World Macroeconomic Overview

Transcription

1 World Macroeconomic Overview Erik Hurst V. Duane Rath Professor of Economics University of Chicago Booth School of Business September

2 Outline Part 1: A Primer on Economic Growth Part 2: Commodity Prices Part 3: Housing Markets Part 4: Inflation Part 5: U.S. Overview Part 6: European Overview 2

3 Part 1: A Primer on Economic Growth 3

4 Measuring Economic Growth Y = f(a, K, N, raw materials) Y = GDP f(.) = Some production function Inputs into production K N = capital stock (machines, buildings, production equipment, etc.) = labor force (number and quality of workers) A = Defined as Total Factor Productivity 4

5 Defining Total Factor Productivity Total Factor Productivity (TFP) is basically a catch all for anything that affects output other than K, N and raw materials Examples Innovation (including innovation in management practices) Competition Specialization Regulation Infrastructure Work week of labor and capital Quality of labor and capital Changes in discrimination or culture 5

6 Growth Accounting Output growth in a country comes from: Growth in TFP (see entrepreneurial ability, education, roads, technology, etc.) Growth in Capital (machines, equipment, plants) Growth in Hours (workforce, population, labor participation, etc). One can decompose output growth into the part determined by A, K, and N. Growth in output per worker (Y/N) is determined by A and (K/N). 6

7 What Causes Sustained Growth? Sustained increases in the growth of A are the only thing that can cause a sustained growth in output per person. Empirically, when a country exhibits faster Y/N growth.. 33% typically comes from growth in K/N 67% typically comes from growth in A (where N = employment (not hours) - limited data). 7

8 Growth Across Countries Most developed economies grow at the same rate that the technological frontier grows. Some helpful definitions: Convergence countries inside of the technological frontier move towards the technological frontier. Divergence countries inside of the technological frontier grow at a rate less than the technological frontier. 8

9 Distribution of World GDP in 2014 (IMF, $) 9

10 Distribution of World GDP in 2014 (IMF, $) Top 10 Other Notable Bottom 10 Qatar 143,427 Lithuania 27,051 Madagascar 1,437 Luxembourg 92,049 Russia 24,805 Guinea 1,313 Singapore 82,726 Chile 22,971 Eritrea 1,195 Brunei 73,233 Turkey 19,610 Mozambique 1,174 Kuwait 71,020 Venezuela 17,695 Niger 1,048 Norway 66,937 Brazil 16,096 Burundi 911 UAE 64,479 South Africa 13,046 Liberia 882 Switzerland 58,087 China 12,880 Malawi 780 Hong Kong 54,722 Ukraine 8,668 Congo 704 USA 54,597 India 5,855 Cent. Afric. Repub

11 Some Data: Distribution of World GDP in 2000 From Barro, 2003 includes 147 countries. Horizontal axis is a log scale. All data are in 1995 U.S. dollars. 11

12 Some Data: Distribution of World GDP in 1960 From Barro, 2003 includes 113 countries. Horizontal axis is a log scale. All data are in 1995 U.S. dollars. 12

13 Growth Rate of GDP Per Capita: From Barro, 2003 includes 111 countries. 13

14 Convergence of Income Across U.S. States: Historical Trends in Convergence Unadjusted Growth in Per Capita Income MS ARAL ND SD KY OK NC GA NM KS NE TN SC LA TX UT CO ID IA MO WV VA AZMNWI IN FL WY VT NH ME MT OR WA OH PA MI MD IL RI MA CA NJ NYNV CT DE Per Capita Income 1940 Fitted values gr_ipc_40_60 14

15 From Sosa et al. (2013), IMF Working Paper 15

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24 Source of GDP Growth Latin America Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay. Bolivia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Venezuela Emerging Asia Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and China Advanced Exporters Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Norway. From Sosa et al. (2013), IMF Report 24

