunteers to work in the country. Taiwan continues to send medical specialists and other volunteers to RMI. Majuro provides a valuable base for the Taiwanese purse seine fishing vessels. In October 2012, Taiwan donated a fisheries research vessel to RMI. In 2008 Taiwan granted around US$10 million to RMI and in April 2009 Taiwan delivered its quarterly development funding assistance of more than US$2 million. Taiwan is now the second largest aid donor to RMI after the U.S. In March 2010, Taiwanese President Ma Ying-jeou paid a state visit to RMI, as part of a week-long tour of Taiwan s allies in the region. 119 International Assistance Request for international assistance will only be submitted when it has become clear that the situation at hand is beyond the capabilities of the state and local resources. The requirement for international assistance will be determined by the Central Control Group (CCG), which will submit through formal established channels, a request for international assistance. The CCG will be responsible for liaising directly with international aid agencies and donors after a formal request for assistance has been submitted by the government, to determine the type, quantity and distribution of assistance required. All departments and organizations which have determined that assistance is required must submit their needs to the CCG, and should not under any circumstances make direct requests to aid agencies and donors without the consent of the CCG. The CCG will also be accountable to the aid agencies/donors for ensuring that all relief assistance is distributed in accordance with the guidelines governing the provision of such assistance, and for the preparation of a report on expenditure/distribution of assistance provided Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

40 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE by each agency/donor/diplomatic mission. Customs and Quarantine Once an official request for international assistance has been submitted, the directors of Custom and Quarantine are to make the necessary arrangements for the on-going clearance of all donors assistance which are being provided for disaster relief purposes. This may include duty exemption for goods purchased locally with disaster relief funding. The CCG is responsible for providing information on donor assistance to Customs and Quarantine to facilitate this process. This includes details on the type, quantity, source, means of transportation, arrival point, and estimated time of arrival of such assistance. Financial Considerations The Chief Secretary is responsible for the management of all funds provided for disaster relief purposes, and prior authorization for expenditure of such funds must be received. Accounts which are charged against the disaster relief funds and have not received prior approval for such expenditure, will be returned to the ministry, department, organization, or individual which has incurred the costs. This procedure will ensure firstly, that the available funds are being committed to those requirements which are considered high priority, and secondly, it will avoid unnecessary expenditure on items which may already be available from other resources Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

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42 INFRASTRUCTURE Infrastructure Airports RMI has 17 airports, only four of which have paved runways. Majuro International Airport, completed in 1974, accommodates aircraft up to Boeing 707 size. The government-owned Airline of the Marshall Islands (AMI), established in 1980, provides service to all outer islands with airstrips. International airline connections are provided to Tarawa in Kiribati, Funafuti in Tuvalu, and Nadi in Fiji. Air Micronesia/ United Airlines links Majuro with major foreign destinations, including Hawaii, Guam, Manila, and Tokyo. 120 The Republic of the Marshall Islands Ports Authority (RMIPA) is responsible for the operations and maintenance of Amata Kabua/ Marshall Islands International Airport (MAJ), located in the capitol of Majuro. Their primary obligation is for the safety and well-being of Marshallese and international guests as they fly to and from the Marshall Islands. They are in compliance with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and work closely with the Federal Aviation Administration to meet all regulatory requirements. 121 RMI s only public international airport, MAJ is located in the Southeast part of the Majuro atoll. It is served by international carrier United Airlines, regional carrierair Marshall Islands, and local commuter airlines. Cargo is received from United Airlines as well as Asia Pacific Airlines, a cargo carrier. General aviation and private jets occasionally bring passengers to MAJ. 122 Amata Kabua International Airport Current airport facilities include a terminal building, Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) facility, Air Marshall Islands Hangar and fuel delivery system. The 7,530 square foot terminal was built in 1975 and features a main lobby for both departing and arriving passengers where ticketing, security, shops, car rental and a restaurant are all located. 123 Kwajalein International Airport is located on Kwajalein Atoll, it is under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Military (Bucholz Army Air Field) and restricted to use by authorized persons. United Airlines offers service to Kwajalein between Guam and Honolulu. RMI has 29 outer island airstrips. These 29 outer airstrips are classed commercial (nonprimary). Air Marshall Islands (AMI) operate commuter service to the outer island airstrips. 124 Seaports The Republic of Marshall Islands Ports Authority (RMIPA) oversees the Port of Majuro, which consists of Delap and Uliga Docks, the Calalin Channel, Port Fairway and Vessel Anchorage Area within Majuro Atoll. The Uliga Dock is primarily used for interisland cargo and passenger vessels, while the Delap Dock is primarily used for international cargo. The Port of Majuro is the hub of RMI economy. 125 The Port of Majuro is the primary gateway for incoming imports that support the lifestyle of RMI residents and families, the operation of private businesses and local and national government agencies, as well as related jobs in both the private and public sectors of the economy. 126 Delap Port Delap Dock is the primary commercial cargo dock in Majuro Atoll. This dock serves international cargo vessels that deliver a wide variety of imported food and household items, construction equipment and materials, diesel fuel, jet fuels, refined gasoline products and the offloading of copra and loading of coconut oil produced by Tobolar, a coconut processing operation located on the northeast side of Delap Dock. International fishing vessels also make occasional use of Delap Dock for purse seine net repairs, fuel resupplies and other maintenance. Local stevedores from Majuro Stevedore & Terminal Company process the loading and unloading of imports and exports to and from Delap Dock. A cargo handling area, equipment repair shop, container freight station and RMIPA administrative offices support the processing and storage of containers and general cargo. The Marshalls Energy Company (MEC) occupies a significant portion of Delap Dock for its power plant and administrative offices. 127 The Uliga Dock is used for the moorage of governmental vessels owned and operated by Marshall Island Marine Resources Authority (MIMRA), RMI Ministry of Transportation and Communications and RMI Ports Authority (RMIPA). Each of these agencies also own facilities situated inland of the dock including: The Outer Island Fish Market Center operated by MIMRA; offices and the Marshall Islands Shipping Corporation (MISC) 42 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

43 owned by RMI Ministry of Transportation and Communications; and, the Warehouse Facility owned by RMIPA and currently leased to the MISC and the International Migration Organization. 128 The Calalin Channel is between km long, its width ranges between m and depth ranges from m. There is a lighthouse located on Eroj Island at the channel entrance to assist vessels in getting to the vicinity of the Calalin Channel. The channel itself is lined with six different lighted channel markers with day boards that mark the limits of the channel directing vessels safely into Majuro Lagoon. 129 Majuro Lagoon provides a well-sheltered and extensive anchorage area for incoming vessels calling upon the Port of Majuro. The anchorage area is situated seaward of Djarrit Village along the northeast end of the port fairway. While this vessel anchorage area is available to any commercial vessel entering the Port of Majuro, the area is almost exclusively used by international fishing vessels and oil tankers calling on the Port of Majuro that typically berth at Delap Dock, unload cargo or fuels and remain in port for not more than one day. Available bathymetry data and navigation information for the anchorage area suggests that water depths generally range between 27 and 47 meters. The bottom is characterized by sand, coral or soft rock and is very capable of providing moorage to incoming fishing or other commercial ships Ebeye dock consists of an L -shaped jetty and longer side berth, plus a 400-foot-long wharf adjacent to the main dock. The Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Resources (KAJUR) office is located at the main dock and the wharf includes a container yard and port office building with offices for the Ebeye Port Commission and the Marshall Islands Shipping and Terminal Company. Passenger ferry services to and from Kwajalein Island operated by the U.S. Army run six days per week about 10 times per day. The ferry service is open and free of charge to the public vessels. 130 Land Routes Roads Roadways: total: 2,028 km (includes 75 km of expressways) (2007). 131 There are 64.5 km (40 mi) of paved road on the Majuro atoll and on the Kwajalein atoll with less than 10 percent of those roads on Kwajalein in On the outer islands, roads consist primarily of cleared paths and roads surfaced with stone, coral, or laterite. There are few motor vehicles. 132 Railways There are no railways in RMI. Waterways The many scattered atolls separated by long distances make sea and air transportation essential. Domestic sea transportation is provided by inter-island ships, which service each of the outer islands about once every three months. Two commercial dock facilities in Majuro and one in Ebeye furnish port facilities for international shipping. In 2001, the merchant fleet consisted of 270 ships with a capacity totaling 11,807,839 GRT. 133 Schools Education The Census revealed that the level of educational attainment of Marshallese people is still not good as 28.6 percent (6,317 Marshallese aged 25 or older) have only started high school but have not completed it. School enrollment for children ages 5-9 is only 80 percent (about 20 percent not in school); ages only 92 percent (8 percent not in school); and ages only 38 percent (62 percent Jabwe Jikuul, or JS). Literacy or the ability to read, write and understand a simple sentence in any language shows 90.6 percent of Marshallese aged 5 and older are literate and 9.4 percent illiterate. 134 Elementary and Secondary Education Today, compulsory education remains for age 6 through 14 or completion of eighth grade. A high school entrance examination is administered to all eighth graders to determine the approximately 300 students who will be admitted to the two public high schools each year. During the school years, 15,755 students were enrolled in 115 public and nonpublic primary and secondary schools in the Marshall Islands. Additionally, approximately 1,200 preschool children, ages 4 and 5, were enrolled at 36 Head Start program sites. Public education consisted of 75 public primary schools, one middle school with Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

44 INFRASTRUCTURE grade eight, and 2 high schools, serving 10,384 students; non-public, government-supported education consisted of 26 primary schools and 10 high schools, serving 4,554 students. Fiftyone percent of all students were male; fortynine percent were female. 512 teachers were employed by the public schools: 427 for primary schools, 19 for Majuro Middle School, and 63 for Marshall Islands High School and Jaluit High School. Additionally, 28 school or atoll-based principals and field officers and 34 system-wide education officers and specialists were employed. Non-public schools employed 297 teachers: 216 at primary schools and 81 at high schools. Nationwide average student-to-teacher ratios were public primary of 20:1, non-public primary of 15:1, public secondary of 16:1, and non-public secondary of 17:1. The average student-to-teacher ratios of public primary schools on Majuro and Ebeye were 23:1 and 24:1, respectively. Approximately 47 percent of the primary school teachers hold associate degrees for professional teacher certification; two percent have earned college and graduate degrees; and 51 percent are certified to teach with post-high school coursework. Among public secondary teachers, about 36 percent have earned college and graduate degrees; 32 percent have earned associate degrees; and 32 percent are high school graduates with post-high school coursework. There are 341 classrooms in 93 buildings in the public primary schools. Eightynine percent of the buildings are at least 20 years old; 18 must be replaced, 40 need major repair, and 20 are in need of minor repair. Sixty schools have no electricity. Upon completion of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) civil works projects, the 20 schools without toilet facilities will have benjos ; and the 30 schools without accessible drinking water will have water catchments. The education budget including subsidies to non-public schools is approximately $9,000,000. About 83 percent of the budget is from general funds and 13 percent from special funds such as U.S. grants; about four percent of the annual budget is capital improvement program funds. The total education budget represents about 13 percent of the government budget. The budget available for public primary and secondary schools less CIP funds means a per pupil allocation of less than $ Post-Secondary Education Today the College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) serves a range of students from high school graduates pursuing associate degree. Degrees are offered in nursing, education, business, architectural engineering, and liberal arts to high school and non-high school completers engaged in other vocational education courses, certificate programs, adult education programs, continuing education programs, high school dropout intervention programs, and enrichment programs. In the school years, 1,149 students, approximately 400 per school year and summer semester, were enrolled at the college. In addition, 550 students were enrolled on a full-time basis and 599 on a parttime status; 356 students were registered for pre and in-service teacher education; 261 in nursing and allied health education, 176 in liberal arts, and 387 in vocational education; 92 percent of the students were Marshallese; 56 percent were male. The instructional staff consisted of 20 full-time and 5 part-time instructors during the school year and 17 part-time staff during the summer semester. Initiatives during its first two years as an independent college included revision and strengthening of the core curriculum, expansion and refinement to the developmental English Program, review and restructuring of teacher education, development of a Marshallese Studies Program, establishment of a Student Services Support Program (SSSP), and strengthening of its physical and administrative infrastructures. Upward Bound and SSSP, the institution s second TRIO program, provide supplemental instruction to students with U.S. Department of Education funding. The Job Training Partnership Program (JTPA), funded by the U.S. Department of Labor, supplements, complements, and furthers the advancement of the School-To- Work transition initiative. Outer-island outreach, technical assistance and research, U.S. nursing exchange, and extension campus programs were implemented to meet the needs of the college and RMI community. In , CMI realized unrestricted revenues from local appropriations, student tuition and fees, and other sources of $1,260,173; and restricted revenues from federal grants and contracts and other sources of $1,555,269. During the same period, expenditures from unrestricted revenues were $1,022,089 and from restricted revenues was $1,320,653. Of the latter amount, $806,000 was expended on student aid Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

