303.6 (21.) 1. Conflitto sociale I. Jensen, Henrik. CIP a cura del Sistema bibliotecario dell Università di Pisa

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1 Rebellion and resistance / edited by Henrik Jensen - Pisa : Plus-Pisa university press, (Thematic work group. 2, Power and culture ; 4) (21.) 1. Conflitto sociale I. Jensen, Henrik CIP a cura del Sistema bibliotecario dell Università di Pisa This volume is published thanks to the support of the Directorate General for Research of the European Commission, by the Sixth Framework Network of Excellence CLIOHRES.net under the contract CIT3-CT The volume is solely the responsibility of the Network and the authors; the European Community cannot be held responsible for its contents or for any use which may be made of it. Cover: Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Smolin (1929- ), Petr Aleksandrovich Smolin ( ), The Strike, 1905 (1964), oil on canvas, Moscow, The State Tretyakov Gallery. FotoScala Florence 2009 by CLIOHRES.net The materials published as part of the CLIOHRES Project are the property of the CLIOHRES.net Consortium. They are available for study and use, provided that the source is clearly acknowledged. cliohres@cliohres.net - Published by Edizioni Plus Pisa University Press Lungarno Pacinotti, Pisa Tel Fax info.plus@adm.unipi.it - Section Biblioteca Member of ISBN: Informatic editing Răzvan Adrian Marinescu Editorial assistance Viktoriya Kolp

2 Battle Cries on the Wall. Spanish Political Posters in the Second Republic ( ) University of Valencia Abstract In the 1930s Spain was a Republican society, which in the years was immersed in civil war. The different governments of the Republic used the arts among other ways of communication and propaganda. Among the best examples of this are the numerous political and social posters that were printed during this period. The governments of the Spanish Second Republic used artists and art as an instrument to create support for their ideology. On the other side/hand, the Spanish artists used the posters as a kind of resistance to the not yet authorized, not yet legitimate Nationalist power in the Spanish Civil War. Art, finally, may in this case be seen as a kind of rebellion against a not authorized power. En el período comprendido entre 1931 y 1939, España era un país republicano que vivió una guerra civil ( ). Los diferentes Gobiernos de la República hicieron uso del arte como medio de comunicación y propaganda. El arte, de esta manera, se convirtió en un arma. Y, posiblemente el mejor ejemplo se pueda ver en las diferentes series de carteles políticos y sociales que se mostraron durante todo este período. Sin duda, el gobierno fue muy consciente de que un cambio de actitud durante la contienda bélica sólo era posible si se logra implicar a la población española y que sólo se obtendría a través de una intervención efectiva. Para ello, echó mano de un arte simple y sugestivo, a la vez que agresivo, funcional y efímero. El cartel cumplió de forma muy exacta todas estas normas. De ahí que se confiara en los mejores diseñadores y artistas españoles para orientar su discurso político y social, en búsqueda de la complicidad, comprensión e identificación entre la población española. El arte fue, finalmente, una clara forma de rebelión ante un nuevo poder ilegítimo. In general, rebellion may be understood as the manifestation of rejection of authority. The term often refers to the armed resistance of a group against an established government. Moreover, this act of defiance may be organised and armed in an attempt to

3 104 destroy this established authority, or in cases where there is no pre-established authority, this may be simply an act of civil disobedience. Such organizations may be known as resistance movements, or social movements, fighting against a system or a political power. Resistance implies a rejection of established practices. The right to resist tyranny, which has even gone so far as to justify the death of the tyrant, is a right dating as far back as Classical Antiquity. In his Republic, Plato discussed the concept of tyranny and the right of a people to defend itself against the tyrant and the injustice inherent to his/her rule. Using this as a point of departure, countless writers have developed the theme throughout history, such as Saint Isidore of Seville and Saint Thomas Aquinas, just to name a few of the more significant examples. Similarly, the concept of resistance played a part in the analysis that Michel Foucault carried out on the new social movements that arose after 1968, paying special attention to the strategies of opposition to a reality that is taken as the natural order of things 1. Resistance, then, takes shape from the various responses to a world of unequal power relations 2. Moreover, resistance comprises such acts of opposition to external strategies or everyday obligations which arise from a desire for emancipation; their objective being to dismantle forms of domination that are either explicitly or implicitly present in social and educational systems 3. Perhaps our point of departure should be the adoption of certain truths as self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they all have certain inalienable rights; and among these rights are those rights to life, liberty and the right to seek happiness. To guarantee these rights, men enter into a compact with each other to produce governments. The legitimate power of such a government is, in turn, derived from the consent granted by those governed. If any such government acts to destroy these principles, those governed have the right to reform it or abolish it and institute a new government founded on said precepts and to establish a governing power, which, in their view, will grant them the greatest probability of attaining security and happiness. Therefore, the right to resist is seen as a fully recognised right of all peoples to be exercised against illegitimate rulers, that is, any ruler that comes to power by non-democratic means, or perhaps arising democratically and legitimately but then turning illegitimate at some point during the term of government. It is in these situations that civil disobedience and the use of force are sanctioned with the aim of overthrowing the government and replacing it with a legitimate governing power. Some Background on the Recent History of Spain In light of the above, we can shift our attention to Spain s recent history and some of the well-known episodes which led to events of rebellion and acts of resistance. For instance, on 14 April 1931, the Spanish Second Republic was proclaimed; this date also

