A Human Rights: Universality and Diversity. EVA BREMS Professor ofhujnan Rights Law, University ofgfient, Belgium

Transcription

1 A Human Rights: Universality and Diversity EVA BREMS Professor ofhujnan Rights Law, University ofgfient, Belgium \ \ MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS THE HAGUE / BOSTON / LONDON

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE: Human Rights and the Universality Principle 3 I. Universality Concepts 3 A. General and World-wide Applicability of Human Rights: All-Inclusiveness 4 B. Formal Acceptance 5 C. Historical Origin 7 D. Formal Origin: Norm Creation, 8 E. Anthropological or Philosophical Acceptance 9 F. Functional Acceptance :...; 10 G. Multicultural Composition of Human Rights 10 H. World-wide Observance of HumanRights..: 12 I. General Opposability of Human Rights 12 J. Human Rights as a Legitimate Concern of the International Community 13 K. Absence of Double Standards. 13 L. Priority of Human Rights 14 M. Indivisibility of Human Rights 14 N. Uniformity of Standards Universality in Time 15 P. Universality as a Process 15 Q. Conclusion 16 II. Brief History of the Universality of Human Rights.17 A. Before the Universal Declaration of HumanRights 17 B. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Subsequent Evolution 20 C. Relativism 23 PART TWO: An Analysis of Non-Western Human Rights Claims Introduction 27 A. Purpose 27 B. Selection of Material 28 C. Approach 31 II. Asian Human Rights Claims 33 A. Introduction 33 B. Central Texts and Events The Singapore School Situation : General Discourse 36

3 vi HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY 1.3. The Economic Argument The Vulnerability Argument The Cultural Argument Good Government The Beijing White Papers "China's Practice of Human Rights" "China's Basic Position on Human Rights" The Bangkok Declaration and the Vienna Conference Situation The Bangkok Declaration Non-controversial Statements Controversial Statements The Vienna Conference Statements Singapore Malaysia China Indonesia Thailand : Myanmar Philippines (South) Korea Japan The Vienna Declaration Sovereignty, Non-interference, Double Standards Universality and indivisibility Development and Human Rights Parts of the debate Not Mentioned The Position of NGOs Situation Some Shared Concerns with the Governments Universality Indivisibility and Economic Concerns The Individual and the Community Some Points of Disagreement with the Governments The Sovereignty Argument The National Security Argument Kuala Lumpur Declaration on Human Rights Traditional Provisions "Asian" Provisions 76 C. Interpretation Framework Main Claims International Politics Economics The Individual, the Community and the State 86

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii 2.4. Interpretation and Implementation Attitude Towards the Universality of HumanRights Universality and Respect for Diversity The Role of Culture 89 III. African Human Rights Views 91 A. Introduction 91 B. Central Texts and Events Legal and Political Texts The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights Universality and Specificity Peoples' Rights General Remarks '. 95 a) Originality of the African Charter 95 b) Justification 96 c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement 99 d) Peoples' Rights and Individual Rights Overview of the Articles 101 a) Article b) Article c) Article d) Article e) Article f) Article Individual Duties General Remarks 109 a) Originality of the African Charter 109 b) Justification 110 c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement 112 d) Individual Duties and Individual Rights Overview of the Articles 114 a) Article b) Article c) Article Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Limitation and Derogation Limitation Derogation : Choice and Formulation of Specific Rights Omission of Rights Inclusion and Formulation of Rights 129 a) Article b) Article 17(3) 130 c) Article 7 (2) in fine d) Article 13(1) 131

5 viii HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY e) Article Enforcement Mechanism Reception of the Charter Evaluation The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child Rights protected in both CRC and ACRWC Rights protected only in the ACRWC, not in the CRC Rights protected only in the CRC, not in the ACRWC Evaluation The Tunis Declaration Academic Texts Traditional Africa Universality Communalism Development and Human Rights Priority of Development over Human Rights Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Conditionality Stability Harmful Cultural Practices General Remarks : The Example of Female Genital Mutilation The Practice The Western Campaign and the United Nations African Views 175 C. Interpretation Framework Main Claims Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights Universality and Respect for Diversity The Role of Culture 181 IV. Islam and Human Rights Views 183 A. Introduction 183 B. Central Texts and Events Academic Texts Fundamental Attitude: Different Tendencies Apologetic literature Common characteristics 185 a) General 185 b) Older and Better 185 c) The Rights Subcategories 191 a) Attitude to "Thorny Issues" 191 b) Traditionalists and Fundamentalists 191