45 Communications Media and Communication Landscape Together with an active civil society, the media and communication environment in Marshall Islands is dynamic, but faces challenges caused by scale and its dispersed audiences. 137 Policy and Legislation; The Ministry of Transportation and Communication is responsible for registering broadcasting stations; Freedom of speech and the press are guaranteed in the Bill of Rights; There is no media self-regulating body, and no media association; There is no FOI legislation; and Telecommunications are currently a monopoly but the government is working with the World Bank to open the market to competition. Media Systems Technicians primarily use personal and professional networks for assistance. Equipment providers are also a source of advice; NTA is a member of PITA and ITU; The National Disaster Management Plan is currently under review; There is a lack of clarity of the roles and responsibilities in a disaster, and a perceived lack of political will; and Some available communication technologies are not being integrated. Capacity Building NGOs have been able to access limited opportunities for media and communications training; Most technicians are trained on the job; There is no local media association; and There are no local TVET courses relating to media and communication. Content Radio remains an important platform in the Marshall Islands; WUTMI is a significant contributor of C4D content; and Several NGOs are active advocates regarding climate change. Government departments and NGOs use radio for NCD communication. 138 Utilities Power Since independence, RMI has been heavily reliant on external assistance, with grants averaging 60 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Like other island nations in the Pacific, RMI suffers from high and volatile fuel prices while lacking any known fossil fuel reserves of its own. Following a major fuel price spike in July 2008, RMI Government declared a state of economic emergency. This rapidly drew increasing attention to the scale-up of renewable energy as a fossil fuel replacement. Thus far, the emphasis has been mainly on solar which is a familiar technology in RMI. There are thousands of solar installations on households in the outer islands. The wind resource is under evaluation but no generation trials have yet taken place. In addition, the use of coconut oil as a power generation and transport fuel is being seriously considered. Tobolar, the coconut mill owned by the government, has conducted pilot projects, while electricity generation trials using coconut oil as a fuel are planned by the Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), one of the key utilities. To help progress towards large-scale use of solar or wind energy on the grid, MEC and the Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utility Resources (KAJUR) need to analyze and predict the effect of connecting large amounts of highly variable solar and wind generation at various points on their grids. 139 Water and Sanitation As with many other island nations, RMI have uniquely fragile water resources due to their small size, lack of storage, and limited fresh-water. According to RMI s 2003 statistical yearbook, rainfall supplies over 70 percent of the country s fresh water. Staggering increases in population on the two urban islands, however, pose a significant challenge to meeting future water needs. The country has made limited investments in water management and infrastructure rehabilitation for water and waste water; this is also hampered by the typical constraints of small island nations (isolation, fragile natural variability, and a limited human, financial, and capital resource base). 140 Photo 7 depicts Marshallese citizens helping to unload a reverse osmosis water supply system during Pacific Partnership Furthermore, almost no attention has been paid to the potential Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

46 INFRASTRUCTURE effects of climate related extremes on current water resources, especially with regards to saltwater intrusion, which negatively affects the limited freshwater lens on some of the lowerlying islands and atolls. Water crises during El Niño driven droughts are becoming increasingly common on smaller and more remote northern atolls that rely primarily on rainwater and have limited harvesting capacity and high costs to serve from a centralized government. On the Majuro atoll, water supplies rely on the Laura freshwater lens and the airport runway catchment area, which pipes water to the city s principal reservoir. Rising temperatures could lead to increased evaporation from the reservoir, thus reducing already limited freshwater supplies. Hygiene and sanitation continue to be a concern and a particular challenge is to manage a sewage system without contaminating the ground-water lens. Already, some of the country s fresh-water lens has been contaminated with brine. Adaptation options in the water sector include: Increasing water supply (e.g. by using groundwater, building reservoirs, improving or stabilizing watershed management, desalination) and water efficiency; Decreasing water demand through conservation measures, leakage reduction, dual water supply systems, and economic development; and Building flexibility into the waterprovisioning systems to address future climate change. Improving water management, infrastructure and planning. 142 Photo 7: Ebeye, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

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48 HEALTH Health Health Overview The people of RMI face considerable challenges to maintain the health of its citizens. Recently, high population growth and crowded conditions in urban areas, have given rise to diseases, such as tuberculosis and leprosy. These conditions typically occur in rapid growth areas of the world that have limited economic and medical resources. In addition, exposure to the influence of Western culture has brought about a rise in the levels of adult obesity, noncommunicable diseases, teenage pregnancy, suicide, alcoholism, and tobacco use. Figure 6 depicts the leading causes of mortality in Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs). 143 The government of RMI, along with the assistance of groups such as the World Health Organization, has identified and begun to effect solutions to the health care challenges that face the Marshalls. Future efforts will focus on training native Marshallese health professionals, strengthening community health care programs, upgrading the quality of health care, and increasing the efficiency of the dissemination of health care information to the citizens of the Marshall Islands. Other health related issues that must be addressed include the need to reduce population growth and urban population densities, longstanding solutions to malnutrition and other conditions that plague RMI. 144 Structure There are two hospitals and 58 health centers in RMI. According to estimates from 2010, the health worker-to-population ratio in RMI was 1:1695 for doctors, 1:474 for nurses and 1:14 for dentists. The vast majority of health services are provided by the government, as there are only a small number of private providers. The U.S. government supports the provision of health care services, through the 177 Health Care Plan, to Marshallese citizens affected by the nuclear tests conducted from , and their descendants. 145 Access to high-quality, affordable health care is critically important to Marshall Islanders, given the wide range of health problems suffered by this population, including tuberculosis, diabetes, hypertension, thyroid tumors, alcoholism, depression, and Hansen s Disease/leprosy, as well as higher rates of suicide. Life expectancy in RMI is 60 years, compared with 69 years and 72 years for residents in the FSM and Palau, respectively. (Life expectancy in the U.S. is 79 years). 146 A variety of factors contribute to these negative health conditions, including poverty, overcrowding, and poor sanitary conditions in the country s population centers, as well as the loss of traditional forms of subsistence. The ecological, genetic, and psychosocial impact of sustained nuclear weapons testing in RMI by the U.S. during the 1940s and 1950s undoubtedly also contributes to these ongoing health problems. For example, the social dislocation and radiation contamination caused by these tests, coupled with the U.S. military s presence in the region, has led to the loss of the traditional diet of fresh fish, breadfruit, coconut, and pandanus in favor of white rice and highly processed packaged foods. As a result, Marshall Islanders in both RMI and the U.S. have among the highest rates of Type 2 diabetes in the world. Access to dialysis is difficult to obtain in the islands and cost-prohibitive for those living in the U.S. Among Marshall Islanders in Arkansas and elsewhere, untreated diabetes has frequently resulted in blindness, amputation, and other impairments. Moreover, despite the fact that atomic testing ended more than 60 years ago, the Marshallese continue to suffer from unusually high rates of thyroid disorders, birth defects and cancer. 147 The RMI Ministry of Health National Strategic Plan (NSP) for is a three-year revolving plan (i.e., it is intended to be updated annually, always covering the following threeyear period). Major goals of the NSP are to: Support the development of the Healthy Islands concept in promoting healthy behaviors and changing lifestyle habits; Address health issues related to infectious diseases and reproductive health; Coordinate the care of women, infants, children, adolescents and their families; educate and promote healthcare services to hard-to-reach communities including outer islands and atolls; Provide a comprehensive mental health program; Ensure better access to essential medicines and ensure that patients are receiving the best possible rehabilitation services; and Ensure effective management and administration of human and financial resources in the Ministry of Health Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

49 Figure 6: WHO Country Health Information Profiles (2011) Working into the future, the Ministry of Health takes into account the national goals and objectives as stated in the vision of the 2018 Strategic Development Plan Framework. 149 Healthcare System There are no formal mechanisms for health sector coordination in the Marshall Islands. Key inputs are coordinated by the Ministry of Health Planner. Key partners in the health sector include U.S. Department of the Interior; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, particularly the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the U.S. Department of Energy, the 177 nuclear health program sites; Taiwan, China; WHO; the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA); the United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF); Canvasback Missions Inc.; and several local NGOs. 150 Photo 8 depicts a pediatrician volunteer with Project Hope, who lets a child patient listen to her heartbeat with a stethoscope at a medical civic action project during Pacific Partnership Challenges in the Healthcare System The reliability of data, staff turnover and migration, and donors multiple reporting requirements are current challenges. One of the barriers to delivering health services in the outer islands is the unpredictable flights of Air Marshall Islands. Outreach teams visiting the outer islands deliver all primary healthcare services, such as immunization clinics, diabetes clinics, TB and leprosy clinics, prenatal services, and health promotion services. 152 The Marshallese enjoy low-cost healthcare in their country, generally $5 per consultation. For those living outside the population centers of Majuro and Eyebe, however, healthcare access is very limited. Regardless of where one resides in RMI, the country s health sector lacks the capacity to provide technologically advanced medical interventions. Healthcare not only influences migration from RMI, but internal migration within the U.S. as well. 153 Against a backdrop of many small island countries and territories, with relatively small populations geographically dispersed across large distances, the increasingly heavy triple burden of communicable diseases, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and the health impact of climate change is having a growing negative effect on the health and economies of PICTs. 154 The incidence of NCDs in the Pacific is among the highest in the world and is a significant cause of mortality in the Pacific. Adult and child obesity, physical inactivity, poor diets, tobacco use and the harmful use of alcohol are common risk factors for most NCDs. The prevalence of NCD risk factors in adults (25 64 age groups) continues to increase and is reaching critical levels in many countries. At the same time, communicable diseases remain a health threat to the population. Influenza and respiratory infections, infectious diarrheal diseases, dengue, typhoid fever, lymphatic filariasis and chlamydia remain major causes of serious morbidity in Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

50 HEALTH Photo 8: Gugeegue, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership many countries and territories. 155 The WHO Country Cooperation Strategic Agenda ( ) also address NCDs. WHO Country Cooperation Strategic Agenda ( ) include: Strategic Priority 1: Address the prevention and control of NCDs, including implementation of national tobacco regulations; mental health and legislative frameworks for food quality, safety and enforcement capacities; and improve community awareness about healthy eating and lifestyles; Strategic Priority 2: Strengthen surveillance for vaccine-preventable diseases, delivery of immunizations and capacity building of midlevel Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) managers, as well as strengthen means to prevent communicable diseases, including climate change- related issues such as improved drinking-water safety planning and rainwater harvesting, as well as household and community-based water-quality monitoring; Strategic Priority 3: Strengthen the coordination of care for maternal and child health and reproductive health; Strategic Priority 4: Strengthen the pharmaceutical sector through development and monitoring the national medicines policy and pharmaceutical strategic plan, with an emphasis on increasing access; and Strategic Priority 5: Scale up health workforce production, improving performance, and reduce imbalances in skill mix and distribution with a focus on reaching areas with limited access. 156 Table 4 depicts the WHO statistical profile. 157 Communicable Diseases High population growth and crowded conditions in urban areas have caused the reemergence and/or rise of certain communicable diseases, such as tuberculosis and leprosy. Communicable diseases continue to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality. An epidemiological investigation revealed 10 cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB) 50 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