4 Spanish Political Posters in the Second Republic ( ) 105 marked the abdication of King Alfonso XIII, the monarch that had, until that moment, reigned as head of state. This democratic and republican state remained until 1 April 1939, when the Nationalist front declared victory in the Spanish Civil War a war sparked by the uprising of 18 July It was the government of the Second Republic which had ratified the 1931 Constitution, a document that represented a noteworthy advancement in the recognition and defence of human rights as part of Spanish legal code and in the democratic organisation of the State. The text emphasised the Republican concern for popular sovereignty and truly effective democracy; its articles stressed the principle of equality of all Spaniards before the Law, the separation of Church and State and the idea that all public representatives including heads of state be elected democratically and be subject to mobility. It allowed for the expropriation of any type of property, in exchange for compensation, for social uses, as well as the option to nationalise public services. It ratified a wide-ranging declaration of rights and freedoms, granting universal suffrage at the age of 23 and extending this right to women. In addition to establishing a separation between Church and State, it recognised civil marriages and divorce. Nevertheless, all these reforms changes which would have no doubt modernised Spanish society had they been consolidated enjoyed only a brief existence. On 17 July 1936, Spanish army forces based in northern Morocco and various garrisons, after a failed coup d état, went on to spark the Spanish Civil War ( ). On 6 November 1936, the Government of the Republic was forced out of the capital and to Valencia. And, one year later, facing a certain civil war, on 31 October 1937 the Government of the Republic was relegated to Barcelona. On 1 April 1939 the civil war and the Second Spanish Republic came to an end, and with it died the prospect of change in Spanish institutions and society. The Political and Social Poster. Its Soviet Origins The years between 1931 and 1939 were nevertheless a time with some positive aspects, especially when viewed from an artistic perspective: more specifically in the broad array of political poster art that flourished in Spain during this period, which offered a channel of propaganda that served the political cause and the spread of awareness among the citizenry. Political posters began to be used in earnest on a large-scale after World War I ( ). When Germany declared war on Russia in 1914, Russian society was already well versed in posters used for advertising 4. Given its largely illiterate and generally unarmed populace, the Russian state looked to poster art, aware of its potential as a communicative, educational and guiding power. From an artistic perspective, Art Nouveau, the reigning visual language of the day, was deemed insufficient as a form of expression. Its characteristic aesthetic, that of embellishment, hindered comprehension as it could Art and Resistance

5 106 divert the attention of its receptor, or spectators. Artists had to adopt both the popular language of traditional Russian illustration (lubok 5 ), and realism, which provided them with the ability of imitating nature. This led to a revolutionary change in artistic thought. Instead of the individualism that had previously dominated the European artistic scene, artists now started to place their knowledge and skill at the service of social change. The poster replaced the canvas 6. Mass production of art through posters, etchings and pamphlets had begun 7. And indeed, if the principal aim of these works was to communicate, then the form of expression that would reach most individuals had to be realistic. Its unequivocal shapes, pure colours and simple lines were the main precepts of this new form of expression. Elements were taken from true illustrated narrative style, with an image and explanatory text underneath. The figures that appeared were generally simplified to the point of geometric shapes. Preferred colours were green and red (generally for representing workers), blue, black and white (used for figures representing the bourgeois class). Moreover, the Russian avant-garde, whose principal artistic tendencies comprised constructivism, cubism, futurism, suprematism and expressionism, also adapted symbols and sculptural modes of expression to the language of the political poster 8. El Lissitzky, Fig. 1 Artur Ballester Marco ( ) c Chromolithograph, 161 x 108 cm. From: Universitat de València.