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix Appeals for Interpretation Situating Ijtihad Common Characteristics Subcategories 194 a) Moderate Muslim Proposals 194 b) Radical Muslim Proposals 196 c) Non-Muslim Western Authors Secularism Recurring Themes Universality Rejection of Universality Ambiguous Attitude Toward Universality in the Apologetic Discourse Attitude Toward Universality Among Liberal Muslims Individualism versus Communalism and Rights versus Duties The relationship Between the Two Themes Individualism v. Communalism 204 a) Individualism and Communalism in Islam 204 b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights Rights v. Duties 206 a) Rights and Duties in Islam 206 b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights The Religious Dimension Areas of Conflict Between Islam and International HumanRights Women's Rights Freedom of Religion 209 a) The Problem 209 b) Solving the Problem Discrimination on the Basis of Religion 213 a) The Problem 213 b) Denying or Minimising the Problem >. 214 c) Solving the Problem Corporal Punishment 216 a) The Problem: Hudud Crimes 216 b) Solving the Problem Slavery Procedural Guarantees Democratic Rights Other A Specific Genre: The Debate on Women in Islam Fundamental Attitude: Different Tendencies Apologetic literature Feminists Appeals for Interpretation Secularism 228

7 HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY Recurring Themes The Principle of Equality Marriage 230 a) Choice of a Husband 231 b) Polygamy 231 c) Authority of the Husband Divorce 233 a) Obtaining a Divorce 233 b) Custody 234 c) Maintenance Inheritance Testimony Blood Money Freedom of Movement / Hijab Right to Work Political Rights / Access to Public Functions Islamic Declarations of HumanRights Universal Islamic Declaration of HumanRights Situation Universality versus Particularity Elements of Universality Elements of Islamic Particularity : Individualism versus Communalism Rights versus Duties Restriction of Rights Thorny Issues Women Religion Other General Appreciation Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam Situation Universality versus Particularity Individualism versus Communalism..._ Rights versus Duties ~ Restriction of Rights Thorny Issues Women Religion Other General Appreciation Islamic Reservations to HumanRights Conventions General Remarks Reservations of a General Nature Specific Reservations In the ICCPR and the ICESCR 274

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS XI In CEDAW In the CRC Evolution Over Time: Reservations as Statements in a Debate 280 C. Interpretation Framework Main Claims Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights Universality and Respect for Diversity The Role of Culture 290 V. Some Common Conclusions 291 A. Main Claims 291 B. Attitude Towards the Universality of HumanRights 292 C. Flexibility and Transformation 292 PART THREE: Inclusive universality 295 I. Introduction 295 II. Upholding the Ideal of the Universality of Human Rights 296 A. Unconditional Universality The Condition of General Formal Acceptance The Condition of Mixed Cultural Origin or Composition The Condition of Cross-Cultural Anthropological or Philosophical Foundations: of Mothers and Sisters Mother-notions Sister-notions Evaluation 304 B. A Functional and Pragmatic Basis for Affirming Universality A Functional Basis The Universality of the Modern State Human Suffering A Pragmatic Basis 307 III. Necessary Consequences of the Universality of Human Rights: Toward Inclusive Universality 308 A. General Formal Acceptance 309 B. Participation in Norm Creation 309 C. Absence of Double Standards 310 D. General Opposability 310 E. Indivisibility 311 F. Cross-Cultural Acceptance in Anthropological and Philosophical Terms 311 G. Accommodating Particularities Transformation of HumanRights Standards Flexibility of HumanRights Standards Limits to the Accommodation of Particularities : Who Makes the Claim? 318