51 Table 4: Marshall Islands: WHO Statistical Profile Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

52 HEALTH between 2004 and 2009, indicating a serious problem with that emerging infectious disease. A multifaceted approach has been taken to combat the problem, involving multiple governments, nongovernmental and international partners. Contact-tracing was conducted in 2010 with support from the Global Fund. In June 2010, with the WHO s assistance, the country started issuing a syndromic surveillance report. Majuro Hospital and Ebeye Hospital reported on surveillance for diarrhea, influenzalike illness, acute fever and rash, and prolonged fever to the focal person in the Ministry of Health on a weekly basis. A weekly syndromic surveillance report was submitted to WHO and the Ministry of Health to monitor any possible outbreak. 158 Non-Communicable Diseases In addition, a sedentary lifestyle and processed foods have brought about a rise in levels of adult obesity and no communicable diseases (NCDs). Diabetes-related diseases and cancer are now leading causes of death. The leading causes of morbidity include child birth-related conditions, pneumonia and diabetes. Sepsis, malnutrition, pneumonia, drowning and prematurity is the major causes of infant mortality, while severe malnutrition, bacterial meningitis, gastroenteritis, and pneumonia accounted for most childhood mortality. 159 Table 5 depicts the WHO Current Health Indicators for RMI. Table 5: WHO Current Health Indicators 52 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

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54 WOMEN, PEACE AND SECURITY Women, Peace and Security Women s empowerment and the promotion of gender equality are key to achieving sustainable development. Greater gender equality can enhance economic efficiency and improve other development outcomes by removing barriers that prevent women from having the same access as men to human resource endowments, rights, and economic opportunities. Giving women access to equal opportunities allows them to emerge as social and economic actors, influencing and shaping more inclusive policies. Improving women s status also leads to more investment in their children s education, health, and overall wellbeing. 160 RMI currently has no domestic violence, sexual harassment, human trafficking or sex tourism legislation in place. There are also no minimum sentences or mandatory prosecutions in cases of sexual violence. The RMI Constitution grants protection to customs and traditions, with no provision for giving priority to the rights of individuals whom customary law discriminates against (including where it is discriminatory against women), in non-compliance with the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). It should be noted that customary law can in some circumstances be advantageous to Marshallese women, specifically in terms of the tradition of matrilineal property title. 161 Violence against Women Approximately 58 percent of men and 56 percent of women generally accept that violence against women is a normal part of marital relationships and 36 percent of RMI women have experienced either physical or sexual violence, with spouses being the most common perpetrator of both. About 22 percent of all RMI women report experiencing physical violence in the previous 12 months. Among women who have experienced physical violence, 72 percent reported that a current husband or partner committed physical violence against them, while 21 percent reported that they had experienced violence by a former husband/partner. RMI does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so; the government made no anti-trafficking law enforcement efforts, including developing a written plan to combat trafficking; no new trafficking investigations were opened in 2014, and no prosecutions or convictions were made for the fourth consecutive year; no efforts were made to identify trafficking victims, especially among women in prostitution or men working on foreign fishing vessels in Marshallese waters, and no attempt was made to ensure their access to protective services. 162 Women and the Economy Female unemployment rates are much higher than male unemployment rates, with national averages of 37 percent and 28 percent respectively. Substantial differences also exist in wages earned by men and women with similar educational qualifications: women s average wages were measured at US$7595 annually, compared with US$10,772 for men in the same jobs. Although there is no legislative barrier to women in RMI accessing financial services such as loans and mortgages, discrimination can obstruct women from obtaining credit, which impacts on their economic independence, ability to engage in business and equitable ability to earn a livelihood. Traditionally, matrilineal succession of land rights afforded women a position of influence in society, however, the erosion of customary land tenure practice means many women no longer have autonomy over land and married couples tend to live on land belonging to the husband s family. This is identified as increasing women s vulnerability, as they are deprived of protection previously provided by brothers and uncles. RMI appears to be on track to eliminate gender disparity in education, with largely equal rates of enrollment in both primary and secondary schooling, however, dropout rates for girls in secondary and tertiary education (associated with adolescent pregnancy) continue to be of concern, impacting on women s economic participation. In the outer islands, women s workload has tended to increase over time, and high male unemployment has meant that women have increasingly become the sole economic providers for their families Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

55 Women s Health Health issues specific to the RMI include the generational impacts of the 67 atmospheric atomic and thermonuclear weapons tests carried out on RMI territory between 1946 and These health impacts include high instances of birth defects (frequently called jellyfish babies ), miscarriage, and weakened immune systems as well as high rates of thyroid, cervical, breast and other cancers. These birth defects cause particular distress to Marshallese women, as local culture views reproductive abnormalities as a sign that women have been unfaithful to their husbands. About 91percent of Marshallese women have low daily consumption of fruit and vegetables, 55 percent have low daily levels of physical activity, and 52 percent are classified as obese. Communicable diseases common in RMI include conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis, gonorrhea, influenza, leprosy, scabies, syphilis and tuberculosis. RMI is off-track for achieving the Millennium Development Goal of reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis by Women and the Environment Climate change and rising sea levels pose the gravest risk when it comes to food security and physical security for Marshallese women, a culture where primary care is a traditional role afforded to women. In a matriarchal society where women are the custodian of land, culture and tradition, the threat of climate change in destroying atolls and land poses an even greater threat to of the maintenance of language and identity. This heightens poverty and increases the vulnerability of women. 165 UN Women in RMI Advancing Gender Justice in the Pacific (AGJP) Program: AGJP continue building the capacity of its government and civil society partners for CEDAW implementation and reporting, particularly in adopting a harmonized human rights treaty reporting approach. When it comes to women s political participation, UN Women is undertaking advocacy initiatives through its Empowerment Series Events. 166 Ending Violence against Women (EVAW) Program: EVAW provides stakeholders with access to virtual knowledge platforms, tools and evidence-based resources in order to better equip stakeholders with knowledge and evidence to advocate for strengthened EVAW legislation, improved policies and services for violence against women. Social media tools are also made available to support community mobilization that aims to end violence against women and girls, through campaigns such as the UN Secretary General s UNiTE to EVAW and Say NO-UNiTE. 167 Women s Economic Empowerment (WEE) Program: UN Women is supporting informed decisionmaking in RMI by providing technical assistance to national and local government in producing knowledge products that include improved and comparable evidence on the economic situation of RMI s women. Increasing Community Resilience through Empowerment of Women to Address Climate Change and Natural Hazards (IREACH) Program: IREACH supports the incorporation of gender dimensions in strategic documents for disaster risk management and climate change through the provision of knowledge products and tools on the gendered implications of climate change and disasters. 168 Republic of the Marshall Islands falls under the umbrella of UN Women s Fiji Multi-Country Office (MCO) based in Suva. Photo 9 depicts a Marshallese woman using a local tool to shape a log at the Canoe of Marshall Islands Building Project. 169 The MCO covers 14 Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs), working to progress gender equality and women s empowerment in the Pacific through four key programmes: Women s Economic Empowerment; Ending Violence Against Women; Advancing Gender Justice in the Pacific; Increasing Community Resilience through Empowerment of Women to Address Climate Change and Natural Hazards Programme. Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

56 WOMEN, PEACE AND SECURITY Photo 9: A Female Trainer at the Canoe of the Marshall Islands. 56 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

57 Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

58 CONCLUSION Conclusion RMI is located in one of the most disaster prone regions in the world. The country geographically features low-lying lands surrounded by rising sea levels. RMI is highly vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change and the population is at high risk to natural disasters due to high rates of poverty, endemic conditions, poor healthcare and a fragile economy. These factors contribute to a highly vulnerable population and economy when disasters occur. RMI is expected to incur, on average, US$3 million per year in losses due to earthquakes and tropical cyclones. 170 Risks to development in RMI emanate from both natural and man-made disasters. The remoteness of the islands and the limited resources available to address traditional and emerging risks present significant challenges to the government in continuing to reduce the vulnerability of the communities throughout the islands. Exposure to emerging global issues including, terrorism, climate change patterns and communicable diseases further adds to this vulnerability. Disaster management has been a focus of RMI. The National Disaster Management Office in Majuro has the lead role in planning and coordinating disaster risk management developments and initiatives, with disaster management policy and decision making being facilitated by the National Disaster Committee under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretary. The Government of RMI is committed to strengthening disaster risk management (DRM) capacity across the country as part of its ongoing efforts to build the safety and resilience of its communities. 171 In the period since 2007, the RMI has invested in a number of strategic initiatives to create an environment more conducive to addressing resilience. The DRM National Action Plan was produced in 2007 through multi-stakeholder consultations. Similarly, a successor Joint National Action Plan for Climate Change and DRM was developed in 2011, which proposed integrated approaches for Climate Change. The DRM represented an attempt to bring about improved coordination and efficiencies in addressing climate and disaster risk in the context of sustainable national development. In 2013, RMI introduced a cluster system to facilitate disaster preparedness and response through a mechanism that facilitated coordination between local and international partners. The overarching governance and institutional arrangements for DRM in RMI is stipulated in the Disaster Assistance Act 1987 (DAA). 172 The DAA was complemented by the National Disaster Plan However, in 2011 and 2012 the government, with the support of SPC, developed draft National Disaster Risk Management Arrangements (NDRMA) to replace the National Disaster Plan. The draft NDRMA aimed to progress the intent of the DAA by providing for specific operational systems and processes to address both Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster Management. The DAA is now outdated for a number of reasons. First, in the period since its enactment in 1987, RMI has instituted a number of changes in how its addresses DRM as outlined above. Second, the draft NDRMA has now emerged. Third, in the time that has passed since the emergence of the draft NDRMA, other developments, such as the advent of the cluster system in 2013, mean that the Arrangements themselves need to be updated. In light of these, the DAA needs to be revisited and new legislation developed which will legitimize policy and operational changes made since The new legislation will then seek to usher in a paradigm shift in how RMI deals with hazard risk (climate-related, geological and human induced) within the context of sustainable development at the national level and as well as within the private sector, local level government and communities. The South Pacific Community (SPC) is currently preparing to conduct a review of RMI s National Disaster Risk Management Plan Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

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60 APPENDICES Appendices Department of Defense DMHA Engagements in the Past Five Years (FY ) 11 March USPACOM-The Coast Guard and Navy completed a 33-day joint mission in the Central and South Pacific under the Oceania Maritime Security Initiative to combat transnational crimes, enforce fisheries laws and enhance regional security. A Coast Guard law enforcement detachment, from Coast Guard Tactical Law Enforcement Team South, embarked the Arleigh Burke-class guided missile destroyer USS William P. Lawrence (DDG 110) and conducted eight fisheries enforcement boarding with the assistance of the Navy s Visit, Board, Search and Seizure (VBSS) team and enforcement ship riders from RMI and Nauru November USPACOM- Kwajalein, Marshall Islands - Marshallese construction workers and U.S. Navy Seabees, assigned to Naval Mobile Construction Battalion (NMCB) 1, constructed a washroom facility in Kwajalein, Marshall Islands February USPACOM-Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands -Army Gen. Martin E. Dempsey, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, paid a visit to highlight Kwajalein s importance to the U.S. missile defense and space programs. The atoll, located more than 2,000 miles southwest of Honolulu, is home to the U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll/Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site. 176 items, tools and other items that would make island life easier July USPACOM Majuro, Marshall Islands Pacific Partnership 2013 arrived in RMI. U.S. partner nation military members and non-governmental organization volunteers participated in a variety of projects while ashore in RMI such as the installation of rain water catchment and filtration, health fairs, engineering projects, disaster response seminars and training with the goal of improving RMI's overall disaster preparedness October Staff from USAID/ OFDA and USAID s Regional Development Mission for Asia (USAID/RDMA) attended Operational Blueprint tabletop exercises in the FSM and the RMI the first annual pre-typhoon season planning meetings in the two countries. The primary goal of the sessions was to enable participants to develop a common understanding of Operational Blueprint, the framework that guides U.S. Government disaster response in FSM and RMI and to develop response preparedness by simulating disaster scenarios. U.S. FEMA Regional Administrator Nancy Ward visited FSM and RMI from September 27 to 29 to meet with government officials in both nations in preparation for the tabletop exercises August USAID convened a meeting with representatives from 14 federal agencies in Washington, D.C. to discuss USAID plans for working with other USG agencies during disaster responses in FSM and RMI December USPACOM-Anderson Air Force Base, Guam (AFNS) -- The men and women from Andersen Air Force Base, Guam and Yokota Air Base, Japan, dropped its last bundle of joy Dec. 13, to the Micronesian Islands as Operation Christmas Drop came to an end just in time for the holiday season. The men and women from Andersen and Yokota came together and airdropped a total of 89 bundles of goods, each weighing approximately 500 pounds, into Chuuk, Palau, Yap, RMI and Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The bundles consisted of donated toys, clothing, fishing equipment, sporting goods, food 60 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