25 TFP Growth Barbados (BRB), Bolivia (BOL), Brazil (BRA), Chile (CHL), Columbia (Col), Costa Rica (CRI), Dominican Republic (DOM), Ecuador (ECU), El Salvador (SLV), Honduras (HND), Jamaica (JAM), Mexico (MEX), Nicaragua (NIC), Panama (PAN), Paraguay (PRY), Peru (PER), Trinidad and Tobago (TTO), Uruguay (URY), and Venezuela (VEN). 25

26 Drivers of Latin American Growth Very little comes from TFP growth slightly more during the 2000s but, small in comparison to the Asian economies. Hard to get sustainable growth without TFP growth Large increase in labor (decline in unemployment) driving the bulk of the growth. Good for standards of livings but, hard to get sustainable growth from just increasing N. 26

27 Source of GDP Growth: Labor Component Latin America 6 Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Mexico, Peru, and Uruguay. Other South American - Bolivia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Venezuela Central America Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama Caribbean Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. From Sosa et al. (2013), IMF Report 27

28 Outstanding Questions: Part 1 Why is Latin American growth slowing in recent years? Why was the growth during the boom years ( ) occurring without strong TFP growth? 28

29 Part 2: Understanding Commodity Markets 29

30 What I Will Do Show trends in world commodity prices. Overview of commodity prices and macroeconomic activity. Discuss the importance of commodities for U.S. and Latin American economies. Discuss Dutch Disease and implications to commodity based economies. Forecast role of commodity price stabilization on U.S. and Latin American economies. 30

31 Importance of Commodity Sector to Latin American Economies Many popular press articles concerned about Latin American dependence on commodity prices The Economist (9/9/2010) Commodities alone are not enough to sustain flourishing economies During the 2000 s, 52 percent of regions exports are commodities (World Bank). Chile, Peru, and Venezuela still rely on raw materials for three-quarters of their exports. Estimates suggest that one-third to one-half of regions growth during the 2000s can be attributed to higher demand for commodities. 31

32 Tax Revenues From Natural Resources Taken from economist magazine 32

33 Trends in Composite Commodity Prices Over Time (IMF) 33

34 Trends in Non-Fuel Commodity Prices Over Time (IMF) 34

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36 What Drove the Commodity Price Boom? Chinese and Indian growth Massively large countries grew fast. o o o Increased demand for commodities and energy As those countries converge to the technological frontier, economic growth will moderate. As it does, so will their commodity demand. Additionally, they will start to mine their own commodities (seeing this already in resource rich China). 36

37 Commodity Price Forecasts (IMF) 37

38 Commodity Price Forecasts (IMF) 38

39 Commodity Price Forecasts (IMF) 39

40 Share of Commodity Exports: Selected LAC 2014 (IMF) 40

41 Is Commodity Growth Related to GDP Growth in Latin America? IMF Report NCPI is natural resource production index 41

42 Is Commodity Growth Related to GDP Growth in Latin America? 42

43 Concerns About Commodity Price Reliance Volatility (commodity prices are volatile) Dutch Disease referred to the North Sea s gas boom in the mid-1970s on the economy of the Netherlands. o o Commodity prices drive value of the currency making other parts of the economy less competitive. Increases reliance on commodity sector. I expand the definition to refer to anything that draws resources towards one sector and away from another sector. Many non-agricultural commodities are not renewable. When they are gone, they are gone. Short run supply restrictions on commodity extractions yields large rents that are often expropriated by government (often leading to corruption). 43

44 Commodity Price Boom and Low TFP Growth As commodity prices grow, incentive of commodity rich countries to focus on extraction. The relative monopoly of the commodity exporters creates rents. There is not as much incentive to increase efficiency given the excess rents to the economy. Can result in large growth in output (and employment) without a corresponding increase in TFP. If the resource boom is temporary, can have lasting effects on a countries growth prospects! A similar story can be told for effects of housing boom in U.S., Spain, etc. 44

