A Brief History of Modern India Revised and Enlarged Edition

Transcription

1 A Brief History of Modern India 2018 Revised and Enlarged Edition

2 Editor s s Note Several books have been written by justly famous authors and historians of India s struggle for freedom which is the major strand in any consideration of the history of Modern India. But these volumes are extensive and in-depth studies, and often suffer from an overemphasis on one aspect at the cost of another. The present small effort, however, brings together various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of the Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British rule in India to the day India won independence and the early years of freedom) in a systematic and succinct manner: major and important details and milestones are effectively discussed while several relevant but little known details are also highlighted. It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has been considered; the disparate efforts small but significant of several groups have also been discussed. The political and socio-economic developments that have influenced the growth of modern India have been dealt with in independent chapters. The endeavour has been to present complex and truly vast material in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and we hope our readers find the book of use and interest. The present revised edition includes chapters on the advent of the Europeans in India and the British consolidation of power in India besides incorporating additional information under several chapters. There are also chapters on the challenges that a newly independent nation faced 2

3 in the wake of a brutal partition. The Nehruvian era is also briefly discussed. A new chapter on India after Nehru has been added that discusses various developments under the governments that came after A survey of personalities associated with various movements, peasant and tribal movements, tables and charts are also given for quick reference. Suggestions for improvement are welcome. Kalpana Rajaram July

4 CONTENTS Unit I SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1 Chapter 1 Sources for the History of Modern India 1 Archival Materials 2 Central Government Archives 2 Archives of the State Governments 3 Archives of Three Presidencies 4 Archives of Other European Powers 4 Judicial Records 5 Published Archives 5 Private Archives 6 Foreign Repositories 6 Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 7 Newspapers and Journals 8 Oral Evidence 10 Creative Literature 10 Painting 11 Summary 12 Chapter 2 13 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 13 Colonial Approach/ Historiography 14 Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 14 Marxist Historiography/ Approach 15 Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 16 Communalist Approach 17 Cambridge School 18 Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 18 Feminist Historiography 18 Summary 19 4

5 Unit II ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 21 CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA Chapter 3 Advent of the Europeans in India 21 The Portuguese in India 22 The Quest for and Discovery of a Sea Route to India 22 From Trading to Ruling 23 Portuguese State 28 Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 30 Decline of the Portuguese 32 Significance of the Portuguese 34 The Dutch 35 Dutch Settlements 36 Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 36 Decline of the Dutch in India 37 The English 37 Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 37 Progress of the English Company 38 The French 42 Foundation of French Centres in India 42 The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 44 Carnatic Wars Causes for the English Success and the 51 French Failure The Danes 53 Why the English Succeeded against 54 Other European Powers Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 54 Naval Superiority 54 Industrial Revolution 55 Military Skill and Discipline 55 5

6 Stable Government 55 Lesser Zeal for Religion 56 Use of Debt Market 56 Summary 56 Boxes Portuguese Rise and Fall 33 Formative Years of the East India Company 41 Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 47 About the Goods in Trade Initially 52 Chapter 4 India on the Eve of British Conquest 60 Challenges before the Mughals 60 External Challenges 60 Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb An 63 Internal Challenge Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 65 Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 66 Jagirdari Crisis 66 Rise of Regional Aspirations 69 Economic and Administrative Problems 70 Rise of Regional States 70 Survey of Regional Kingdoms 71 Nature and Limitations of Regional States 74 Socio-Economic Conditions 75 Agriculture 75 Trade and Industry 75 Status of Education 77 Societal Set-up 77 Development in Art, Architecture and Culture 79 Summary 80 Boxes Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 62 Causes of the Mughals Downfall in a Nutshell 69 6

7 Chapter 5 Expansion and Consolidation of British 82 Power in India The British Imperial History 82 Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? 82 When did the British Period Begin in India? 84 Causes of British Success in India 85 Superior Arms, Military and Strategy 85 Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 85 Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 86 Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second 86 Line Leaders Strong Financial Backup 86 Nationalist Pride 87 British Conquest of Bengal 87 Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 87 Alivardi Khan and the English 88 Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula 88 The Battle of Plassey 89 Mir Kasim and the Treaty of The Battle of Buxar 91 The Treaty of Allahabad 93 Dual Government in Bengal ( ) 94 Mysore s Resistance to the Company 95 The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 95 Rise of Haidar Ali 96 First Anglo-Mysore War ( ) 97 Second Anglo-Mysore War ( ) 97 Third Anglo-Mysore War 98 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 99 Mysore After Tipu 102 Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 102 Rise of the Marathas 102 Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 103 First Anglo-Maratha War ( ) 103 7