61 Hyogo Framework for Action Country Progress Report The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) was adopted as a guideline to reduce vulnerabilities to natural hazards. The HFA assists participating countries to become more resilient and to better manage the hazards that threaten their development. The levels of progress of the results of the Interim HFA for RMI are represented in the graph (Figure 7) and Table 6 on page 62. Future Outlook areas are also discussed in Table 7 on page Figure 7: HFA Level of Progress Priority for Action #1: Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation. Core Indicator* Indicator Description 1 National policy and legal framework for disaster risk reduction exists with decentralized responsibilities and capacities at all levels. 2 Dedicated and adequate resources are available to implement disaster risk reduction plans and activities at all administrative levels. 3 Community participation and decentralization is ensured through the delegation of authority and resources to local levels. 4 A national multi sectoral platform for disaster risk reduction is functioning. Level of Progress Achieved Priority #2: Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning Core Indicator* Indicator Description 1 National and local risk assessments based on hazard data and vulnerability information are available and include risk assessments for key sectors. 2 Systems are in place to monitor, archive and disseminate data on key hazards and vulnerabilities. 3 Early warning systems are in place for all major hazards, with outreach to communities. 4 National and local risk assessments take account of regional / transboundary risks, with a view to regional cooperation on risk reduction. Level of Progress Achieved Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

62 APPENDICES Priority #3: Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels Core Indicator* Indicator Description 1 Relevant information on disasters is available and accessible at all levels, to all stakeholders (through networks, development of information sharing systems, etc.). 2 School curricula, education material and relevant trainings include disaster risk reduction and recovery concepts and practices. 3 Research methods and tools for multi-risk assessments and cost benefit analysis are developed and strengthened. 4 Countrywide public awareness strategy exists to stimulate a culture of disaster resilience, with outreach to urban and rural communities. Level of Progress Achieved Priority #4: Reduce the underlying risk factors Core Indicator* Indicator Description 1 Disaster risk reduction is an integral objective of environment related policies and plans, including for land use natural resource management and adaptation to climate change. 2 Social development policies and plans are being implemented to reduce the vulnerability of populations most at risk. 3 Economic and productive sectorial policies and plans have been implemented to reduce the vulnerability of economic activities. 4 Planning and management of human settlements incorporate disaster risk reduction elements, including enforcement of building codes. 5 Disaster risk reduction measures are integrated into post disaster recovery and rehabilitation processes. 6 Procedures are in place to assess the disaster risk impacts of major development projects, especially infrastructure. Level of Progress Achieved Priority #5: Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels Core Indicator* Indicator Description 1 Strong policy, technical and institutional capacities and mechanisms for disaster risk management, with a disaster risk reduction perspective are in place. 2 Disaster preparedness plans and contingency plans are in place at all administrative levels, and regular training drills and rehearsals are held to test and develop disaster response programs. 3 Financial reserves and contingency mechanisms are in place to support effective response and recovery when required. 4 Procedures are in place to exchange relevant information during hazard events and disasters, and to undertake post-event reviews. Level of Progress Achieved Table Notes: *Level of Progress: 1 Minor progress with few signs of forward action in plans or policy 2 Some progress, but without systematic policy and/ or institutional commitment 3 Institutional commitment attained, but achievements are neither comprehensive nor substantial 4 Substantial achievement attained but with recognized limitations in key aspects, such as financial resources and/ or operational capacities 5 Comprehensive achievement with sustained commitment and capacities at all levels 182 Table 6: HFA Country Progress Report Priorities and Progress Achieved 62 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

63 Future Outlook Area 1: The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction. 183 Challenges: Future Outlook Priorities: Ad-hoc and uncoordinated approaches to DRM and CCA have been identified through the HFA Review Process. This is in part due to overburdened staff in key ministries having to take on numerous roles and manage multiple projects and programs concurrently. It is also due to the irregular meetings of groups such as the National Disaster Council (NDC) and the National Climate Change Committee (NC3). Without strong leadership from these key groups, it is unlikely that integration and mainstreaming of DRR and CCA will occur within line ministries. An additional challenge is the level of dependency on external assistance, particularly the U.S., for issues pertaining to DRR/DRM and CCA. With highly limited human resource capacity, RMI leans heavily on donor partners to address risk reduction issues. Finalization, endorsement and wide distribution of the JNAP to national stakeholders will allow for some level of coordination and strategic approach to the addressing of DRR issues in RMI. Future Outlook Area 2: The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels, in particular at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards. Challenges: Future Outlook Priorities: The change in key personnel in Office of Environmental Planning and Policy Coordination (OEPPC) and Chief Secretary s Office has delayed progress on strengthening institutional structures for DRR/DRM and CCA. Identifying appropriate replacements for key staff within OEPPC and CSO, and supporting them in working together, should be the aim over the short to medium term. This will allow much needed progress in DRR/DRM and CCA including finalization and endorsement of the JNAP. Future Outlook Area 3: The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programs in the reconstruction of affected communities. Challenges: Future Outlook Priorities: Mainstreaming of risk reduction is occurring across many projects and initiatives in ad-hoc approaches, given the recognition that climate change is likely to have significant consequences on issues such as water and food security. The overall challenge in RMI is to ensure a strategic, systematic and coordinated approach to ensure DRR is always a high priority. A further challenge is that of funds and the limitations imposed by the Disaster Assistance Emergency Fund (DAEF). Currently the DAEF is reserved only for disaster response, and not to be used for any risk reduction activity. If these limitations were loosened, it may be possible to reduce the impact of some disasters by addressing underlying risk factors before the event occurs. The JNAP, once finalized and endorsed, will provide a national overarching document that can guide attempts across all sectors to mainstream DRR into emergency preparedness, response and recovery. Table 7: HFA Country Progress Report Future Outlook Areas Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

64 APPENDICES Force Protection/Pre-Deployment information Passport/Visa Under the COFA, U.S. citizens do not need a visa to enter RMI. There is a departure fee of $20 for individuals aged 13 through 59. Diplomats are exempt from this fee. Cholera immunizations are required for those arriving from infected areas. Some HIV/AIDS entry restrictions exist for visitors to and foreign residents of RMI. HIV testing is required for temporary visitors staying more than 30 days and applicants for residence and work permits. Foreign test results are accepted under certain conditions. Most citizens of RMI are eligible to live and work in the U.S. in a nonimmigrant status without a visa. 184 Emergency Contact Information For U.S. Citizens, contact the U.S. Embassy in Majuro Atoll: U.S. Embassy Majuro Mejen Weto, Long Island, Majuro Atoll T: After-Hours Telephone: F: E: MAJConsular@state.gov Currency Information The currency of RMI Islands is U.S. dollars. The two ATMs on Majuro can be found at the Bank of Guam and at Robert Reimers Resort. A few hotels and restaurants accept Visa, MasterCard, and American Express credit cards. Most transactions are cash only. 185 Travel Health Information Health facilities in Majuro and Ebeye are adequate for routine medical problems. There are few or no health facilities available elsewhere in RMI. Majuro has a private clinic and a public hospital. Ebeye also has a public hospital. Though the hospital has diagnostic medical equipment, it is not always functioning due to maintenance problems and technician staffing difficulties. Most outer islands have medical dispensaries. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the U.S. can cost tens of thousands of dollars. Prescription and over-the-counter medicines might not be available. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services. However, the local cost for service is quite minimal. 186 U.S. Embassy does not pay medical bills. Be aware that U.S. Medicare does not apply overseas. Make sure your health insurance plan provides coverage overseas. Most care providers overseas only accept cash payments. U.S. Embassy strongly recommends supplemental insurance to cover medical evacuation. Carry prescription medication in original packaging, along with your doctor s prescription. Be up-to-date on all vaccinations recommended by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tuberculosis is an increasingly serious health concern in RMI. For further information, please consult the CDC s information on TB. The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) is high, and there are a few cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB) currently under quarantine or receiving treatment. The Zika virus is a mosquito-borne illness that can be spread from a pregnant woman to her unborn baby. Among other effects, there have been reports of a serious birth defect of the brain called microcephaly and other poor pregnancy outcomes in babies of mothers who were infected with Zika virus while pregnant. For additional information about Zika, including travel advisories, visit the CDC website. 187 Table 8 provides vaccination information for travelers to RMI. 188 For further health information, go to: World Health Organization U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) RMI Government Ministries, Offices and Committees The public service consists of ministries and a number of public agencies. They include the Ministry of Education, Finance, Foreign Affairs, Health, Health and the Environment, Internal Affairs, Justice, Public Works, Resources and Development, and Transportation and Communication. The majority of governmental functions and services are provided by the national government. 64 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

65 Recommendations Routine vaccines Recommended for all travelers varied Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Recommended for most travelers, including those with "standard" itineraries and accommodations Consider for most travelers; recommended for those who might be exposed to blood or other body fluids, have sexual contact with the local population, or be exposed through medical treatment (e.g., for an accident). Transmission Fecal-oral route (contaminated food and water) Person-to-person contact Contact with blood and other body fluids: Unprotected sex Injection drug use Contaminated transfusions Exposure to human blood Contaminated tattoo and piercing equipment Typhoid Recommended for most travelers, especially those who are staying with friends or relatives; visiting smaller cities, villages, or rural areas where exposure might occur through food or water; or prone to "adventurous eating" Table 8: Communicable and Non-communicable Disease Traveler Recommendations Fecal-oral route (contaminated food and water) Ministry of Education P.O. Box 3 Majuro, Marshall Islands T: F: Ministry of Finance P.O. Box D Majuro, Marshall Islands T: / 8311 F: / 3607 Ministry of Foreign Affairs P.O. Box 1349 Majuro, Marshall Islands T: F: E: mofapol@ntamar.net Ministry of Health P.O. Box 16 Ebeye, Marshall Islands T: F: Ministry of Health and Environment Majuro, Marshall Islands T: Ministry of Internal Affairs T: E: pianzea.secretariat@aec.gov.au Ministry of Justice P.O. Box 890 Majuro, Marshall Islands Ministry of Public Works P.O. Box 1727 Majuro, Marshall Islands T: Ministry of Resources and Development P.O. Box 1727 Majuro, Marshall Islands T: F: W: Ministry of Transportation and Communication P.O. Box 154 Majuro, Marshall Islands T: Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

66 APPENDICES Country Profile The information in the Country Profile section is sourced directly from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Fact Book. 189 Location: Oceania, two archipelagic island chains of 29 atolls, each made up of many small islets, and five single islands in the North Pacific Ocean, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia. Geographic coordinates: 9 00 N, E Area: Total: 181 sq. km Land: 181 sq. km Water: 0 sq. km Note: the archipelago includes 11,673 sq. km of lagoon waters and encompasses the atolls of Bikini, Enewetak, Kwajalein, Majuro, Rongelap, and Utirik. Country comparison to the world: 217 Land boundaries: 0 km Coastline: km Maritime claims: Territorial sea: 12 nm Contiguous zone: 24 nm Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm Climate: tropical; hot and humid; wet season May to November; islands border typhoon belt Terrain: low coral limestone and sand islands Elevation: mean elevation: NA Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m Highest point: unnamed location on Likiep 10 m Natural resources: coconut products, marine products, deep seabed minerals Land use: Agricultural land: 50.7 percent Arable land 7.8 percent; permanent crops 31.2 percent; permanent pasture 11.7 percent Forest: 49.3 percent Other: 0 percent (2011 est.) Irrigated land: 0 sq. km (2012) Natural hazards: infrequent typhoons Environment - current issues: inadequate supplies of potable water; pollution of Majuro lagoon from household waste and discharges from fishing vessels. Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, and Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, and Whaling. Signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements. Geography - note: the islands of Bikini and Enewetak are former U.S. nuclear test sites; Kwajalein atoll, famous as a World War II battleground, surrounds the world s largest lagoon and is used as a U.S. missile test range; the island city of Ebeye is the second largest settlement in the Marshall Islands, after the capital of Majuro, and one of the most densely populated locations in the Pacific. Nationality: Marshallese (singular and plural) Ethnic groups: Marshallese 92.1 percent, mixed Marshallese 5.9 percent, other 2 percent (2006) Languages: Marshallese (official) 98.2 percent, other languages 1.8 percent (1999 census) Note: English (official), widely spoken as a second language Religions: Protestant 54.8 percent, Assembly of God 25.8 percent, Roman Catholic 8.4 percent, Bukot nan Jesus 2.8 percent, Mormon 2.1 percent, other Christian 3.6 percent, other 1 percent, none 1.5 percent (1999 census) Population: 53,158 Country comparison to the world: Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