9 xii HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY 3.2.Thick and Thin Accounts of Human Rights: Gross Violations Limits Inherent in the Concept of Inclusive Universality 322 IV. Further Marking Out Inclusive Universality 323 A. Methodological Implications 323 B. Comparison With Other Concepts Minow's Relational and Contextual Approach Taylor andhabermas: Recognising Cultural Identities Kymlicka's Multiculturalism Donnelly's Weak Cultural Relativism 335 V. Summing Up 338 PART FOUR: Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity 341 I. Introduction 341 II. Flexibility 343 A. Forum and Focus 343 B. Contextual Diversity in the Consideration of Human Rights Reports "Factors and "Difficulties" ~ Types of Factors and Difficulties Impact on the Committee's Evaluation Progressive Realisation InthelCESCR In the CRC Conclusion 355 C. Margin of Appreciation Focus on Europe The Margin of Appreciation Doctrine One Doctrine, Several Techniques Contextual Variations in the Balancing between Rights and Restriction Grounds The Principle of Balancing: Individual versus Community Balancing in Practice The Weight of the Individual Right 366 a) The Importance of the Interest: Core Activities 367 b) The Seriousness of the Interference: "Substance" or "Essence" Criteria The Weight of the Community Interest 371 a) Choice from Among the Enumerated Interests in a Limitation Clause 371

10 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii b) Policy Field 373 I. Better Position of the National Authorities 374 II. Economic and Social Policy 376 ill. Sovereignty-related Policy Fields 377 iv. Special Regimes Balancing on the World Level Contextual Variations in Solving Conflicts of Rights Contextual Factors as Mitigating Circumstances for Interferences Local Situations Exceptional Situations Organisational Latitude for the Concretisation of Rights in Different Contexts Contextual Variability in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions Autonomous Interpretation Evolutive Interpretation Margin of Appreciation in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions Margin of Appreciation Criteria and Inclusive Universality Democracy Effectiveness No "Gross Violations" Core Rights? The Core of a Right 410 ~ 4.4. The Consensus Criterion The Consensus Criterion in the Case-law of the European Court of HumanRights Comparison in Balancing Comparison in Other Legal Techniques Reference to Other Conventions Internal Uncertainty or Dispute Consensus and Evolution The Consensus Criterion on the World Level Problematic Aspects of the Consensus Criterion in General Additional Problems on the World Level Conclusion 421 HI. Transformation 423 A. Introduction 423 B. Duties Types of Duties Duties in International Human Rights Law 425

11 xiv HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY 2.1. HumanRights Texts on the Universal Level The Universal Declaration of HumanRights Other Texts Regional Human Rights Texts The European Convention on Human Rights The Americas The African Charter on Human and Peoples'Rights Asia More Duties? General Approach Potential Benefits of More Duties Avoiding Negative Effects of More Duties Concrete Proposals The Proposal of the InterAction Council The Text Evaluation The Proposal of Karel Vasak The Text Evaluation 440 C. Economic and Social Rights and the Right to Development : Present International Law Economic and Social Rights A Distinct Category of Rights Challenging the Categorization Positive and Negative Obligations Progressive or Immediate Realization Justiciability Recent Developments The Right to Development History and Legal Status Specifics of the Right to Development Subjects andjjuty-holders Substance Possible Changes Trade-offs Upgrading Economic and Social rights Balancing HumanRights Evaluations Strengthening Economic and Social Rights Developing the Normative Content of Economic and Social Rights 462 a) Types of Obligations 463 b) Core and Margin 464 c) Types of Violations 466

12 TABLE OF CONTENTS XV d) Responsibility, Victims, Response 468 e) Reformulation Improving Control over the Implementation of Economic and Social Rights 469 a) Indicators 469 b) Violations Upgrading the Right to Development Balancing Human Rights Evaluations Strengthening the Right to Development Developing the Normative Content of the Right to Development Improving Control over the Implementation of the Right to Development 474 D. Collective Human Rights Collective Rights in Present International Law "Nationalist" Collective Human Rights Other Collective Human Rights Perspectives from Inclusive Universality Basic Attitude Collective Rights as Human Rights Precautions Increasing Attention for Collective Human Rights More Collective Human Rights? Normative Development and Implementation Mechanism 492 IV. Conclusion on Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity 495 A. General Remarks 495 B. Flexibility 495 C. Transformation 501 D. Toward Operationalisation 506 GENERAL CONCLUSION 509 I. Two Central Problems 509 II. Deflating a Blown Up Debate 509 III. Promoting Inclusive Universality of Human Rights 511 IV. Disarming Mala Fide Critics 513 V. Suggestions for Further Research 514 BIBLIOGRAPHY 517 INDEX 561