8 Second Anglo Maratha War ( ) 105 Third Anglo-Maratha War ( ) 107 Why the Marathas Lost 109 Conquest of Sindh 110 Rise of Talpuras Amirs 110 Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 111 Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 114 Conquest of Punjab 115 Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 115 Ranjit Singh and the English 117 Punjab After Ranjit Singh 117 First Anglo-Sikh War ( ) 118 Second Anglo-Sikh War ( ) 120 Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 121 Extension of British Paramountcy Through 121 Administrative Policy The Policy of Ring-Fence 122 Subsidiary Alliance 122 Doctrine of Lapse 126 Relations of British India with Neighbouring 127 Countries Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 127 Anglo-Nepalese Relations 128 Anglo-Burmese Relations 128 Anglo-Tibetan Relations 130 Anglo-Afghan Relations 131 John Lawrence and the Policy of 133 Masterly Inactivity Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 133 British India and the North-West Frontier 134 Summary 135 Boxes Robert Clive 93 Estimate of Tipu Sultan 100 Annexation of Awadh 127 8

9 Unit III RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 138 COMPANY RULE Chapter 6 People s Resistance Against British Before People s Resistance: Meaning 138 Genesis of People s Resistance 139 Causative Factors for People s Uprisings 140 Civil Uprisings 140 Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 140 General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 141 Important Civil Uprisings 141 Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 154 Tribal Revolts 156 Different Causes for Mainland and 156 North-Eastern Tribal Revolts Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 157 Important Tribal Movements of Mainland 158 Tribal Movements of the North-East 163 Sepoy Mutinies 165 Causes 165 Important Mutinies 165 Weaknesses of People s Uprisings 166 Summary 167 Boxes Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 161 North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 164 Region, Major Causes Chapter 7 The Revolt of Simmering Discontent 170 The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes 171 Economic Causes 171 Political Causes 172 9

10 Administrative Causes 173 Socio-Religious Causes 173 Influence of Outside Events 173 Discontent Among Sepoys 174 Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 175 The Spark 175 Starts at Meerut 175 Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 176 Civilians Join 176 Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 177 Suppression of the Revolt 180 Why the Revolt Failed 181 All-India participation was absent 181 All classes did not join 181 Poor Arms and Equipment 181 Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 181 No Unified Ideology 182 Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 182 Nature of the Revolt 183 Consequences 186 Significance of the Revolt 189 Summary 190 Box White Mutiny 188 Unit IV REFORM MOVEMENTS 192 Chapter 8 Socio-Religious Reform Movements: 192 General Features Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 192 Impact of British Rule 193 Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 193 Opposition to Western Culture 194 New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 194 Social and Ideological Bases of Reform

11 Middle Class Base 195 The Intellectual Criteria 196 Two Streams 197 Direction of Social Reform 198 Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 199 Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation 204 Summary 208 Chapter 9 A General Survey of Socio-Cultural 210 Reform Movements Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders 210 Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 210 Prarthana Samaj 216 Young Bengal Movement and 216 Henry Vivian Derozio Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 217 Balshastri Jambhekar 218 Paramahansa Mandali 219 Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba or Jyotirao Phule 219 Gopalhari Deshmukh Lokahitawadi 220 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 220 The Servants of India Society 220 Social Service League 221 The Ramakrishna Movement and 221 Swami Vivekananda Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 225 Seva Sadan 228 Dev Samaj 229 Dharma Sabha 229 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala 229 Radhaswami Movement 230 Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) 230 Movement Vokkaliga Sangha 231 Justice Movement