67 Age structure: 0-14 years: percent (male 13,256/female 12,749) years: 17.4 percent (male 6,391/female 6,171) years: percent (male 13,681/female 13,210) years: 5.73 percent (male 2,120/female 2,017) 65 years and over: 3.6 percent (male 1,276/female 1,320) (2015 est.) Median age: Total: 22.6 years Male: 22.5 years Female: 22.7 years (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 172 Population growth rate: 1.66 percent (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 71 Birth rate: 25.6 births/1,000 population (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 48 Death rate: 4.21 deaths/1,000 population (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 206 Net migration rate: migrant(s)/1,000 population (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 192 Urbanization: Urban population: 72.7 percent of total population (2015) Rate of urbanization: 0.59 percent annual rate of change ( est.) Major urban areas - population: MAJURO (capital) 31,000 (2014) Sex ratio: At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 0-14 years: 1.04 male(s)/female years: 1.04 male(s)/female years: 1.04 male(s)/female years: 1.05 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.97 male(s)/female Total population: 1.04 male(s)/female (2015 est.) Mother s mean age at first birth: 20.7 Note: median age at first birth among women (2007 est.) Infant mortality rate: Total: deaths/1,000 live births Male: deaths/1,000 live births Female: 17.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 85 Life expectancy at birth: Total population: years Male: years Female: years (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 136 Total fertility rate: 3.15 children born/woman (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 52 Contraceptive prevalence rate: 44.6 percent (2007) Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

68 APPENDICES Health expenditures: 16.5 percent of GDP (2013) Country comparison to the world: 2 Physicians/ density: 0.44 physicians/1,000 population (2010) Hospital bed density: 2.7 beds/1,000 population (2010) Drinking water source: Improved: Urban: 93.5 percent of population Rural: 97.6 percent of population Total: 94.6 percent of population Unimproved: Urban: 6.5 percent of population Rural: 2.4 percent of population Total: 5.4 percent of population (2015 est.) Sanitation facility access: Improved: Urban: 84.5 percent of population Rural: 56.2 percent of population Total: 76.9 percent of population Unimproved: Urban: 15.5 percent of population Rural: 43.8 percent of population Total: 23.1 percent of population (2015 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: NA HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: NA HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA Obesity - adult prevalence rate: 42.3 percent (2014) Country comparison to the world: 9 Government type: Presidential republic in free association with the U.S. Capital: Majuro Geographic coordinates: 7 06 N, E Time difference: UTC+12 (17 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time) Administrative divisions: 24 municipalities; Ailinglaplap, Ailuk, Arno, Aur, Bikini & Kili, Ebon, Enewetak & Ujelang, Jabat, Jaluit, Kwajalein, Lae, Lib, Likiep, Majuro, Maloelap, Mejit, Mili, Namdrik, Namu, Rongelap, Ujae, Utrik, Wotho, Wotje Independence: 21 October 1986 (from the U.S.- administered UN trusteeship) National holiday: Constitution Day, 1 May (1979) Constitution: effective 1 May 1979; amended several times, last in 1995 (2016) Legal system: mixed legal system of U.S. and English common law, customary law, and local statutes International law organization participation: accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; accepts ICCt jurisdiction Citizenship: Citizenship by birth: no Citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of the Marshall Islands Dual citizenship recognized: no Residency requirement for naturalization: 5 years Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 68 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

69 Executive branch: Chief of State: President Hilda C. HEINE (since 28 January 2016); note - the President is both Chief of State and Head of Government. Head of Government: President Hilda C. HEINE (since 28 January 2016) Cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the president from among members of the Nitijela, appointed by Nitijela speaker elections/appointments: president indirectly elected by the Nitijela from among its members for a 4-year term (no term limits); election last held on 27 January 2016 (next to be held in 2020) election results: Hilda C. HEINE elected president on 27 January 2016; Parliament vote - Hilda C. HEINE 24, she was the only candidate. Legislative branch: Description: bicameral legislature consists of the Council of Iroij (12 seats; consists of tribal chiefs chosen by holders of the chieftainship among the constituent islands) and the National Parliament or Nitijela (33 seats; members directly elected by simple majority vote to serve 4-year terms); note - the Council of Iroij advises the Presidential Cabinet and reviews legislation affecting customary law or any traditional practice) Election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - independents 33 Judicial branch: Highest court(s): Supreme Court (consists of the chief justice and other judges as prescribed by law) Judge selection and term of office: judges appointed by the Cabinet on the recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission and upon the approval of the Nitijela; judges appointed until retirement, normally at age 72 Subordinate courts: High Court; District Courts; Traditional Rights Court; Community Courts Political parties and leaders: Traditionally there have been no formally organized political parties; what has existed more closely resembles factions or interest groups because they do not have party headquarters, formal platforms, or party structures; the following two groupings have competed in legislative balloting in recent years - Aelon Kein Ad Party [Michael KABUA] and United Democratic Party or UDP [Litokwa TOMEING] Political pressure groups and leaders: NA International organization participation: ACP, ADB, AOSIS, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, OPCW, PIF, Sparteca, SPC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, WHO Diplomatic representation in the U.S.: Chief of Mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d Affaires Junior AINI (since 25 April 2015) Chancery: 2433 Massachusetts Avenue NW, 1st Floor, Washington, DC Telephone: (202) Fax: (202) Consulate(s) general: Honolulu, Springdale (AR) Consulate(s): Agana (Guam) Diplomatic representation from the U.S.: Chief of Mission: Ambassador Karen Brevard Stewart (since 5 November 2015) Embassy: Oceanside, Mejen Weto, Long Island, Majuro Mailing address: P. O. Box 1379, Majuro, Republic of the Marshall Islands Telephone: (692) Fax: (692) Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

70 APPENDICES Flag description: Blue with two stripes radiating from the lower hoist-side corner - orange (top) and white; a white star with four large rays and 20 small rays appears on the hoist side above the two stripes; blue represents the Pacific Ocean, the orange stripe signifies the Ralik Chain or sunset and courage, while the white stripe signifies the Ratak Chain or sunrise and peace; the star symbolizes the cross of Christianity, each of the 24 rays designates one of the electoral districts in the country and the four larger rays highlight the principal cultural centers of Majuro, Jaluit, Wotje, and Ebeye; the rising diagonal band can also be interpreted as representing the equator, with the star showing the archipelago s position just to the north. National symbol(s): A 24-rayed star; national colors: blue, white, orange National anthem: Name: Forever Marshall Islands Lyrics/music: Amata KABUA Note: adopted 1981 Economics: GDP (purchasing power parity): $175 million (2015 est.) $172.3 million (2014 est.) $170.6 million (2013 est.) Note: data are in 2015 U.S.dollars Country comparison to the world: 222 GDP (official exchange rate): $183 million (2015 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 1.6 percent (2015 est.) 1 percent (2014 est.) -1.1 percent (2013 est.) Country comparison to the world: 148 GDP - per capita (PPP): $3,200 (2015 est.) $3,200 (2014 est.) $3,200 (2013 est.) Note: data are in 2015 U.S. dollars Country comparison to the world: 185 GDP - composition, by sector of origin: Agriculture: 4.4 percent Industry: 9.9 percent Services: 85.7 percent (2013 est.) Agriculture - products: Coconuts, tomatoes, melons, taro, breadfruit, fruits; pigs, chickens Industries: copra, tuna processing, tourism, craft items (from seashells, wood, and pearls) Industrial production growth rate: NA Labor force: 10,670 (2013 est.) Country comparison to the world: 217 Labor force - by occupation: Agriculture: 11 percent Industry: 16.3 percent Services: 72.7 percent (2011 est.) Unemployment rate: 36 percent (2006 est.) 30.9 percent (2000 est.) Country comparison to the world: 193 Population below poverty line: NA Household income or consumption by percentage share: Lowest 10 percent: NA Highest 10 percent: NA 70 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

71 Budget: Revenues: $116.7 million Expenditures: $113.9 million (2013 est.) Taxes and other revenues: 59.8 percent of GDP (2013 est.) Country comparison to the world: 6 Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-): 1.4 percent of GDP (2013 est.) Country comparison to the world: 17 Public debt: 51.3 percent of GDP (2013) Country comparison to the world: 79 Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September Inflation rate (consumer prices): -4 percent (2015 est.) 1.1 percent (2014 est.) Country comparison to the world: 1 Current account balance: -$1 million (2015 est.) -$14 million (2014 est.) Country comparison to the world: 53 Exports: $53.7 million (2013 est.) $58.1 million (2012) Country comparison to the world: 201 Exports - commodities: copra cake, coconut oil, handicrafts, fish Imports: $133.7 million (2013 est.) $120.9 million (2012) Country comparison to the world: 214 Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, fuels, beverages, tobacco Debt - external: $97.96 million (2013 est.) $87 million (2008 est.) Country comparison to the world: 194 Exchange rates: the U.S. dollar is used Communications: Telephones - fixed lines: Total subscriptions: 2,400 Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 3 (2014 est.) Country comparison to the world: 213 Telephones - mobile cellular: Total: 15,500 Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 22 (2014 est.) Country comparison to the world: 212 Telephone system: General assessment: digital switching equipment; modern services include telex, cellular, Internet, international calling, caller ID, and leased data circuits. Domestic: Majuro Atoll and Ebeye and Kwajalein islands have regular, seven-digit, direct-dial telephones; other islands interconnected by high frequency radiotelephone (used mostly for government purposes) and mini-satellite telephones International: country code 692; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); U.S. Government satellite communications system on Kwajalein (2005) Broadcast media: no TV broadcast station; a cable network is available on Majuro with programming via videotape replay and satellite relays; 4 radio broadcast stations; American Armed Forces Radio and Television Service (AFRTS) provides satellite radio and television service to Kwajalein Atoll (2009.) Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

72 APPENDICES Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 0 (additionally, the American Armed Forces Radio and Television Service (Central Pacific Network) operates one FM and one AM station on Kwajalein Island) (2005) Television broadcast stations: 2 (both are U.S. military stations; Marshalls Broadcasting Service, a cable company, operates on Majuro) (2005) Internet country code:.mh Internet hosts: 3 (2012) Country comparison to the world: 232 Internet users: total: 1,700 Percent of population: 2.4 percent (2014 est.) Country comparison to the world: 210 Transportation: Airports: 15 (2013) Country comparison to the world: 146 Airports - with paved runways: Total: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: to 1,523 m: 1 (2013) Airports - with unpaved runways: Total: to 1,523 m: 10 Under 914 m: 1 (2013) Roadways: Total: 2,028 km Paved: 75 km Note: roads are mostly unimproved (2007) Country comparison to the world: 176 Merchant marine: Total: 1,593 By type: barge carrier 1, bulk carrier 524, cargo 65, carrier 1, chemical tanker 351, container 226, liquefied gas 88, passenger 7, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 297, refrigerated cargo 13, roll on/roll off 9, vehicle carrier 10 Foreign-owned: 1,465 (Belgium 1, Bermuda 35, Brazil 1, Canada 8, China 14, Croatia 12, Cyprus 40, Denmark 7, Egypt 1, France 7, Germany 248, Greece 408, Hong Kong 3, India 10, Indonesia 1, Iraq 2, Ireland 6, Italy 1, Japan 59, Jersey 11, Kuwait 2, Latvia 19, Malaysia 11, Mexico 2, Monaco 30, Netherlands 21, Norway 75, Pakistan 1, Qatar 29, Romania 2, Russia 5, Singapore 30, Slovenia 6, South Korea 41, Sweden 1, Switzerland 12, Taiwan 8, Turkey 70, UAE 12, UK 12, Ukraine 1, U.S. 200) (2010) Country comparison to the world: 7 Ports and terminals: Major seaport(s): Enitwetak Island, Kwajalein, Majuro Military: Military branches: no regular military forces; Marshall Islands Police (2012) Note: defense is the responsibility of the U.S. Transitional Issues: Disputes - international: claims U.S. territory of Wake Island Trafficking in persons: current situation: The Marshall Islands is a source and destination country for Marshallese women and girls and women from East Asia subjected to sex trafficking; Marshallese and foreign women are forced into prostitution in businesses frequented by crew members of fishing and transshipping vessels that dock in Majuro; some Chinese women are recruited to the Marshall Islands with promises of legitimate work and are subsequently forced into prostitution. Tier rating: Tier 3 The Marshall Islands do not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so; the government made 72 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