45 Summary: Part 1 Weakening commodity demand is putting a strain on Latin American economies. Most important for high commodity producing countries that did not have high TFP growth during the 2000s. Latin American countries that export commodities dependent on world demand (which drives commodity price variation). o o China/India/Emerging Market growth U.S. growth (given proximity) Need to discuss Chinese and American growth to get a full picture of risks to Latin American economies. 45

46 Energy Boom in U.S. How has the U.S. responded to energy price boom? Potential spill over to Latin American Economies 46

47 U.S. Energy Production Over Time (IMF) 47

48 U.S. Energy Production Over Time (IMF) 48

49 U.S. Crude Imports Over Time (IMF) 49

50 Will A Strong U.S. Spur Latin American Growth? IMF Report Model Projection 50

51 Part 3: Understanding Housing Markets 51

52 What I Will Do Show recent data on property price movements in Latin America relative to the rest of the world. Establish three facts about the nature of housing prices. Provide a simple model to understand housing price dynamics. Forecast housing prices out for the U.S., China and Latin American (broadly). Discuss potential housing price collapse on Chinese economy. 52

53 Real House Price Growth (Post Global Recession) Country House Price Growth (Percent) Brazil 45.5 Britain -4.9 Canada 7.3 China -3.3 Germany 13.6 Ireland Japan -6.0 South Africa -6.4 Spain

54 Source: BIS Monetary and Economic Department 54

55 Source: BIS Monetary and Economic Department 55

56 Real House Price Index (2005Q1 = 100) Source: BIS Monetary and Economic Department 56

57 Three Facts About Housing Prices in Developed Countries 1. Long run house price appreciation averages 0 2 percent real per year. 2. Housing prices cycle (big booms are followed by big busts) 3. Supply and demand pin down house prices. Caveat gentrification can lead to sustained house prices over time. What is gentrification? Is it more likely to occur in developing economies? 57

58 Average Annual Real Price Growth By US State State State AK MT AL NC AR ND AZ NE CA NH CO NJ CT NM DC NV DE NY FL OH GA OK HI OR IA PA ID RI IL SC IN SD Average

59 Average Annual Real Price Growth By US State State State AK MT AL NC AR ND AZ NE CA NH CO NJ CT NM DC NV DE NY FL OH GA OK HI OR IA PA ID RI IL SC IN SD Average

60 Average Annual Real Price Growth By US State State State AK MT AL NC AR ND AZ NE CA NH CO NJ CT NM DC NV DE NY FL OH GA OK HI OR IA PA ID RI IL SC IN SD Average

61 Average Annual Real Price Growth By US State State State AK MT AL NC AR ND AZ NE CA NH CO NJ CT NM DC NV DE NY FL OH GA OK HI OR IA PA ID RI IL SC IN SD Average

62 Inflation Adjusted Housing Price Growth in the U.S

63 Housing Market: New York

64 Typical Local Cycle: California

65 Typical Local Cycle: Nevada

66 Average Annual Real Price Growth Across Countries State Belgium Canada Germany Denmark Spain Finland France UK Ireland Italy Japan Luxembourg Norway Sweden S. Africa USA Average

67 :Q1 1977:Q1 1978:Q1 1979:Q1 1980:Q1 1981:Q1 1982:Q1 1983:Q1 1984:Q1 1985:Q1 1986:Q1 1987:Q1 1988:Q1 1989:Q1 1990:Q1 1991:Q1 1992:Q1 1993:Q1 1994:Q1 1995:Q1 1996:Q1 1997:Q1 1998:Q1 1999:Q1 2000:Q1 2001:Q1 2002:Q1 2003:Q1 2004:Q1 2005:Q1 2006:Q1 2007:Q1 2008:Q1 2009:Q1 2010:Q1 2011:Q1 2012:Q1 2013:Q1 2014:Q1 Real House Price Growth in Spain (Annual Appreciation)