12 Self-Respect Movement 231 Temple Entry Movement 232 Indian Social Conference 232 Wahabi/Walliullah Movement 232 Titu Mir s Movement 233 Faraizi Movement 233 Ahmadiyya Movement 234 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement 234 The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) 236 Parsi Reform Movements 237 Sikh Reform Movements 238 The Theosophical Movement 238 Significance of Reform Movements 240 Positive Aspects 240 Negative Aspects 241 Summary 242 Unit V THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 244 Chapter 10 Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 244 Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism 244 Understanding of Contradictions in Indian 245 and Colonial Interests Political, Administrative and Economic 245 Unification of the Country Western Thought and Education 246 Role of Press and Literature 246 Rediscovery of India s Past 247 Progressive Character of Socio-religious 247 Reform Movements Rise of Middle Class Intelligentsia 247 Impact of Contemporary Movements 247 in the World Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance 248 of Rulers 12

13 Political Associations Before the Indian 248 National Congress Political Associations in Bengal 249 Political Associations in Bombay 250 Political Associations in Madras 250 Pre-Congress Campaigns 251 Summary 251 Chapter 11 Indian National Congress: Foundation and the 252 Moderate Phase Foundation of Indian National Congress 252 Was It a Safety Valve? 253 Aims and Objectives of the Congress 254 Era of Moderates ( ) 254 Important Leaders 254 Moderate Approach 254 Contributions of Moderate Nationalists 255 Economic Critique of British Imperialism 255 Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in 256 Legislature Campaign for General Administrative Reforms 258 Protection of Civil Rights 259 An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists 260 Role of Masses 260 Attitude of the Government 261 Summary 262 Box Indian Councils Act Unit VI NATIONAL MOVEMENT ( ) 263 Chapter 12 Era of Militant Nationalism ( ) 263 Growth of Militant Nationalism 263 Why Militant Nationalism Grew

14 The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement 267 Partition of Bengal to Divide People 267 Anti-Partition Campaign Under 268 Moderates ( ) The Congress s Position 269 The Movement under Extremist Leadership 270 The Extremist Programme 270 New Forms of Struggle and Impact 271 Extent of Mass Participation 274 All India Aspect 275 Annulment of Partition 275 Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement 276 The Movement Fizzles Out 276 Movement a Turning Point 276 The Surat Split 279 Run-up to Surat 279 Split Takes Place 281 Government Repression 281 The Government Strategy 282 Morley-Minto Reforms of The Reforms 284 Evaluation 285 Summary 286 Box Differences between Moderates and Extremists 278 Chapter 13 First Phase of Revolutionary Activities 289 ( ) Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities 289 The Revolutionary Programme 290 A Survey of Revolutionary Activities 290 Bengal 290 Maharashtra 293 Punjab 294 Revolutionary Activities Abroad

15 Decline 298 Summary 299 Chapter 14 First World War and Nationalist Response 301 Home Rule League Movement 302 Factors Leading to the Movement 302 The Leagues 303 The Home Rule League Programme 304 Government Attitude 305 Why the Agitation Faded Out by Positive Gains 306 Lucknow Session of the Indian 307 National Congress (1916) Readmission of Extremists to Congress 307 Lucknow Pact between Congress and 307 Muslim League Montagu s Statement of August Indian Objections 311 Summary 311 Unit VII ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS 312 ( ) Chapter 15 Emergence of Gandhi 312 Why Nationalist Resurgence Now 313 Post-War Economic Hardships 313 Expectations of Political Gains for Cooperation 313 in the War Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism 314 Worldwide Impact of Russian Revolution 314 (November 7, 1917) Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government 315 of India Act,

16 Main Features 315 Drawbacks 317 Congress s Reaction 318 Making of Gandhi 319 Early Career and Experiments with 319 Truth in South Africa Gandhi s Experience in South Africa 322 Gandhi s Technique of Satyagraha 322 Gandhi in India 323 Champaran Satyagraha (1917) First Civil 324 Disobedience Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) 325 First Hunger Strike Kheda Satyagraha (1918) First Non-Cooperation 326 Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda 327 Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 327 The Rowlatt Act 327 Satyagraha Against the Rowlatt Act 328 First Mass Strike Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) 329 The Hunter Committee of Inquiry 332 Congress View 334 Summary 335 Box Tolstoy Farm 321 Chapter 16 Non-Cooperation Movement and 336 Khilafat Aandolan Background 336 The Khilafat Issue 337 Development of the Khalifat-Non-Cooperation 338 Programme Congress Stand on Khilafat Question 338 Muslim League Support to Congress 339 The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement

17 Spread of the Movement 341 People s Response 342 Government Response 344 The Last Phase of the Movement 344 Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement 346 Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement 346 Summary 347 Chapter 17 Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, 348 Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces Swarajists and No-Changers 348 Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party 348 Swarajists Arguments 349 No-Changers Arguments 349 Agree to Disagree 349 The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 350 Gandhi s Attitude 350 Swarajist Activity in Councils 351 Constructive Work by No-Changers 353 Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, 354 Youth Power, Trade Unionism Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas 354 Activism of Indian Youth 355 Peasants Agitations 355 Growth of Trade Unionism 355 Caste Movements 356 Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards 356 Socialism Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s 356 Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity 356 after Non-Cooperation Movement Major Influences 357 In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar 358 In Bengal 360 Official Reaction

18 Ideological Rethinking 362 Summary 364 Chapter 18 Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 366 Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 366 Indian Response 367 Police Repression 369 Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission 369 on the National Movement The Simon Commission Recommendations 370 Nehru Report 371 Main Recommendations 371 The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses 372 Amendments Proposed by Jinnah 374 Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory 375 Summary 375 Box Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission 368 Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience Movement and Round 376 Table Conferences The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement 376 Calcutta Session of Congress 376 Political Activity during Irwin s Declaration (October 31, 1929) 377 Delhi Manifesto 378 Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj 378 January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge 380 Civil Disobedience Movement the Salt Satyagraha 381 and Other Upsurges Gandhi s Eleven Demands 381 Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme 381 Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930) 382 Spread of Salt Law Disobedience 383 Impact of Agitation

19 Extent of Mass Participation 388 Government Response Efforts for Truce 388 Gandhi-Irwin Pact 389 Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 390 Karachi Congress Session Congress Resolutions at Karachi 392 The Round Table Conferences 393 First Round Table Conference 393 Second Round Table Conference 395 Third Round Table Conference 398 Civil Disobedience Resumed 399 During Truce Period (March-December 1931) 399 Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC 399 Government Action 400 Popular Response 400 Communal Award and Poona Pact 401 Main Provisions of the Communal Award 402 Congress Stand 402 Gandhi s Response 403 Poona Pact 403 Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits 403 Gandhi s Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste 405 Ideological Differences and Similarities between 407 Gandhi and Ambedkar Summary 411 Chapter 20 Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil 413 Disobedience Movement The First Stage Debate 413 Nehru s Vision 414 Nehru s Opposition to Struggle- 415 Truce-Struggle Strategy Finally, Yes to Council Entry 415 Government of India Act, Main Features

20 Evaluation of the Act 419 Nationalists Response 420 The Second Stage Debate 420 Divided Opinion 421 Gandhi s Position 422 Congress Manifesto for Elections 422 Congress Performance 423 Summary 423 Chapter 21 Congress Rule in Provinces 424 Gandhi s Advice 424 Work under Congress Ministries 424 Civil Liberties 425 Agrarian Reforms 425 Attitude Towards Labour 426 Social Welfare Reforms 427 Evaluation 428 Summary 429 Unit VIII TOWARDS FREEDOM AND 430 PARTITION Chapter 22 Nationalist Response in the Wake of 430 World War II Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle 430 Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash 431 Bose s Views Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences 435 Non-Violence versus Militant Approach 436 Means and Ends 436 Form of Government 437 Militarism 440 Ideas on Economy 441 Religion

21 Caste and Untouchability 444 Women 445 Education 448 Second World War and Nationalistic Response 449 Congress Offer to Viceroy 449 CWC Meeting at Wardha 449 Government Attitude and Congress Ministries 451 Resignation Government s Hidden Agenda 451 August Offer 454 Responses 455 Evaluation 455 Individual Satyagraha 455 Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor 456 Cripps Mission 457 Why Cripps Mission was Sent 458 Main Proposals 458 Departures from the Past and Implications 458 Why Cripps Mission Failed 459 Summary 461 Chapter 23 Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, 463 and the INA Quit India Movement 463 Why Start a Struggle Now 463 The Quit India Resolution 464 Gandhi s General Instructions to 464 Different Sections Spread of the Movement 465 Extent of Mass Participation 467 Government Repression 468 Estimate 468 Gandhi Fasts 469 Famine of Rajagopalachari Formula