73 no anti-trafficking law enforcement efforts, including developing a written plan to combat trafficking; no new trafficking investigations were opened in 2014, and no prosecutions or convictions were made for the fourth consecutive year; no efforts were made to identify trafficking victims, especially among women in prostitution or men working on foreign fishing vessels in Marshallese waters, and no attempt was made to ensure their access to protective services; limited awareness-raising events were conducted by an international organization (2015). Government Government: Type: Parliamentary democracy in free association with the U.S. Independence: 21 October 1986 from the U.S.-administered UN trusteeship. Constitution: 1 May Under the constitution adopted in 1979, the government consists of a president elected by a unicameral, 33-member parliament known as the Nitijela. The Council of Iroij (Chiefs) has mainly a consultative function, concerned with traditional laws and customs. 191 When the COFA first entered into force, in 1986, it marked the beginning of a new relationship between RMI and the U.S. No longer were the Marshall Islands a United Nation s Strategic Trust Territory for the Compact granted RMI sovereignty in domestic and foreign affairs in return for granting the U.S. defense rights in the islands. 192 The government of RMI operates under a mixed parliamentary- presidential system, which includes a head of state the President, who is also the head of government and a bicameral parliament the Council of Iroij (the upper house) and Nitijela (the elected lower house). 193 Executive: Executive power lies with the President, who is elected by the Nitijela, and the Presidential Cabinet. The President appoints cabinet ministers to leading positions in the government departments with the approval of the Nitijela. Legislative: Legislative power resides in the Nitijela, which consists of 33 senators elected by 24 electoral districts by universal suffrage of all citizens above 18 years of age. The electoral districts correspond roughly to each atoll of the RMI. Although no legal restrictions exist against the formation of political parties, no formal parties exist. Two ad hoc parties have existed since the mid-1990s. Council of Iroij: The Council of Iroij is comprised of 12 tribal chiefs who advise the Presidential Cabinet and review legislation affecting customary law or any traditional practice, including land tenure. 194 Political Rights and Civil Liberties Freedom of Speech and the Press: The government respects freedom of speech and the press. A privately owned weekly newspaper, the Marshall Islands Journal, publishes in both English and the Marshallese languages. There are two radio stations (one is state-owned), both of which give voice to a range of views. Cable television broadcasts local news as well as U.S. programs. Judicial Independence: The Judiciary is independent, and the rule of law is well established. The government respects the right to a fair trial. Both the national and local police honor legal civil rights protections in performing their duties. There are no restrictions on religious observance in this predominantly Christian country. 195 Military RMI does not have a regular military force. National defense is the responsibility of the U.S. military. However, RMI do have a police force. 196 RMI is a sovereign nation. While the government is free to conduct its own foreign relations, it does so under the terms of the Compact. The U.S. has full authority and responsibility for security and defense of RMI, and the Government of RMI is obligated to refrain from taking actions that would be incompatible with these security and defense responsibilities. The U.S. and RMI have full diplomatic relations. Marshallese citizens may work and study in the U.S. without a visa, and they join the U.S. military at a higher rate than any U.S. state. 197 RMI has no army or air force and retains a tiny paramilitary naval force consisting of one Pacific class boat RMIS Lomor which is primarily concerned with patrolling territorial waters. Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

74 APPENDICES Defense Budget Any defense expenditure by RMI is covered by the U.S., which under the COFA has responsibility for the military defense of the RMI. Security assistance is also provided by Australia, through the use of Australian-supplied patrol craft and other funding. These funds are spent by the Australian Department of Defence rather than provided directly to the RMI government. The Australian Defence Cooperation Program (DCP) expenditure for RMI decreased from AUD 269,000 in to AUD 190,000 in Participation in International Organizations RMI and the U.S. belong to a number of the same international organizations, including the UN, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and Asian Development Bank. RMI also belongs to the Pacific Islands Forum, of which the U.S. is a Dialogue Partner. 199 International organization participation: African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States (ACP), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Group of 77 (G-77), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development World Bank (IBRD), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Development Association (IDA), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Finance Corporation (IFC), International Labor Organization (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO), International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), International Olympic Committee (IOC), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement (Sparteca), Secretariat of the Pacific Communities (SPC), UN, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health Organization WHO. 200 RMI is an active participant in several regional and global strategies and frameworks, including: 201 Micronesia Challenge; Convention on the Conservation of and Management of High Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean; Pacific Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster Management Regional Framework for Action ; Pacific Regional Framework for Action on Climate Change; Pacific Plan; Pacific Regional Action Plan on Sustainable Water Management; Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Mauritius Strategy for Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States 2005; Hyogo Framework for Action ; and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. International Agencies United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Pacific Office in Fiji Address: Level 8, Kadavu House 414 Victoria Parade Suva, Fiji T: F: E: oregistry.fj@undp.org National Commission of the Republic of Marshall Isalnds for UNESCO C/O Ministry of Education Address: P.O. Box 3 Majuro Marshall Islands T: F: E: wheine(a)pss.edu.mh(chair), ekonou(a) pss.edu.mh(sg), khosia(a)pss.edu.mh; hosia920(a)gmail.com(ac) 74 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

75 Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) SPC Headquarters Address: BP D Noumea New Caledonia T: F: E: RMI is a member of SPC. SPC is an international organization that works across a number of areas, including but not limited to public health, agriculture, forestry, human rights, climate change and disaster management, to help Pacific Island countries to achieve sustainable development. SPC has 26 members including 22 Pacific Island countries and territories, plus four founding countries: USA, Australia, France and New Zealand. SPC works closely with its members in determining what support is needed for the development of national policies and plans. 202 Development goals of SPC community members are discussed in Figure 8. Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) RMI is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, which is "an international organization that aims to stimulate economic growth and enhance political governance and security for the region, through the provision of policy advice; and to strengthen regional cooperation and integration through coordinating, monitoring and evaluating implementation of Leaders' decisions. The organization's mandate is set by decisions made at annual meetings of Leaders from the 16 Pacific Island Forum member countries, ministerial meetings convened by the Forum Secretariat, and decisions made under the Framework for Pacific Regionalism." The Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat is also responsible for "implementing the Forum Compact on Strengthening Development Coordination, which was agreed to by Pacific Island Leaders in The Forum Compact encourages Forum Island Countries to systematically examine and improve how national plans and budgets, public financial management systems, development partner coordination, monitoring and evaluation of results, and engagement between governments, parliamentarians, private sector and non-state actors, contribute to overall national sustainable development efforts." An emerging opportunity to improve intergovernmental coordination and cooperation is the Framework for Pacific Regionalism that was agreed by Pacific Island Leaders in 2014 as a replacement for the 2005 Pacific Plan for Strengthening Regional Cooperation and Integration. "The Forum Secretariat is mandated to coordinate the implementation of the Framework for Pacific Regionalism. The focus of the Framework is improving the effectiveness of regional mechanisms in supporting national priorities. The Framework sets out the: Pacific Vision, for a region of peace, harmony, security, social inclusion, and prosperity, so that all Pacific people can lead free, healthy, and productive lives; Regional values, which include our oceans, our culture, good governance, peaceful societies, inclusivity and equality, and durable partnerships; and Strategic objectives for Pacific regionalism, which cover sustainable development, inclusive and equitable economic growth, strengthened governance and security." 203 For each of the strategic objectives, Pacific countries will adopt forms of regionalism, drawing from the collective actions in Table 9, which work in support of deeper regionalism. PRiMO The NOAA Pacific Services Center in 2003, 2004, convened the Roundtable of Federal Hazard Mitigation Partners in the Pacific Islands. These meetings brought together representatives from local, national, and regional agencies, institutions, and organizations to explore opportunities to enhance communication, coordination, and collaboration. Based on a mutual recognition of the benefits of a collective action, the Pacific Risk Management `Ohana (PRiMO) was formed. Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

76 APPENDICES Figure 8: Secretariat of the Pacific Community Development Goals 76 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

77 Regional collective action To achieve: By: Requiring: Coordination Cooperation Collaboration Economic integration Administrative / legal / institutional integration Collaboration Open consultation and access to information; and coordinated application of shared, best-practice norms and standards. An effective and strengthened voice in protecting and sustainably harnessing the region s physical, social and cultural assets for the benefit of all. Achievement of economies of scale and equitable benefits that cannot be achieved nationally. Greater economic prosperity founded on regional economic integration and sustainability and the equitable distribution of benefits and costs. A secure and well governed Pacific region pledged to upholding regional values. Achievement of economies of scale and equitable benefits that cannot be achieved nationally. Table 9: The Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014) 204 Establishing and managing agreed processes that facilitate regional dialogue and access to (and use of) information. Developing and committing to coordinated regional or sub-regional policies and strategies. Delivering regional public goods and pooled services. Lowering physical and technical market barriers to enable freer movement of people and goods within and among countries. Agreeing to common rules, standards and institutions to foster and sustain integration. Delivering regional public goods and pooled services. Voluntary consultations and agreements; possible resource sharing. Voluntary agreement to modes of regional cooperation; services are mainly funded and delivered nationally. Voluntary agreement to modes of regional collaboration; national governments are freed from daily management of these priorities. Legally binding arrangements, including commitment to national resource allocation; each country commits to amending their internal laws / requirements to meet the shared regional objectives. Legally binding arrangements, including commitment to national resource allocation and to operating within regionally mandated requirements. Voluntary agreement to modes of regional collaboration; national governments are freed from daily management of these priorities. Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

78 APPENDICES Acronyms and Abbreviations Acronym Definition AAL Average Annual Loss ADB Asian Development Bank AMI Air Marshall Islands ARFF Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting CCG Central Control Group CDC U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CFAA Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act CFA or COFA Compact of Free Association CMAC Coastal Management Advisory Council CROP Council of Regional Organizations in the Pacific DAC Disaster Assistance Coordinator DAEF Disaster Assistance Emergency Fund DHS Department of Homeland Security DM Disaster Management DOD Department of Defense DOS Department of State DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DSCA Defense Security Cooperation Agency EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EOC Emergency Operations Center EPA Environmental Protection Agency EPI Expanded Program on Immunization FSA Freely Associated States FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FSM Federated States of Micronesia GDP Gross Domestic Product HDR Humanitarian Daily Rations HFA Hyogo Framework for Action ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ILO International Labor Organization IOM International Organization for Migration J4 Joint Staff Logistics Directorate JTPA Job Training Partnership Program KAJUR Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Resources MAJ Marshall Islands International Airport MDR TB Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis MEC Marshalls Energy Company MICS Marshall Islands Conservation Society MIMRA Marshal Island Marine Resources Authority MISC Marshall Islands Shipping Corporation NC3 National Climate Change Committee NCDs Non-Communicable Disease 78 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

79 Acronym NDC NDMC NEMCO NGO NMDO NOAA NSP NWS OCHA OFDA OHDACA PICTs PPHSN RMI RMIPA SPC SPCZ SSSP TWS UN UNDAC UNFCCC UNICEF USAID USG WASH WHO WUTMI Definition National Disaster Committee National Disaster Management Committee National Emergency Management and Coordinator Office Non-Governmental Organization National Disaster Management Office National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States National Strategic Plan National Weather Service Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance Overseas Humanitarian, Disaster, and Civic Aid Pacific Island Countries and Territories Pacific Public Health Surveillance Network Republic of the Marshall Islands Republic of the Marshall Islands Ports Authority Secretariat of the Pacific Community South Pacific Convergence Zone Student Services Support Program Tsunami Warning System United Nations United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Children s Fund U.S. Agency for International Development U.S. Government Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene World Health Organization Women United Together in the Marshall Islands Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