6 Spanish Political Posters in the Second Republic ( ) 107 Fig. 2 Vicent Ballester Marco ( ) Chromolithograph. 100,4 x 68,3 cms. From: Universitat de València. for example, developed an artistic language filled with volumes and geometric shapes, which he provided with specific meanings: the circle alluded to instability and delicacy, while triangles came to mean aggression or violence. Or Klutsis, who was the among the first to use photographs and photo-montage in political posters. Production of posters throughout this period ran up to millions. And indeed, it exercised a profound transformation in the artistic and social life. The Political Poster during the Spanish Second Republic As noted above, during the period between 1931 and 1939, Spain was being led by a Republican government that was dealing with a civil war ( ). The various governments of the Republic instrumentalised art as a means of communication and a channel of propaganda. Art, then, had become a weapon. Possibly the best example of this are the various series of politically and socially themed posters that flourished during this time. Art and Resistance

7 108 Fig. 3 Josep Renau Berenguer ( ) Chromolithograph, foto. 71,7 x 101,5 cms. From: Universitat de València. The city accepts ideas in colour. From the walls, the columns of our social centres, in the show or leisure halls, we see an army of posters shooting out at us, with their steely pinned corners and the shrapnel of their large-bore shells. The mural-poster complements the propaganda of the newspapers. For our enemy, it is shrapnel. They represent ideas in full-blown colour to the faithful. The city is creatively papered, in vibrant tones and decorative art. Each statement of the revolution acquires its own symbolism in the masterful figures that decorate Madrid as it waits for liberation 9. Indeed, the government was quite aware that a change in attitude during the conflict would only be possible if it managed to involve the entire Spanish population. And this could only be achieved through action that was effective. To do so, it needed to avail itself of an art that was at the same time simple and suggestive, yet aggressive, functional and ephemeral. The poster fulfilled all of these characteristics perfectly. For this reason the Republic entrusted this work to the best Spanish designers and artists; their aim being to express the government s social and political discourse, which sought complicity, comprehension and identification among the citizens of the Spanish population.

8 Spanish Political Posters in the Second Republic ( ) 109 Fig. 4 Josep Renau Berenguer ( ) Chromolithograph, foto. 39,6 x 55,8 cms. From: Universitat de València. In this way, the walls of Spain s main cities were filled with artistic cries, vibrant colours; cries that were clear and direct, cries whose ultimate aim being to win the war. This form of expression was, according to the words of Mayakovsky, the army of art. Posters of the Republic needed to be highly effective visually, in order to fulfil their principal aim, which was none other than educating illiterate masses. It therefore employed iconic formulas that were easy to identify and understand. The main requirement was that both the image and the brief accompanying text transmit the message in an immediate, direct way. This communicative formula, to spread awareness within Spanish society, fulfilled its objectives insofar as it did not require further reflection, but action. The aim of the poster is clear, to inflame feelings of support or revulsion towards its targets. These slogans necessarily resulted in the building of a conscience of a people. The main themes touched by posters revolved around the danger of fascism, in the building of a patriotic feeling, on the duty of citizens in the warring front and rearguard, on denouncing the atrocities of the enemy, exaltation of the war or on economic, health, cultural or sports-related propaganda. Art and Resistance

9 110 Fig. 5 Vicent Vila Gimeno ( ) Chromolithograph. 90,2 x 63 cms. From: Universitat de València. The poster was a cheap and accessible form of expression promoted by political parties, workers associations and trade unions. And through these means of expression orders, slogans, information, announcements, messages and advice were communicated. While it is true that the required propagandistic messages left little room for aesthetic values, artists training and the need for reputed painters to adapt to the technical requirements of the poster ultimately resulted in works of high technical quality and a certain degree of suggestive aesthetic innovation. The majority of poster artists were affiliated with some trade union; their artistic activity was influenced by the military aims. Nevertheless, posters often bore the artist s signature. While the Republican faction relied on the visual medium for their messages, the Nationalists relied mainly on the radio as a form of propaganda. The broadcasts of messages were channelled from the Falangist Central Propaganda Office and the National Propaganda Service. The Nationalists use of radio broadcasts, a means, which they dominated from the outset, allowed them to reach a large number of listeners with minimum effort.