22 The Formula 470 Objections 470 Desai-Liaqat Pact 471 Wavell Plan 471 Why the Government was Keen on a Solution Now 471 The Plan 471 Muslim League s Stand 472 Congress Stand 472 Wavell s Mistake 472 The Indian National Army and Subhash Bose 473 Origin and First Phase of the Indian National 474 Army Summary 477 Chapter 24 Post-War National Scenario 479 Two Strands of National Upsurge 479 Why a Change in Government s Attitude 480 Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials 481 Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims 481 Congress Support for INA Prisoners 482 The INA Agitation A Landmark on 482 Many Counts Three Upsurges Winter of Three-Stage Pattern 483 Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the 485 Three Upsurges Congress Strategy 486 Election Results 487 Performance of the Congress 487 Muslim League s Performance 487 Significant Features of Elections 487 The Cabinet Mission 487 Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now 488 On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan 489 Cabinet Mission Arrives

23 Cabinet Mission Plan Main Points 490 Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause 492 Main Objections 492 Acceptance and Rejection 492 Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government 493 Changed Government Priorities 493 Interim Government 494 Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior 495 Motives of League Birth and Spread of Communalism in India 496 Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism 496 Reasons for Growth of Communalism 497 Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory 503 Summary 507 Box Wavell s Breakdown Plan 493 Chapter 25 Independence with Partition 510 Attlee s Statement of February 20, Main Points of Attlee s Statement 510 Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal 511 Congress Stand 511 Independence and Partition 511 Mountbatten as the Viceroy 512 Mountbatten Plan, June 3, Indian Independence Act 514 Problems of Early withdrawal 515 Integration of States 516 Inevitability of Partition 517 Why Congress Accepted Partition 517 Gandhi s Helplessness 519 Summary 519 Box Plan Balkan

24 Unit IX INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: 520 GOVERNANCE AND OTHER ASPECTS Chapter 26 Constitutional, Administrative and Judicial 520 Developments Constitutional Development between 1773 and The Regulating Act of Pitt s India Act of The Act of The Charter Act of The Charter Act of The Charter Act of The Charter Act of The Act for Better Government of India, Developments after 1858 till Independence 526 Indian Councils Act, Indian Councils Act, Indian Councils Act, Government of India Act, Simon Commission 530 Government of India Act, Evolution of Civil Services in India 533 Cornwallis Role 533 Wellesley s Role 533 Charter Act of Indian Civil Service Act, Statutory Civil Service 534 Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 535 Montford Reforms (1919) 535 Lee Commission (1924) 536 Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule 536 Evolution of Police System in Modern India 537 Military Under the British 539 Development of Judiciary in British India

25 Reforms under Warren Hastings ( ) 541 Reforms under Cornwallis ( ) 542 Separation of Powers Reforms under William Bentinck ( ) 543 Later Developments 543 Evaluation 543 Major Changes in Administrative Structure after Genesis of Administrative Changes: 544 New Stage of Colonialism Administration: Central, Provincial, Local 545 Central Government 545 Provincial Government 547 Local Bodies 548 Chapter 27 Survey of British Policies in India 553 Administrative Policies 553 Divide and Rule 553 Hostility Towards Educated Indians 553 Attitude Towards the Zamindars 554 Attitude Towards Social Reforms 554 Underdeveloped Social Services 554 Labour Legislations 555 Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 556 White Racism 557 British Social and Cultural Policy in India 557 Characteristics of New Thought 558 Schools of Thought 558 Indian Renaissance 559 Dilemma Before the Government 559 Role of Christian Missionaries 560 British Retreat 560 British Policy Towards Princely States 560 British Foreign Policy in India 561 Summary