68 :Q1 1977:Q1 1978:Q1 1979:Q1 1980:Q1 1981:Q1 1982:Q1 1983:Q1 1984:Q1 1985:Q1 1986:Q1 1987:Q1 1988:Q1 1989:Q1 1990:Q1 1991:Q1 1992:Q1 1993:Q1 1994:Q1 1995:Q1 1996:Q1 1997:Q1 1998:Q1 1999:Q1 2000:Q1 2001:Q1 2002:Q1 2003:Q1 2004:Q1 2005:Q1 2006:Q1 2007:Q1 2008:Q1 2009:Q1 2010:Q1 2011:Q1 2012:Q1 2013:Q1 2014:Q1 Real House Price Growth in Ireland (Annual Appreciation)

69 :Q1 1977:Q1 1978:Q1 1979:Q1 1980:Q1 1981:Q1 1982:Q1 1983:Q1 1984:Q1 1985:Q1 1986:Q1 1987:Q1 1988:Q1 1989:Q1 1990:Q1 1991:Q1 1992:Q1 1993:Q1 1994:Q1 1995:Q1 1996:Q1 1997:Q1 1998:Q1 1999:Q1 2000:Q1 2001:Q1 2002:Q1 2003:Q1 2004:Q1 2005:Q1 2006:Q1 2007:Q1 2008:Q1 2009:Q1 2010:Q1 2011:Q1 2012:Q1 2013:Q1 2014:Q1 Real House Price Growth in Japan (Annual Appreciation)

70 :Q1 1977:Q1 1978:Q1 1979:Q1 1980:Q1 1981:Q1 1982:Q1 1983:Q1 1984:Q1 1985:Q1 1986:Q1 1987:Q1 1988:Q1 1989:Q1 1990:Q1 1991:Q1 1992:Q1 1993:Q1 1994:Q1 1995:Q1 1996:Q1 1997:Q1 1998:Q1 1999:Q1 2000:Q1 2001:Q1 2002:Q1 2003:Q1 2004:Q1 2005:Q1 2006:Q1 2007:Q1 2008:Q1 2009:Q1 2010:Q1 2011:Q1 2012:Q1 2013:Q1 2014:Q1 Real House Price Index in South Korea

71 Equilibrium in Housing Markets Fixed Supply P H Demand Q H 71

72 Equilibrium in Housing Markets Fixed Supply P H P H Demand Q H 72

73 Equilibrium in Housing Markets Fixed Supply P H P H Supply Eventually Adjusts P H Demand Q H 73

74 How Does Supply Adjust? Build on Vacant Land Convert Rental or Commercial Property Build Up Build Out (Suburbs) Build Way Out (Create New Cities) Some of these adjustments can take consider amounts of time. Caveat: Gentrification/Agglomeration can lead to sustained increases in house prices. 74

75 Supply and demand forces. Why Do House Prices Cycle? When demand increases (increasing prices), supply eventually adjusts (build more houses). The increase in housing supply moderates price growth. Housing supply in the long run is very elastic (convert old properties, build on vacant land, create new cities, etc.). 75

76 U.S Quarterly Housing Starts (in 1,000s) 76

77 Housing Prices in China o o o o o China house prices have growth has been massive during the 2000s (e.g., ~500% in Beijing, ~350% in Shanghai, and 200% in mid-sized cities) Is housing price boom in China a bubble? Some academics/officials say no bubble. Income growth was also high. Income growth and housing growth have been tracking each other (although housing growth is slightly higher). As seen above, it is hard for economic theory to predict a tight relationship between housing price growth and income growth (because supply can adjust). Empirically, no relationship between house price growth and income growth.

78 House Price Growth in China (Fang et al, 2015)

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85 1975:Q1 1976:Q2 1977:Q3 1978:Q4 1980:Q1 1981:Q2 1982:Q3 1983:Q4 1985:Q1 1986:Q2 1987:Q3 1988:Q4 1990:Q1 1991:Q2 1992:Q3 1993:Q4 1995:Q1 1996:Q2 1997:Q3 1998:Q4 2000:Q1 2001:Q2 2002:Q3 2003:Q4 2005:Q1 2006:Q2 2007:Q3 2008:Q4 2010:Q1 2011:Q2 2012:Q3 2013:Q Real House Price Index vs Real Per Capita Inc. Index: Croatia (2005= 100) Real House Price Growth : 8% Real Per Capita Income Growth : 257% 85

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87 What is Driving Property Price Boom in China? How much of the increase in Chinese housing demand during last decade is due to lack of alternate investment options? Antidotal evidence that housing is a preferred investment vehicle in China given low returns on bank accounts and restricted access to equity markets. Some evidence that foreign Chinese investors have propped up housing prices in London, Vancouver, and Toronto. Little formal analysis on this topic.

88 Data on Multiple Ownership of Residential Property Data from China s Urban Household Survey Analyzed data for Liaoning, Shanghai, Guangdong, and Sichuan Fraction of households (by income category) who own 1 or 2 houses. Number of Homes (All Homeowners) Year = Liaoning Shanghai Guangdong Sichuan

89 Data on Multiple Ownership of Residential Property Data from China s Urban Household Survey Analyzed data for Liaoning, Shanghai, Guangdong, and Sichuan Fraction of households (by income category) who own 1 or 2 houses. Shanghai Guangdong Sichuan Income Quartile 1 house 2 house 1 house 2 house 1 house 2 house Bottom Second Third Top

90 Housing Supply Growth in Chinese Cities Deng et al. (2015), NYU working paper

91 Unsold Housing Inventories in Chinese Cities Deng et al. (2015), NYU working paper

92 Vacancy Rate in Chinese Cities Deng et al. (2015), NYU working paper

93 House Prices and The Macroeconomy o Three channels of house prices on economic activity o Building channel (high housing demand creates jobs in construction sector). o Wealth channel (high house prices can drive spending because people feel wealthier or because they tap into home equity). o Bank channel (falling house prices could cause defaults which causes banks to lose money effects aggregate lending). o c Lower leverage in Latin America limits the latter channel (bank losses ould be less from a property price decline).

94 House Price Forecast: U.S. o Housing prices have for the most part - stabilizing in nominal terms. o We should expect annual real housing price growth of somewhere in the range of 0% to 3% nominal in the medium run. o Housing market will not be rebounding toward 2006 levels anytime soon. - Have a glut of existing supply - No reason to expect a large housing demand shock

95 House Price Forecast: Latin America o Fair amount of heterogeneity across o Olympics should prop up prices in medium run in Brazil (demand is high, increased construction costs, etc.) o Need to separately analyze both demand factors (credit constraints, commodity price demand) and supply factors (building regulations, construction costs). o Will land prices permanently increase because of gentrification (lower crime, better schools, lower pollution, etc.)? o Are prices over-inflated?

96 House Price Forecast: China o I believe housing prices to be over-inflated. o Prices are starting to fall in the last year (slightly) o Demand is propped up housing being treated as an investment vehicle. o Financial liberalization may cause a housing price collapse. o Will the stock market collapse spill over to the housing market? - Stocks have plummeted during the last two months (25 percent decline) o Will the housing price collapse effect the overall economy?

97 Risks to the Chinese Economy o Stocks still up on the year but, stock wealth makes up only 6% of household wealth. Stock issuance only funds 5% of firm investment (the rest is financed by bank lending). o As a result, stock market decline may not have big effect on domestic spending. o Growth in output has been slowing prior to the stock market declines. o Banks are lending encouraged by the government. This will prop up firm investment/consumer spending. Will it spur inflation? o Is a financial crises in China looming?