80 References (Endnotes) 1 Statistical yearbook for Asia and the Pacific Environment/Natural-disasters.asp 2 Pacific ring of fire. Basicplanet. basicplanet.com/pacific-ring-fire/ 3 Statistical yearbook for Asia and the Pacific Environment/Natural-disasters.asp 4 Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile: Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change, Marshall Islands,2011, sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/doc/ GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 5 Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile: Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change, Marshall Islands,2011, sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/doc/ GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 6 Typhoon Assistance to Micronesia Tops USD 10 Million. International Organization for Migration (IOM). 7 US Embassy Marshall Islands. Culture. Marshallese people. 8 South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall Island National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July 22, PDF. 9 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 10 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, mhl_nationalhfaprogress_ pdf 11 Republic of the Marshall Islands US Embassy. General Information. Overview of the Marshall Islands Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands. Islands 13 Map image: pacific/marshall-islands/ 14 Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands. Islands 15 Photo Source: Marshall Islands. Steve Conover. July, steveconover/ /in/photolist-2i1wv5-5vvs6o-hgr5sr-appjw6-cfxsg9-cns4sy-cns4xfhiqht9-hiqfty-f7jnnz-f7jnj4-f7ybrb-f7jnk8-f7jnchapqvjv-4c5cxv-9jekux-9jgkcq-apoer6-hf7qbe-hizziqhk3duq-7s5qyz-4c5cwk-fozjrf-bdyjen-nse1xy- C2YV1j-B7M8tA-f7yABW-BX4C3r-BUKVNf-fbdUCbfafmZ3-fafmCs-f6hKLd-f63vea-f6hM9u-f6hLQA-f6hLJyf6hLuN-fa181r-fafmpq-f63vvc-f63vRe-ehpaWu-fa18egf7yB8U-ehpaFS-f63uuk 16 Photo Source: U.S. Missile Defense Agency. Aegis_2011_ftm15star. April 15, flickr.com/photos/mdabmds/ /in/ photolist-9ynqws-9ykpez-9ykpyv-fafkl7-ezbo2a- 9ySEjj-eZEYg9-eYZ1JR-eZbngb-vdBphW-t4KPVe- vvc29a-fxyetg-fxnw6f-fxydsv-fxn1wu-fxydh4- eyyz6b-59vsjz-szxdmy-exelxm-4zywry-exrba5- exrbgb-fxnwsa-exraww-s73wj6-fa17rm-vdjrap- 6U27V2-ALTMF4-oH88Nq-92DtiY-92zEXS-c4Rsfy- Ft1h9u-vvbVnk-vobAFb-BbqU97-wg5D3b-eZtAw- T-eXeLBR-sPBgkT-92wxjk-92zGsE-9Fboe1-8QYbnw- 8QYaFL-fCuZ7E-fCuZnC 17 Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands. Islands 18 Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands. Islands 19 Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands. Islands 20 Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands. Islands 21 US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese Culture US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese Culture US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese Culture US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese people US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese people Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands. Islands 27 RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing Summary and Highlights Only Republic of the Marshall Islands. Economic Policy, Planning, and Statistics Office. Office of the President, doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/oia/reports/ upload/rmi-2011-census-summary-report-on- Population-and-Housing.pdf 80 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

81 28 RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing Summary and Highlights Only Republic of the Marshall Islands. Economic Policy, Planning, and Statistics Office. Office of the President, doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/oia/reports/ upload/rmi-2011-census-summary-report-on- Population-and-Housing.pdf 29 WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Islands World Health Organization. Western Pacific Region. bitstream/handle/ /7908/ccs_mhl_ _eng.pdf 30 WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Islands World Health Organization. Western Pacific Region. bitstream/handle/ /7908/ccs_mhl_ _eng.pdf 31 WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Islands , World Health Organization. Western Pacific Region. bitstream/handle/ /7908/ccs_mhl_ _eng.pdf 32 State of Children: Main problems faced by children in Marshall Islands, Humanium: Together for Children s Rights. marshall-islands-2/ 33 Photo Source: Olivia Owen. UN Women Pacific Forum Leaders Meeting-Republic of the Marshall Islands. September 3, com/photos/un_women_pacific/ /in/ photolist-ne3kfq-ne3mhl-ndxgob-nefbmn-nefd26- ncct6h-jw4syi-fa18y2-fafrcc-f63ukp-fa18e6-jw4nbg- f7jmud-f7jmpb-jw4neh-jw3f2f-jw64vu-dlfta- 9jqbim-f5kUeF-fbffdf-f5kU1K-f5kTHD-faZY9x-f5A8yb- 949sTb-jW3FGi-jW6dRC-DTuvY-DTtr2-fbfcGo-f5kTxv- f5a9ys-dt4hf-f5kx4p-fbfwsj-5exq1p-jw4sov-jw4nxg- DTv2Y-a3Ubdm-Fyjhff-g5Ltk-7y8AqG-jW69qy-jW69qJfWZm6e-HkVXbE-Hgvh3N-f2W7gZ 34 State of Children: Main problems faced by children in Marshall Islands. Humanium: Together for Children s Rights. marshall-islands-2/ 35 State of Children: Main problems faced by children in Marshall Islands. Humanium: Together for Children s Rights. marshall-islands-2/ 36 World Bank Systematic Country Diagnostic For Eight Small Pacific Island Countries: Priorities For Ending Poverty And Boosting Shared Prosperity. World Bank. License: Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial No Derivatives 3.0 IGO (CC BY- NC-ND 3.0 IGO). curated/en/ /pdf/ REPLACEMENT-SecM pdf 37 WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Islands World Health Organization. Western Pacific Region. bitstream/handle/ /7908/ccs_mhl_ _eng.pdf 38 WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Islands , World Health Organization. Western Pacific Region. bitstream/handle/ /7908/ccs_mhl_ _eng.pdf 39 World Bank Systematic Country Diagnostic For Eight Small Pacific Island Countries: Priorities For Ending Poverty And Boosting Shared Prosperity. World Bank. License: Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial No Derivatives 3.0 IGO (CC BY- NC-ND 3.0 IGO). curated/en/ /pdf/ REPLACEMENT-SecM pdf 40 US Embassy Marshall Islands. Culture. Marshallese people Office of the President. Republic of the Marshall Islands. RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing Summary and Highlights Only. February 14, oia/reports/upload/rmi-2011-census-summary- Report-on-Population-and-Housing.pdf 42 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Economy and Investing. National Investment Policy Statement Economy.htm 43 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Economy and Investing. Incentives under the Compact of Free Association with the United States Photo Source: DSC_1163. Warren in the Weeds. January 25, warrenintheweeds/ /in/photolist-9j3tta- 9iZLee-9j3TY9-9iZLNg-9j3UyC-v8m4P-9iZLak-v8mVF- 9iZLhi-9bmzbm-9iZLiv-9iZLeR-9iZLBB-9j3TXj-9iZL8B- v8mbk-9j3umu-v8mr4-9j3u8m-v8mnx-9izlkr- 9j3Uab-9iZL9r-v8miw-2rfjqD-sTtsX-sTtt2-9usv49- v8mxx-9izlli-9j3tzu-9izl7e-9j3upj-v8mgn-2rfbpm- 9iZLgH-9bivYX-9iZL7M-9iZLSX-9iZLcB-2rfbB8- kmmyhz-9izlwk-v8mqv-9izlae-9j3uul-9j3uef- 9iZLNZ-9j3UcU-9j3UdA 45 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Economy and Investing. Incentives under the Compact of Free Association with the United States Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Economy and Investing. Incentives under the Compact of Free Association with the United States Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

82 APPENDICES 47 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Economy and Investing. Incentives under the Compact of Free Association with the United States National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 49 National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 50 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Environment. Environmental Issues in the Marshall Islands Economy.htm 51 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Environment. Environmental Issues in the Marshall Islands Economy.htm 52 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Environment. Environmental Issues in the Marshall Islands Economy.htm 53 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Environment. Environmental Issues in the Marshall Islands Economy.htm 54 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Environment. Environmental Issues in the Marshall Islands Economy.htm 55 National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 56 Photo Source: USFWS-Pacific Region. Wake Atoll NWR. April 9, usfwspacific/ /in/photolist-8x3kty- 6GWWKM-yFrW95-wb6YMN-5uzaBW-e4P43U-tc7nyAvdB2Go-Ak1a5k-vuDwJd-vvbVnk-vXqSan-wg5D3bsrdE4W-d8gyfd-f5kSwv-fbeZim-ngurjq-f5kW5a-f5- Abn5-fb1bzZ-oE5mnL-vKCFfE-nH58J-BArEJw-w3fuxM- 8zREBi-4EgNWe-ANwhKQ-vZWekG-tykBE4-ANCbmV- nzy5-6rispb-nh57r-bsxvpf-biucky-sernbm-basreu- 72kq3f-6vuigj-ANCkFB-Bkv6uC-AxDXd6-bP8u8r- BCKHTt-DrvYqv-DZZXre-yAPMJb-wRXXih 57 Nations Online. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Country Profile. Borders nationsonline.org/oneworld/marshall_islands.htm 58 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Geography. Geography Overview. Climate Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Geography. Geography Overview. Climate National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 61 Pacific Community. Geoscience Division. Environmental Vulnerability Index. EVI Country Profiles. Marshall Islands. environmental-vulnerability-index 62 National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 63 Asian Development Bank. Hazard and Disaster Data in the Island Nations of Pacific. February 26, The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April doc/gfdrrcountryprofiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 65 The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April doc/gfdrrcountryprofiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 66 The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April doc/gfdrrcountryprofiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 67 The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April doc/gfdrrcountryprofiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 82 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

83 68 World Bank. Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and Financing Initiative. September 2011.Country Risk Profile: Marshall Islands. org/curated/en/ /pdf/ BRI-Box391446B-PUBLIC-MarshallIslands.pdf 69 Relief Web. Disasters. Marshall Islands. Pacific Drought results?search=marshall%20islands#river-disasters 70 Relief Web. Disasters. Marshall Islands. Marshall Islands/Kiribati: King Tides- Mar reliefweb.int/disaster/ss mhl 71 Relief Web. Disasters. Marshall Islands. Marshall Islands: Drought- May disaster/dr mhl 72 FEMA. Disaster Declarations for Republic of the Marshall Islands. Major Disaster Declarations The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April doc/gfdrrcountryprofiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 74 Willis Eschenbach. The most important seal level graph. August 2, com/2013/08/02/the-most-important-sea-levelgraph/ 75 Chen, T., Nilles, E., Souares, Y. (April 2014). National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Regional partnerships for communicable disease detection and response in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands. 76 Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Environment. Environmental Issues in the Marshall Islands Environment.htm 77 Australian Government. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Running water at the public utility on Ebeye, Marshall Islands is turned on for only 45 minutes once a week. Public distribution points like this one are an important source of drinking water for households, May Photo: Erin Magee / DFAT. May 2, dfataustralianaid/ /in/photolist-jw69qyjw69qj-fwzm6e-hkvxbe-hgvh3n-ctrgls-9jhrzyee5yfc-f2w7gz-f3bnob-ctrgv1-9jdccb-fpemwd- 9bivb2-v8m6G-9bmDG7-9j3TTA-9iZLee-9j3TY9-9iZ- LNg-9j3UyC-v8m4P-9iZLak-v8mVF-9iZLhi-9bmzbm- 9iZLiv-9iZLeR-9iZLBB-9j3TXj-9iZL8B-v8mbK-9j3UMu- v8mr4-9j3u8m-v8mnx-9izlkr-9j3uab-9izl9r-v8miw- 2rfjqD-sTtsX-sTtt2-9usv49-v8mxX-9iZLLi-9j3TZU- 9iZL7e-9j3Upj-v8mGN 78 Emergency Preparedness & Response Plan: A guide to inter-agency humanitarian action in the Pacific. Pacific Humanitarian Team. 79 Emergency Preparedness & Response Plan: A guide to inter-agency humanitarian action in the Pacific. Pacific Humanitarian Team. 80 National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 81 Agreement to Amend Article X of the Federal Programs and Services Agreement Between the Government of the United States and the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. March 23, oia/about/upload/ agreement-to-amend- Article-X.pdf 82 National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 83 National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 84 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, NationalHFAprogress_ pdf USC 404: Foreign Disaster Assistance. uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:uscprelim-title10-section404&num=0&edition=prelim USC 404: Foreign Disaster Assistance. uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:uscprelim-title10-section404&num=0&edition=prelim USC 404: Foreign Disaster Assistance. uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:uscprelim-title10-section404&num=0&edition=prelim 88 USAID. USAID/OFDA Program Summary. Federate States of Micronesia, Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Palau. January 30, sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_program_ summary_ pdf Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