26 Chapter 28 Economic Impact of British Rule in India 563 Deindustrialisation Ruin of Artisans and 563 Handicraftsmen One-Way Free Trade 563 No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation 564 Ruralisation 564 Impoverishment of Peasantry 565 Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, 566 Ruin of Old Zamindars Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture 566 Famine and Poverty 566 Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture 567 Destruction of Industry and Late Development 568 of Modern Industry Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy 570 British Policies Making India Poor 571 Growth of Trade and Railways to Help Britain 573 One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy 573 Effect of Economic Drain 574 Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest 574 Stages of Colonialism in India 575 First Stage 575 Second Stage 576 Third Stage 578 Summary 579 Box Economic Drain 571 Chapter 29 Development of Indian Press 580 Early Regulations 580 Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure Press Freedom 581 Vernacular Press Act, During and After the First World War 586 During the Second World War

27 Chapter 30 Development of Education 587 Under Company Rule 587 A Humble beginning by Charter Act of Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy 588 Lord Macaulay s Minute (1835) 589 Efforts of Thomson 589 Wood s Despatch (1854) 590 After the Crown Took Over 591 Hunter Education Commission ( ) 591 Indian Universities Act, Government Resolution on Education 593 Policy 1913 Saddler University Commission ( ) 593 Education Under Dyarchy 594 Hartog Committee (1929) 594 Sergeant Plan of Education 595 Development of Vernacular Education 596 Development of Technical Education 597 Evaluation of British Policy on Education 597 Box Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) 595 Chapter 31 Peasant Movements Peasantry Under Colonialism 599 A Survey of Early Peasant Movements 600 Indigo Revolt ( ) 600 Pabna Agrarian Leagues 601 Deccan Riots 601 Changed Nature of Peasant Movements after Weaknesses 603 Later Movements 603 The Kisan Sabha Movement 603 Eka Movement 604 Mappila Revolt

28 Bardoli Satyagraha 605 The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha 606 Under Congress Ministries 607 Peasant Activity in Provinces 607 During the War 608 Post-War Phase 608 Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements 610 Chapter 32 The Movement of the Working Class 611 Early Efforts 612 During Swadeshi Upsurge 612 During the First World War and After 613 The AITUC 613 The Trade Union Act, Late 1920s 614 Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 615 Under Congress Ministries 615 During and After the Second World War 616 After Independence 616 Unit X INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER 617 Chapter 33 Challenges Before the New-born Nation 617 First Day of Independent India 617 First Government After Independence 618 Radcliffe s Boundary Award and the Communal Riots 620 Challenges before the Boundary Commission 620 Regions Most Affected by Riots 621 Challenges Associated with Division of Resources 623 Division of Civil Government 623 Division of Finances 623 Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment 624 Assassination of Gandhi 624 Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees

29 East Punjab 626 Bengal 626 Delhi Pact on Minorities 627 Centres of Refugee Settlements in India 628 Communists and Independence 628 Why Communists were Skeptical about 629 Independence? Shift from Antagonistic Strategy to 629 Constitutional Democracy Chapter 34 The Indian States 631 I. The Company s Struggle for Equality from a Position of Subordination ( ) 631 II. Policy of Ring Fence ( ) 632 III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation ( ) 632 IV. Policy of Subordinate Union ( ) 633 Curzon s Approach 633 Post V. Policy of Equal Federation ( ): 635 A Non-Starter VI. Integration and Merger 635 Plebiscite and Army Action 636 Gradual Integration 637 Chapter 35 Making of the Constitution for India 638 Background 638 Constituent Assembly 641 Formation 641 Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 643 Evaluation of the Assembly for India 643 After Independence 644 Work : Committees and Consensus 645 Box Drafting Committee

30 Chapter 36 The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy to First World War: Anti-Imperialism 649 and Pan-Asian Feeling World War I s and 1930s Identifying with Socialists 650 After 1936 Anti-Fascism 651 After Independence 651 Panchsheel and Non-Alignment 652 Boxes Historical Perspective on Panchsheel 653 Five Criteria of Non-alignment 655 Chapter 37 First General Elections 657 Groundwork for the Elections 657 The Election Commission 657 Legislation for Polls 658 Independent India Goes to the Polls for the 659 First Time Challenges 659 Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha 661 Conduct of Elections 662 Results 663 Box First General Elections: Winners 663 Chapter 38 Developments under Nehru s Leadership ( ) 665 Political Developments 666 Debate Over National Language 666 Linguistic Reorganisation of the States 667 Growth of other Political Parties 669 An Undemocratic Deed 674 Concept of Planning for Economic Development 675 Progress of Science and Technology