98 Part 4: The Anemic U.S. Labor Market 98

99 Unemployment Rate: 1970M1 2015M4 99

100 How is Unemployment Measured? Standardized Definition of the Unemployment Rate: Unemployed = jobless but looking for a job Labor Force = #Employed + #Unemployed Unemployment Rate = (# Unemployed) / (Labor Force) This is the definition used in most countries, including the U.S. U.S. data: U.S. measurement details: Issues: Discouraged Workers, Underemployed, Measurement Issues 100

101 Components of Unemployment Flow of people into the unemployment pool o Flow into unemployment from employment (job loss) o Flow into unemployment from out of labor force (stop being discouraged) Flow of people out of the unemployment pool o Flow out of unemployment into employment (job finding) o Flow out of unemployment out of labor force (discouraged workers) 101

102 Employment to Population Rate: Men 102

103 Employment to Population Rate: Women 103

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108 Types of Unemployment Frictional Unemployment: Result of Matching Behavior between Firms and Workers. Structural Unemployment: Result of Mismatch of Skills and Employer Needs Cyclical Unemployment: Result of output being below full-employment. Individuals have the desire to work and the skills to work, yet cannot find a job. Is Zero Unemployment a Reasonable Policy Goal? No. Frictional and Structural Unemployment may be desirable (unavoidable). 108

109 Why is the Distinction Important? How much of the current low employment is structural vs. cyclical? This is a current debate among policy makers (and a question I am trying to answer in my own research) Why could there be structural non-employment? o Some industries boomed inefficiently during the early 2000s (construction) and need to retrench. The jobs being created now are not in those industries (where unemployment is high). o Some industries were in secular decline during the 2000s (manufacturing). The jobs being created now are not in those industries. o Workers in manufacturing and construction need to be reallocated to other sectors. 109

110 My Current Research Big decline in manufacturing employment during the early 2000s. This depresses wages and employment of non-college individuals. Housing boom during the early 2000s lifted the employment and wages of lower skilled individuals (by propping up construction and housing related services). Housing boom masked the structural decline in manufacturing. The manufacturing decline is permanent while the housing boom was temporary. This is the focus of a series of new papers I have with (with Kerwin Charles and Matt Notowidigdo). Preview some background patterns first. Then I will talk about the identification of this mechanism. Summary: Both housing and manufacturing had a significant effect on labor markets during the last 15 years within the U.S.

111 ~1 Million Jobs Lost During 1980s and 1990s

112 ~1 Million Jobs Lost During 1980s and 1990s ~4 Million Jobs Lost Between (Housing Boom Years)

113 ~1 Million Jobs Lost During 1980s and 1990s ~4 Million Jobs Lost Between (Housing Boom Years) ~1 Million Jobs Lost After 2007

114 U.S. Employment Trends for Non-College Men (age 21-55) Manufacturing + Construction Manufacturing Construction

115 U.S. Employment Trends for Non-College Women (age 21-55) Manufacturing + Construction Manufacturing Construction

116 Part 5: Housing Boom and Educational Attainment 116

117 Propensity to Have At Least One Year of College (Age: 18-29)

118 Propensity to Have At Least One Year of College (Age: 18-29)

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120 Did Housing Boom Delay College Attendance? Use same local labor market design to answer this question. The answer is YES! Places that had large housing booms had a large reduction in the propensity to attend at least one year of college. o o Nearly all the action was on two year colleges (community colleges, technical schools, trade schools, etc.). Found effects for both men and women. During the bust, this trend reversed (but, not completely). Estimates can explain about 50% of the time series change for both men and women.

121 Conclusions 1. Structural shifts are having real effects on the economy during the 2000s. o o o About 40% of increase in non-employment during 2000s can be attributed to the decline in manufacturing. Most of this effect occurred along the out of the labor force margin and not the unemployment margin. Manufacturing (inclusive of the part masked by housing boom) explain about 35% of increase during the recession. 2. Labor market was weaker in the period than we thought. o o o Housing boom masked deterioration of U.S. labor market period marked by secular decline in one sector and a temporary boom in another sector. Implication: 2007 may not be a good benchmark to evaluate cyclical changes in economic variables of interest.

122 Conclusions 3. The net effect of housing booms/busts on labor markets was smaller over the entire decade. o The bust reduced employment but the boom raised employed 4. Housing boom deterred college attainment during period. o Housing boom distorted human capital in addition to physical capital. 5. Broader implications what happens when you have cyclical booms/busts in one sector and persistent declines in another sector. o o Not saying housing is important, per se (it was just the boom/bust during this decade). Real focus is on the manufacturing decline.

123 Part 6: Some Thoughts on Inequality 123

124 Inequality Mania Recent empirical work showing inequality is increasing: o o o o Income inequality (Kevin Murphy, Larry Katz, Emmanuel Saez, Thomas Piketty, Ed Glaeser). Consumption Inequality (Steve Davis, Me) Employment Inequality (Kevin Murphy, Bob Topel, Me) Wealth Inequality (Thomas Piketty, Emmanuel Saez) What are the causes of increased inequality? Is increased inequality detrimental to a society? 124

125 Thomas Piketty Capital in the Twenty First Century Book: Capital in the Twenty First Century - Worldwide best seller. Documents wealth inequality increases around the developed world. Claim: economic conditions are such that eventually most wealth will be concentrated in the hands of the rich. o Forces will continue to make inequality grow. o Reason: rate of return on capital > income growth (i.e., r > g) Policy prescription: Tax wealth In my class, walk through all the assumptions needed for Piketty s conclusions. Some of the assumptions are unrealistic. 125

126 U.S. Income Inequality: Top 10% Kuznet s Curve 126

127 Cross-Country Income Inequality: Top 1% 127

128 U.S. Wealth Inequality 128

129 Inequality Thoughts Are there benefits to income inequality? In human capital models, unequal returns to skill are necessary to induce people to invest in human capital. The widening inequality in earnings and the buoyant demand for skilled workers also indirectly encourages greater growth in the economy by increasing the incentives for young people to invest in themselves. Gary Becker, The Economics of Life 129

130 Inequality Thoughts Is income inequality detrimental to society? The economic literature has focused on documenting trends in inequality and modeling the determinants of income inequality. However, the consequences of inequality are relatively understudied due to some challenges in research design. How do we think about: o The health of societies that are unequal? o Intergenerational mobility? o Income segregation (do poor and rich people choose to live next to each other)? o Political participation (who votes? who gives money to candidates?)? 130

131 Part 7: The Sustainability of Europe 131

132 European GDP Growth Rate

133 European GDP Growth Rate

134 Will Eurozone Last? o How do currency unions deal with regional heterogeneity? o o o o o Devaluation of local currency (only possible if currency union dissolves). Regional migration - very little population migration in Europe (language barriers). Inter-Region transfers this is the policy currently being pursued. Inflation in the relatively strong countries (makes weak countries exports cheaper). Wage/Budget cuts in the relatively weak countries (politically hard to implement).

135 Why is the U.S. a good currency union? o How do currency unions deal with regional heterogeneity? o o Devaluation of local currency (only possible if currency union dissolves). Regional migration o Inter-Region transfers o o Inflation in the relatively strong countries (makes weak countries exports cheaper). Wage/Budget cuts in the relatively weak countries (politically hard to implement).

136 U.S. Inter-Region Transfers: Average State Yearly Net Transfer (% GDP) State Yearly Net Transfer (% GDP) Delaware 10.3 Hawaii -6.7 Minnesota 10.0 Virginia -7.3 New Jersey 7.5 Alaska -7.5 Illinois 5.6 Maryland/DC -7.5 Connecticut 5.3 Maine -7.6 New York 4.4 North Dakota -7.7 Ohio 3.3 Montana -9.2 Michigan 2.7 West Virginia Nebraska 2.6 Mississippi Massachusetts 2.1 New Mexico From Economist: 8/1/2011

137 Some Concluding Topics (if time allows) o Monetary Policy in the U.S. Interest Rate Policy Going Forward? o U.S. inflationary pressures? o Greek exit?

138 Questions 138