10 Spanish Political Posters in the Second Republic ( ) 111 If we focus on poster art, one of the principal artists involved in the Republic and its cause was the Valencian Josep Renau. A militant communist, the Director General of Fine Arts in September 1936 and Director of Graphic Propaganda for the Chief of Staff in 1938, Renau was a renowned artist and intellectual who played a very important part in war posters as an artist and proponent from his position of responsibility. Noteworthy among his official duties was the safeguarding of national artistic heritage and especially the conservation and protection of the principal works of the Prado Museum from constant bombarding of Madrid. He would later move these to Valencia, and subsequently to Switzerland. Of the principal messages transmitted by the posters of the Republic, we must highlight that of unity, specifically used to foster a united front, in the face of trends of plurality of ideological, political and labour organizations. The heroes of the new era also appeared, easily recognisable: they were anonymous citizens, fishermen, peasants, and factory workers, among others. These heroes incited the populace to increase production, with clear and direct messages. Women, as a fundamental axis in the chain of production, in the family and everyday life, figure prominently in these visual messages. Athletic activities, as a mechanism that stressed the virtues of health, also played an important part. Another important message used slogans that praised education: these were employed in the fight against illiteracy, ignorance and domination. And of course there were constant and abundant messages directed to children the future generation related to safeguarding the cultural heritage, and the development of skills and abilities for those that would run the country in the future. To sum up, the poster was a clear means of communication by the Republic and exhibited in the public spaces of Spain s main cities; it was through this form of artistic expression that the Republican government was able to teach, communicate and spread the central tenets of its political programme. In Spain, a country torn apart by a conflict, the poster became the principal element of propaganda, through the use of a refined artistic technique that was simple and which was served by a reduced, four-colour chromatic range; posters were displayed on walls all over the city, doors, hoardings. They were cries for help, understanding, involvement, complicity, with educational messages and marked political slogans that were directed to a citizenry having little in the way of education and who needed clear, concise and direct information. The poster, then, was the main element used by the Republic throughout the 1930s in a country at war; a country which struggled in its search for a modern model of government that could propel Spain into much-needed progress. Although what was to follow unfortunately proved that the effort did not achieve its aims, nevertheless it served to renew the artistic spirit and bequeath a legacy comprising images of incalculable value. Art and Resistance

11 112 Notes 1 This aspect has been studied in depth by R. Giraldo Díaz, Poder y resistencia en Michel Foucault, in Tabula Rasa, January-June 2006, 4, pp Models of power, in this context, have been studied by T.S. Popkewitz (ed.), Modelos de poder y regulación social en pedagogía: crítica comparada de las reformas contemporáneas de la formación del profesorado, trans. José M. Pomares, Barcelona See H.A. Giroux, Theory and resistance in education: a pedagogy for the opposition, (Critical perspectives in social theory), London - Exeter Previously, Russian posters advertised industrial products and theatrical events. They also extolled the Empire through the use of iconic imagery such as imperial eagles, heraldic shields and emblems of Medieval origin, as well as representing royalty or the high officials of the Orthodox Church. The posters were rectangular, and their illustrations framed text that was never fully incorporated into the design of the poster itself. 5 It was a genre of popular Russian art that arose during the latter half of the 17th century. It was initially influenced by Wood engraving and etchings produced in Germany, Italy and France during the first half of the 15th century. Its popularity in Russia was the result of the inexpensive and wide availability of reproductions. 6 For more information on Soviet posters, see V. Mayakovsky, La risa terrible, Moscow 1932, pp. 4-5; J.A. Kurz Muñoz, El arte en Rusia: la era soviética, Valencia 1991, pp. 75, 4-5; A.V. Lunacharski, Las artes plásticas y la política en la Rusia Revolucionaria, Barcelona 1969, pp. 9, 67, 81-82; M. Anikst, Diseño Gráfico Soviético años 20, Barcelona 1989; E. Cernevic, Grafica Russa , Florence This approach corresponded to the idea of creation and social transformation upheld by Marx and Engels. According to these thinkers, art, as a form of communication, could help to shape minds towards social change. 8 For information on the avant-garde in Russia see: V. Bozal, La construcción de la vanguardia , Madrid 1978; A. Gonzalez, F. Calvo, S. Mar, Escritos de arte de vanguardia , Madrid 1979, pp. 153, 269; J.C. Marcadé, L avant-garde russe, Paris 1995, p Informaciones, Madrid, 17 February Cited by C. Grimau, El cartel republicano en la Guerra Civil, Madrid 1979, p. 21. Bibliography AA.VV., Escritos de arte de vanguardia , Madrid Anikst M., Diseño Gráfico Soviético años 20, Barcelona Bozal V., La construcción de la vanguardia , Madrid Cernevic E., Grafica Russa , Florence Giraldo Díaz R., Poder y resistencia en Michel Foucault, in Tabula Rasa, January-June 2006, 4, pp Giroux H., Teoría y resistencia en educación, Mexico Grimau C., El cartel republicano en la Guerra Civil, Madrid Lunacharski A.V., Las artes plásticas y la política en la Rusia Revolucionaria, Barcelona Marcadé J.C., L avant-garde russe, Paris Mayakovsky V., La risa terrible, Moscow Popkewitz T.S., Modelos de poder y regulación social en pedagogía, Barcelona Satué E., El diseño gráfico en España. Historia de una forma comunicativa nueva, Madrid Tomás F., Los carteles valencianos en la Guerra Civil, Valencia 1986.