31 Social Developments 678 Developments in Education 678 Social Change Under Nehru 678 Foreign Policy 679 Relations with Neighbours 680 India and Pakistan 680 India and China 681 India and Nepal 683 India and Bhutan 683 India and Sri Lanka 683 Chapter 39 After Nehru The Lal Bahadur Shastri Years (June 1964 January 1966) 684 Early Life 685 Political Journey after Independence 686 Economic Ideas 688 Foreign Relations 691 The Indo-Pak War 692 Shastri s Death 694 Indira Gandhi: the First Phase 696 (January 1966 to March 1977) 696 Early Life 696 Political Journey after Independence 697 Developments in the Political System 710 Socio-Economic Policies 719 Tackling Economic Problems 722 The Indo-Pak War of 1971 and the Birth of 726 Bangladesh Foreign Policy and Relations with other 733 Countries The Smiling Buddha 736 The Janata Party Years 737 (March 1977 January 1980) 737 Morarji Desai the First Non-Congress

32 Prime Minister Fresh State Assembly Elections 738 New President of India 739 Downslide of the Janata and Rise of 739 Congress (I) Charan Singh the Prime Minister who never 741 Faced Parliament Fresh Lok Sabha Elections and End of Janata 742 Party Rule Legacy of the Janata Rule 742 Social Changes and Movements 746 Indira Gandhi: the Second Phase 747 (January 1980 to October 1984) 747 Economy 747 Foreign Relations 748 Unrest in States 750 Punjab Turmoil and Operation Blue Star 751 Legacy 753 Boxes The Tashkent Declaration 695 Indira Gandhi and JP Both to be Blamed? 703 Text of the Simla Agreement 731 India s Man in Space 749 The Rajiv Years 754 (October 1984 to December 1989) 754 Problems at the Very Outset 754 The 1985 General Elections 757 Tackling the Tensions in States 758 Positive Steps taken on the Domestic Front 760 The Negative Side 763 Agrarian Unrest 767 Foreign Relations 767 General Elections of The V.P. Singh Years 772 (December 1989 to November 1990) 772 Kashmir Situation Worsens

33 Implementation of the Mandal Commission 773 Report Mandal to Mandir: the Rath Yatra and Fall 775 of the Government The Chandra Shekhar Government 776 (November 1990 to June 1991) 776 Troubled Economy 776 Elections of The Narasimha Rao Years 778 (June 1991 to May 1996) 778 Economic Reform 778 Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Acts 780 Handling Security Issues and Space Tech 781 Foreign Policy 781 Negative Aspects 782 Kashmir 785 General Elections of Rise of the Dalit Voice 786 Between 1996 and 1999: Three Prime Ministers 787 Vajpayee s Short-Lived Term as Prime Minister 787 United Front Government: Deve Gowda and 788 I.K. Gujral General Elections 790 NDA Years 790 (March 1998 to October 1999) 790 Pokhran II: Operation Shakti 791 The Lahore Summit 792 Kargil War 792 NDA: Second Stint 793 (October 1999 to May 2004) 793 Economic and Social Steps 793 Terrorist Trouble and Relations with Pakistan 794 Relations with US 795 Kashmir Elections 795 The Downside 795 Significance of NDA

34 2004 General Elections 796 The UPA Years 797 (May 2004 to May 2009; May 2009 to May 2014) 797 General Elections and a New NDA Government 801 APPENDICES 1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 803 Swadeshi Movement 803 Non-cooperation Movement 806 Civil Disobedience Movement 810 Quit India Movement Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 816 Significant Events in their Rule 3. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions Socio-Religious Reform Movements 829 (late 18th to mid-20th century) 5. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period Caste Movements Peasant Movements Newspapers and Journals