84 APPENDICES 89 National Disaster Management Committee and South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan original/national%20disaster%20management%20 plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_ program_summary_ pdf 90 National Disaster Management Committee and South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan original/national%20disaster%20management%20 plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_ program_summary_ pdf 91 National Disaster Management Committee and South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan original/national%20disaster%20management%20 plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_ program_summary_ pdf 92 National Disaster Management Committee and South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan original/national%20disaster%20management%20 plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_ program_summary_ pdf 93 National Disaster Management Committee and South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan original/national%20disaster%20management%20 plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_ program_summary_ pdf 94 National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 95 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 96 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 97 Prevention Web. Republic of the Marshall Islands. National Energy Policy and Energy Action Plan. Volume 1: National Energy Policy. Majuro, September rmi2009nationalenergypolicy.pdf 98 Ministry of Resources and Development. Republic of the Marshall Islands. State -Wide Assessment and Resource Strategy June 10, Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management Training. Welcome to Disaster Risk Management Training at SPC Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management Training. Welcome to Disaster Risk Management Training at SPC Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management Training. Welcome to Disaster Risk Management Training at SPC Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management Training. Welcome to Disaster Risk Management Training at SPC USAID Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA). Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance. Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Fact Sheet #1 (FY) December 17, crisis/rmi/rmi-disaster-response-archive 104 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 105 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 106 SPREP. Pacific islands meteorological strategy : sustaining weather and climate services in Pacific island countries and territories. Apia, Samoa files/documents/atm-cl-107.pdf 107 SPREP. Pacific islands meteorological strategy : sustaining weather and climate services in Pacific island countries and territories. Apia, Samoa files/documents/atm-cl-107.pdf 84 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

85 108 SPREP. Pacific islands meteorological strategy : sustaining weather and climate services in Pacific island countries and territories. Apia, Samoa files/documents/atm-cl-107.pdf 109 National Disaster Management Committee and South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan original/national%20disaster%20management%20 plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_ program_summary_ pdf 110 National Disaster Management Committee and South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan original/national%20disaster%20management%20 plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_ program_summary_ pdf 111 NOAA Pacific Services Center. NOAA in the Pacific U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. Fact Sheet. U.S. relations with Marshall Island. February 4, ei/bgn/26551.htm 113 U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. Fact Sheet. U.S. relations with Marshall Island. February 4, ei/bgn/26551.htm 114 IHS. Jane s Sentinel Security Assessment Oceania. External Affairs. December 11, PDF. 115 IHS. Jane s Sentinel Security Assessment Oceania. External Affairs. December 11, PDF. 116 IHS. Jane s Sentinel Security Assessment Oceania. External Affairs. December 11, PDF. 117 IHS. Jane s Sentinel Security Assessment Oceania. External Affairs. December 11, PDF. 118 National Disaster Management Committee. Marshall Islands National Disaster Management Plan, Revised Edition. reliefweb.int/files/resources/ net_pdnadmin_data_original_national%20disaster%20 management%20plan%20-%20marshall%20islands. pdf 119 IHS. Jane s Sentinel Security Assessment Oceania. External Affairs. December 11, PDF. 120 Nations Encyclopedia. Marshall Islands- Transportation. Asia-and-Oceania/Marshall-Islands-TRANSPORTATION. html 121 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Airports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Airports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Airports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Airports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Seaports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Seaports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Seaports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Seaports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Seaports Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Seaports Index Mundi. Marshall Islands Roadways. html 132 Nations Encyclopedia. Marshall Islands- Transportation. Asia-and-Oceania/Marshall-Islands-TRANSPORTATION. html 133 Nations Encyclopedia. Marshall Islands- Transportation. Asia-and-Oceania/Marshall-Islands-TRANSPORTATION. html 134 Office of the President. Republic of the Marshall Islands. RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing Summary and Highlights Only. February 14, oia/reports/upload/rmi-2011-census-summary- Report-on-Population-and-Housing.pdf 135 U.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Education. htm 136 U.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Education. htm 137 Pacific Media Assistance Scheme. Marshall Islands. Media and Communication Landscape. pacmas.org/about/countries/marshall-islands/ 138 Pacific Media Assistance Scheme. Marshall Islands. Media and Communication Landscape. pacmas.org/about/countries/marshall-islands/ 139 International Renewable Energy Agency. The Republic of Marshall Islands Renewables Readiness Assessment. June DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_RRA_ Marshall%20Islands_2015.pdf Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

86 APPENDICES 140 The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April doc/gfdrrcountryprofiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 141 Photo Source: Commander, U.S. 7 th Fleet. Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Carlos M. Vazquez N-WD jpg. July 6, in/photolist-fbepxf-f6hn4e-f63x6h-fbeqpu-f63wzc- f7jjzb-f7j6yb-f7yz97-f6hnnw-f6hmxy-f6hms5- fa1caa-fa1cf2-faz2rz-fa1ajz-fb11wc-fafpu7-fa1bzzf7j779-f7jk7p-fzyq-9j3kj3-dsthu7-fafpi3-fa1atzfafpbl-fbehuu-edbmre-f63ugb-fafpnl-fafq2s-f6hjkhf6yl4y-f5a7xg-f5ac3j-f5kwex-fbfsxo-f5kwjv-fb1cpmf5kwfi-f5abgd-f6hjsu-f63sxk-f5kswv-fbezim-f5kwknf6yg2q-f5kw5a-f5abn5-fb1bzz 142 The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April doc/gfdrrcountryprofiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_ country_profile_for_mhl.pdf 143 World Health Organization. WHO Country Cooperation Strategy for Marshall Islands CCS_MHL_ _eng.pdf?ua=1 144 U.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Health. Health in the Marshall Islands. rmiembassyus.org/health.htm 145 World Health Organization. Country Cooperation Strategy. Marshall Islands. countryfocus/cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_mhl_ en.pdf 146 Duke, Michael. Migration Policy Institute. Marshall Islanders: Mitigation Patterns and Health-Care Challenges. May 22, org/article/marshall-islanders-migration-patternsand-health-care-challenges 147 Duke, Michael. Migration Policy Institute. Marshall Islanders: Mitigation Patterns and Health-Care Challenges. May 22, org/article/marshall-islanders-migration-patternsand-health-care-challenges 148 World Health Organization. Country Cooperation Strategy. Marshall Islands. countryfocus/cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_mhl_ en.pdf 149 World Health Organization. Country Cooperation Strategy. Marshall Islands. countryfocus/cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_mhl_ en.pdf 150 World Health Organization. Country Cooperation Strategy. Marshall Islands. countryfocus/cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_mhl_ en.pdf 151 Photo Source: U.S. Pacific Fleet. U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Carlos M. Vazquez N-WD July 8, photolist-f6mw4r-f6mvkn-f6jp7e-fafqvg-f6jrir-f6yjoh- fa1aea-fa1bqd-fa1cf2-f6jozt-fa1bzz-fayreh-fa1a18- f8ou5d-f8otqu-fa1ajz-faz2rz-fafpwa-f6ygjy-f6yjrwf6yeks-fa1caa-fafoes-f8otl7-fafqke-f9t35b-f8fcqrf7cazw-f6mwb6-f8uvow-f9hhnj-f6zhzm-f9hgqwf9t4me-f7jkmp-f9t3px-f7ya7y-f6mzm2-f7jkwvf89djf-f8uums-f6mzfz-f9hhwy-f6yjuj-f72lwu-f7cchff72kny-f72qhq-f6ktnb-f6mvwx 152 World Health Organization WHO Country Cooperation Strategy for Marshall Islands marshall_island.pdf 153 Duke, Michael. Migration Policy Institute. Marshall Islanders: Mitigation patterns and health-care challenges. May 22, org/article/marshall-islanders-migration-patternsand-health-care-challenges 154 World Health Organization WHO Country Cooperation Strategy for Marshall Islands marshall_island.pdf 155 World Health Organization WHO Country Cooperation Strategy for Marshall Islands marshall_island.pdf 156 World Health Organization. Country Cooperation Strategy. Marshall Islands. countryfocus/cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_mhl_ en.pdf 157 World Health Organization. Marshall Islands: WHO Statistical Profile. mhl.pdf?ua=1http:// cooperation_strategy/ccsbrief_mhl_en.pdf 158 World Health Organization WHO Country Cooperation Strategy for Marshall Islands marshall_island.pdf 159 World Health Organization WHO Country Cooperation Strategy for Marshall Islands marshall_island.pdf 160 The World Bank. Gender. topic/gender 86 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

87 161 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 162 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 163 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 164 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 165 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 166 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 167 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 168 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 169 UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Marshall Islands. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 170 World Bank. Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and Financing Initiative. September 2011.Country Risk Profile: Marshall Islands. org/curated/en/ /pdf/ BRI-Box391446B-PUBLIC-MarshallIslands.pdf 171 South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall Island National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July 22, PDF. 172 South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall Island National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July 22, PDF. 173 South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall Island National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July 22, PDF th District Public Affairs. U.S. Coast Guard. U.S. Pacific Command. Coast Guard, Navy Complete Joint Fisheries Patrol in Oceania, Promote Regional Stability. March 25, Article/704726/coast-guard-navy-complete-jointfisheries-patrol-in-oceania-promote-regional-st/ 175 Deugan, Brannon. Petty Officer 1 st Class. U.S. Pacific Command. Seabees Build Friendship with Washroom Facility in Marshall Islands. December 3, seabees-build-friendship-with-washroom-facility-inmarshall-islands/ 176 Ferdinando, Lisa. DoD News. U.S. Pacific Command. Dempsey Visits Strategic, Remote Kwajalein Atoll. February 22, News/Article/567154/dempsey-visits-strategicremote-kwajalein-atoll/ 177 Hicks, Robert. Staff Stg. U.S. Pacific Command. Operation Christmas Drop supplies islands with bundles of joy. December, mil/media/news/news-article-view/article/564939/ operation-christmas-drop-supplies-islands-withbundles-of-joy/ 178 Military.com. Pacific Partnership Arrives in Marshall Islands. July USAID. Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA). Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). Federate States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Fact Sheet #1, Fiscal Year (FY) December 17, USAID. Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA). Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). Federate States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Fact Sheet #1, Fiscal Year (FY) December 17, Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( )-Interim. NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 182 Republic of the Marshall Island- National Progress Report on the Implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( )- Interim. NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 183 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( )-Interim. NationalHFAprogress_ pdf 184 Department of State. Bureau of Consular Affairs. U.S. Passports & International Travel. Marshall Islands. country/marshall-islands.html Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

88 APPENDICES 185 Department of State. Bureau of Consular Affairs. U.S. Passports & International Travel. Marshall Islands. country/marshall-islands.html 186 Department of State. Bureau of Consular Affairs. U.S. Passports & International Travel. Marshall Islands. country/marshall-islands.html 187 Department of State. Bureau of Consular Affairs. U.S. Passports & International Travel. Marshall Islands. country/marshall-islands.html 188 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Travelers Health. Health Information for Travelers to Marshall Islands Clinician View. gov/travel/destinations/clinician/mission_disaster/ marshall-islands?s_cid=ncezid-dgmq-travel-single Central Intelligence Agency. Library. The World Factbook. Australia-Oceania: Marshall Islands Nations Online. Marshall Islands. Republic of the Marshall Islands. oneworld/marshall_islands.htm 191 Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands U.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Compact of Free Association. rmiembassyus.org/rmi-uscompat.htm 193 U.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Government. government.htm 194 U.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Government. government.htm 195 U.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Government. government.htm 196 Central Intelligence Agency. Library. The World Factbook. Australia-Oceania: Marshall Islands U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. U.S. Relations with Marshall Island. Fact Sheet. February 4, U.S.-Marshall Islands Relations. htm 198 IHS. Jane s Sentinel Security Assessment Oceania. Defence Budget. May 20, PDF. 199 U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. U.S. Relations with Marshall Island. Fact Sheet. February 4, U.S.-Marshall Islands Relations. htm 200 Index Mundi. Marshall Islands International Organization Participation. com/marshall_islands/international_organization_ participation.html 201 Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action ( ). September 9, mhl_nationalhfaprogress_ pdf 202 Secretariat of the Pacific Community Strategic Plan Pacific Community Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat memorandum (2015), Retrieved from: assembly/contributions_2015/pifs.pdf 204 The Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014), Retrieved from: linked-documents/pacific-robp sd.pdf 88 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

89 Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook

90 APPENDICES 90 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance