Chapter 1. Study framework: problem, purpose and methodology. Introduction

Transcription

1 1 Chapter 1 Study framework: problem, purpose and methodology Introduction Peace and security are indispensable for social and economic development. Maintaining peace, security and stability in the 21 st century, continues to remain a vital challenge for the international community including key multilateral organisations such as the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU) and the African Union (AU). It is a fact that conflict and violence weaken economic development of countries and threaten human rights, democratic values and fundamental freedoms (Council of the European Union, 2003a: Internet Source). Therefore, the international community has important responsibilities to maintain peace, security and stability in troubled areas. Particularly, the Preamble and Chapters VI and VII of the UN Charter emphasise that one of the most important functions of the UN is to preserve international peace and security. With the end of the Cold War, international society got actively involved in promoting peace and stability worldwide (Stan, 2004:3). Sixty-one peacekeeping operations have been initiated by the UN Security Council since 1948 and the UN Security Council has authorised forty-eight peacekeeping operations since 1990 (United Nations, 2008b: Internet Source). The major goal of these peacekeeping operations is to ensure peace, security and stability at the global and regional level (Yishan, 2006: Internet Source). More importantly, the end of the Cold War caused global and continental changes on the world stage. Particularly, it brought opportunities for the EU to reduce regional security threats, resolve issues of economic and political instability and border problems, as well as establishing a common security umbrella. Therefore, the security strategy of the EU began to change with the end of the Cold War. Significantly, Europe has made progress to establish a common European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) to play a more active role in conflict prevention and crisis management since the end of the Cold War. The goal

2 2 of the ESDP of the EU is to shoulder more global responsibilities in the field of conflict prevention, increase an effective multilateralism between the member states of the EU, and to keep peace, security and stability in the world. The other important aim of the ESDP is to become an autonomous international player in building peace and stability (Acikmese, 2004:123). The EU has played strategic roles in terms of the peace and stability in Europe and in the world so far. Its role in the conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo, the participation as an observer to the Russian elections in 1996, the role in South Africa for the democratic process, the role in the Middle East peace process, the role in Gulf crisis and the role in Darfur, Somalia and the conflict regions in Africa are prime examples of the increasing role of the EU in conflict prevention, management and resolution (Gnesotto, 2004:52-53). The EU is an international player which has economic potential worldwide, and is also the largest provider of development aid in the world. Indeed, its power and influence come from its economic strength. Although the EU is an economic giant, it is not assumed that there is a common security and defence policy between the members of the EU. Traditionally, each member has differences that are defined by its own history, geography and foreign interests. For example, with the war in Kosovo in 1999, the Cologne and Helsinki European Council endeavoured to establish the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) for the EU, but the Security and Defence Policy of the EU has not changed, only the reform of the CFSP was accelerated (Jones, 2001: ). Furthermore, the conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo demonstrated that the EU has large deficiencies in its capacity to stop conflicts and violence in particular, with regard to the establishment of an effective crisis management and crisis resolution mechanism. It can be said that even though the EU has some shortfalls in conflict prevention, it has contributed to international peace and security (Jones, 2001: ). The AU as a regional power is also engaged in promoting peace, security and stability on the continent. It accepted "The Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union" in July The Protocol proclaims that the AU has a primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security and in particular, in promotion and maintenance of peace, security and stability on the continent.

3 3 In addition, the protocol emphasises that promotion and maintenance of peace, security and stability are essential for strong economic and democratic development on the continent (African Union, 2002a: Internet Source). More importantly, the AU established the Peace and Security Council (PSC) in Durban in July 2002 in order to promote conditions of peace and security in Africa. At present, the AU has two prominent pillars to generate peace and security on the continent. They are the PSC Protocol and the Common African Defence and Security Policy (CADSP). The major functions of the PSC of the African Union are to promote peace, security and stability; prevent conflicts; promote peace-building and post-conflict reconstruction activities and develop a common defence policy for the Union (African Union, 2002a: Internet Source). In recent years, the AU has played a central role to prevent conflicts and violence but holistically, the AU faces challenges that weaken its conflict prevention management. So far, it has led some peacekeeping operations including in Burundi, Sudan and Somalia. However, its logistical and financial constraints undermine its peacekeeping missions in Africa. Sharamo (2006:50-54) stated that the AU has glaring shortfalls in conflict prevention, management and resolution. They are as follows: 1. The AU is a young and inexperienced institution; 2. It has serious financial and logistical problems which are major obstacles for the AU in order to prevent violent conflicts; 3. The member states of the AU do not seem to be sincere in finding solutions to African problems; 4. The interests of international actors dominate the security policy of the AU. In conclusion, both the AU and the EU have been involved in peace and security in Africa and strengthened their conflict prevention and resolution mechanisms. Moreover, the AU and EU have increased their cooperation in the areas of peace and security. Keeping peace and security has been the major concern of the AU and the EU in recent years. Both the organisations believe that conflicts paralyse not only Africa's interests but also Europe's interests. For this reason, the EU has conducted some peacekeeping operations in Africa including the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Central African Republic (CAR) and Chad. Even though the AU was established in 2002, it also makes efforts to maintain

4 4 peace and stability on the continent (Tardy, 2006:3). It can be said that establishing a strong cooperation between the AU and the EU in the fields of conflict prevention and resolution is necessary to prevent conflicts and violence and to sustain peace and stability in Africa The concept of peacekeeping and peacemaking Diehl, Druckman and Wall (1998:33) alleged that the scope of international peacekeeping has undergone dramatic changes. Eyre (2003:25) maintained that international peacekeeping was used during the Cold War era by the international community to sustain peace and security. During this era, peacekeeping operations were simple and unidimensional. However, after the Cold War its face changed to one of multidimensionality. According to the definition given by the UN, peacekeeping is an initiative for maintaining peace, security and stability in belligerent and precarious countries or parties (United Nations, 2006a: Internet Source). De Coning (2001:17) contended that peacekeeping is a way to control the implementation of peace agreements or cease-fires for prevention of violent conflicts after gaining permission of precarious and torn groups. Ojanen (2006:48) asserted that today, the definition of peacekeeping is unclear. On the other hand, the scope of peacekeeping has widened from prevention of violent conflicts to humanitarian relief, security and health fields. Peacekeeping operations comprise three important objectives: to keep peace, security and stability; to construct development and democracy for the longterm, and to help the transition from conflict and violence to a durable peace. There are some essential conditions of a successful peacekeeping operation. For example, O Dwyer (2003: Internet Source) stated that a successful peacekeeping operation has four pillars: diplomatic, economic, humanitarian, and military actions. During the peacekeeping operation, these pillars are used strategically. Its aim is not only to keep peace and security but a successful peacekeeping operation also aims to sustain durable peace in the long-term and restore the economy after conflict. According to the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) (2008: Internet Source), the conditions of successful peacekeeping operations (PKOs) are as follows:

5 5 1. The use of diplomatic, economic and military resources effectively and efficiently at the right time and at the right place, 2. A good infrastructure for communication, intelligence service and personnel training. Peacemaking is also used as an important component of the peacekeeping mechanism. It is the process of making a cease-fire between the warring parties (University of Colorado, 1998: Internet Source). According to the UN (1992: Internet Source), peacemaking is "action to bring hostile parties to agreement, essentially through such peaceful means as those foreseen in Chapter VI of the Charter of the UN. Peacemaking is generally based on diplomatic efforts and its basic aim is to end the conflict between the disputing parties. Negotiation, mediation, conciliation and arbitration are the most important parts of peacemaking (Ouellet, 2003: Internet Source). Presler and Scholz (2000:XV) stated that peacemaking as conflict resolution is used to bring peace and social justice after a war. Zartman (2005:VII) conveyed that peacemaking has a wide range of activities including from diplomatic efforts to humanitarian assistance. Therefore, peacemaking efforts are a difficult and complex task. Obadiah (2008:5-6) asserted that peacemaking is used to turn a violent conflict into non-violent action.. Consequently, according to the UN (2006a: Internet Source), peacekeeping operations are complex and sophisticated and have many large-scale missions. Pan (2005, Internet Source) contended that even though peacekeeping missions are complicated and some peacekeeping operations fail, it is a fact that peacekeeping operations are requisite. If international organisations and regional and sub-regional organisations such as the UN, EU, AU and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) opted for more comprehensive and well-defined objectives for generating peace, security and stability, then future peacekeeping operations would be more beneficial for the international community and Africa in particular. Moreover, the global community should endeavour to realise how best to generate peace and security, build effective democratic institutions, and to resolve the humanitarian crises and global security threats within a more holistic approach.

6 Purpose of the study Against the background of Africa s long and difficult struggle to eradicate regional and local war, bloodshed, genocide and ethic cleansing since decolonisation, peacemaking and peacekeeping are among the biggest challenges it faces. Successes, so far were rather mixed, if not unsatisfactory, and much more needs to be done to eradicate the scourges of conflict and war from the surface of the continent. The EU s involvement in this regard is an important, new and dynamic development, given the organisation s increasing importance as an international role player and African partner. It is a development that warrants systematic academic analysis and explanation. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to analyse and explain the rationale behind EU-AU co-operation and assess the real and possible impact thereof on conflict stricken areas, possible directions of change in African politics and development, stability in general as well as possible spill-over to other areas of interaction and cooperation. This analysis will be done in terms of observable empirical realities, foreign policy theory and practice, security and developmental imperatives and criteria with the overarching objective to promote better insight and understanding of the issues involved. On the basis of the analysis and findings, criteria or benchmarks will be developed to gauge the impact of external peacekeeping involvement, with specific emphasis on the efficacy and sustainability thereof in the African context. Emphasis will also be placed on the relative importance of the EU as an international actor in Africa, and whether the motives behind its involvement are based on self-interest, altruism or both and how foreign international actors may influence the future of the African continent Literature Review Much has been written about the subject of peacekeeping and peacemaking in Africa. The bulk of these writings are, however, in the form of official documents, reports and journalistic assessments of historical, empirical and descriptive nature. Broadly speaking, these documents are narrowly focused and suffer from shallowness in terms of analysis, particularly insofar as dealing with the implications, rationale and immediate and possible

7 7 long-term impact of EU peacekeeping operations in Africa, and the collaboration between the AU and the EU in this regard. The EU s first autonomous military action took place in the DRC in 2003 in order to prevent the conflict and sustain stability (Assembly of Western European Union, 2004: Internet Source). There are numerous reports written by some members of the EU and international strategic foundations, evaluating the situation of the DRC. For example, the report of the European Union Committee (2006: 64) asserted that the EU and the AU should work together to maintain security, peace and stability on the continent. Gnesotto (2004:35) affirmed that the end of the Cold War caused fundamental changes in the security and defence policy of Europe; and security perceptions in Europe changed. Malan (2006: 15) stated that the EU grasped the importance of the AU in particular, to generate security and peace and to develop a common strategy in Africa. Klingebiel (2005: 35) emphasised that peace and security have become priority issues for the African continent as well as the international community. Furthermore, Sucharipa (2004: 32-38) stressed that peace operations are multidimensional missions and related to institutionbuilding and social recovery programmes. Peace agreements serve to enhance the restoration of political order while the report of the UN (2003: Internet Source) testified that peacekeeping helps to bridge the gap between the cessation of hostilities and durable peace. Faria (2004: 5) concluded that the role of the EU changes and shifts priorities in Africa. The EU intensified its capability in support of African organisations by establishing a Peace Facility for Africa. It intervened to keep peace in the DRC, in the summer of 2003 through Operation Artemis which revealed that the EU s peacekeeping operations have been reinforced. Powell (2005: II) asserted that the AU is filling critical gaps in Africa s peace and security. The report of the Commission of the European Communities (2006: Internet Source) argued that stable and secure regions are in the interests of the countries and people in both Africa and the EU. The strategic report of the International Crisis Group (2005b: 14) investigated and found that the support from the EU to AU has played a strategic role during the crises to prevent the conflicts, and financial and logistical supports must be

8 8 increased by the EU. The report of the Human Rights Watch (2006: 47) maintained that the AU should maintain its political role for preventing conflicts and strengthen capability building. Mekenkamp, Tongeren and Van Der Veen (1999: 447) confirmed that the OAU/AU have taken concrete steps to respond to crises by establishing the Conflict Management Division and the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution (MCPMR). James (1969: 440) argued that peacekeeping consists of securing or implementing agreements and the prevention of violence. However, Brown (2002: 11) stated that the EU has selfish interests in Africa so it has to play an active role to protect its economic and political interests. Archer (2001: 111) argued that it is difficult to imagine the contemporary world without international organisations which play important roles worldwide and intervene to keep peace in the international political system. Darby and MacGinty (2003: 7) claimed that economic, ideological and strategic developments can have a major impact on conditions of sustainable peace. Chaliand (1980: 32) alleged that Africa supplies a significant proportion of raw materials. These materials are vitally important for the economies of industrialised countries, especially in Europe. France and Britain have their economic and political interests on the continent, so they play active roles to protect these interests. Jones (2001: 430) asserted that the EU has a lightweight ability to keep peace in international conflicts and also how much capability it needs to define for peacekeeping. Most of these works are episodic or narrowly focused particularistic case studies, not looking holistically and analytically at the EU/AU role that emerged after the Cairo Declaration. This proposed study will endeavour to fill that gap and by so doing will make a contribution to the existing literature.

9 Research method A research design is a plan which includes every aspect of a proposed research study from the conceptualisation of the problem right through to the dissemination of the findings according to Grinnell and Stothers (1988: 219). Keeping this in mind, this study will mainly employ a qualitative-analytical approach, based on relevant political science theory and methodology. An important theoretical/analytical tool will be derived from welldeveloped concepts and notions of peacekeeping, particularly the military and the socioeconomic dimensions. Throughout this study, all relevant documents related to the topic will be examined: books, articles, official reports, statements and official websites of the AU and the EU. This study will be original and all references will be included Research structure The study consists of six chapters: Chapter 1 includes the research problem and methodology for the purpose of the study. Chapter 2 researches the theoretical framework of the AU and the EU with regard to peacekeeping in Africa, and peacekeeping will be generally examined. Chapter 3 analyses the cooperation of the AU and the EU regarding peacekeeping operations in Africa. The focus is on a few case-studies: namely, the crises in the DRC, Burundi and Sudan. Chapter 4 examines the roles that the EU-AU has played in peacekeeping operations in Africa. This chapter will also discuss critically the capacities of the EU and the AU to keep peace and security in the areas of conflict. Chapter 5 will research challenges and issues relevant to the EU and the AU's peacekeeping operations in Africa. This part will also analyse how effective peacekeeping operations could be performed by both parties namely the EU and the AU.

10 10 Chapter 6 concludes the study by providing a summary and evaluation of the main points, making recommendations regarding peacekeeping operations for AU/EU, and how they can generate security, peace and stability more effectively.

11 11 Chapter 2 Conceptualising peacekeeping Introduction The term peacekeeping will be conceptualised and the theory of peacekeeping will be explained in this chapter. Particularly, it is very important to classify peacekeeping operations in a systematic way for understanding meanings and the background of these operations. Therefore, the classifications of peacekeeping will be done as first generation and second generation in the chapter. It concludes by explaining and analysing some important past and current peacekeeping operations of the AU and the EU. Moreover, the chapter will scrutinise the conceptual frameworks of the AU and the EU s peacekeeping policies Conceptualising peacekeeping The end of the Cold War brought major shifts in the international system (Harrison, 2004:111). Peacekeeping firstly evolved during the Cold War and has become a strategy of the Cold War era in order to moderate the conflicts (Maloney, 2005:40). Peacekeeping operations have dramatically transformed and increased since the Cold War (MacQueen, 2006:234). The concept of peacekeeping is largely related to the UN peacekeeping operations because most of the peacekeeping operations in the world have been undertaken under the auspices of the UN (Cox, 1967: VII). Peacekeeping still has important challenges at the conceptual level and it is still known as an undefined, contentious and disorganised international operation (Diehl, 1994:1). Therefore, MacQueen (2006:2) defined peacekeeping operations as ambiguous and evaluated peacekeeping with various questions to put forward its challenges at a conceptual level:

12 12 1. Must peacekeeping be a multilateral operation? Or could one state address a peacekeeping operation? 2. Can any groups or any organisations participate in a peacekeeping operation? 3. What should be the role of the international community in order to keep peace and security in the conflict zones? 4. What is the scope of peacekeeping? Even though peacekeeping operations are uncertain and controversial, they have become the most important political mechanism for the international community in maintaining peace and security in the world (Cox, 1967: VII). Peacekeeping operations have been undertaken mostly by the UN as an important tool for sustaining peace and security. More importatly, the Cold War tensions between the superpowers strengthened the mechanism of peacekeeping in the world (Diehl, 1994:2). In 1948, the first peacekeeping operation was exercised by the UN in the Middle East in order to moderate the conflict. In the early years, UN peacekeeping operations were used to monitor ceasefires, separate hostile forces and sustain buffer zones. On the contrary, the scope of peacekeeping has changed and became more complicated in recent years (United Nations, 2008a: Internet Source) because the functions of peacekeeping have enlarged day by day from election and humanitarian relief to military verification (Diehl, 1994:2). The UN defines peacekeeping as an operation involving civilian and military personnel, to monitor cease-fires in the conflict areas, maintain international peace and security (United Nations, 2006a: Internet Source). Peacekeeping is separated by the UN into three categories: a) Monitoring maintenance of ceasefires and peace agreements; b) Implementing a comprehensive reconciliation between warring parties, and c) Protecting civilians and providing humanitarian asistance. The essential tasks of the first category are to monitor ceasefire, to create a safe environment, to initiate the peace process, to start negotiations with political leaders and diplomats to be able to stop conflict and also to sustain peace and security. The first category generally consists of military and civilian personnel. The second category is known as multi-dimensional peacekeeping and also comprises various

13 13 operations including local security, elections, re-integration of combatants to civilian life, strengthening the national institutions, assuring democracy and human rights and promoting economic rehabilitation in the conflict zones. The last category is related to the international community so as to mitigate conflict and violence and protect vulnerable people (United Nations, 1992: Internet Source). Cox (1967:4) gived the meaning of peacekeeping as an extraordinary military art because it calls for the use of soldiers not to fight and win, but to prevent fighting, to maintain cease-fires, and to provide order while negotiations are being conducted. Importantly, peacekeeping and peacemaking are very closely connected to each other as they both endeavour to create peace, security and stability in the conflict areas (O`Dwyer, 2003: Internet Source). Peacemaking is a mediation and negotiation mechanism that is used to engender a cease-fire or agreement among hostile parties (Stassen, Davies and Brion, 2000:5) Theory of peacekeeping The former UN Secretary General Dag Hammerskjöld first used the term peacekeeping to depict the First UN Emergency Force (UNEF I). With the regard to UNEF I, the 5,000 lightly armed observers were sent to the Sinai in 1956 in order to observe a ceasefire between Egypt and Israel (Oakley, 1998: Internet Source). The theory of peacekeeping largely emerged as a result of power politics during the Cold War era. The main object of peacekeeping during the Cold War era was to prevent conflict and violence increasing between the superpowers. In addition, peacekeeping was mainly formed by Western powers as an instrument of promoting peace, security and stability and preserving Western economic interests (Martin, 2005:1). The theory of peacekeeping has undergone three important evolutions: the Cold War era, the post-cold War era, and the Brahimi Report (Staehle, 2006:18-21). During the Cold War era, the functions of peacekeeping were to monitor ceasefires, decrease conflict and violence rising between the superpowers, to restore divided societies and to respond to threats to international peace and security. However, during the Cold War, peacekeeping was limited and not used as a very effective tool in frustrating and mitigating international

14 14 conflicts. For instance, the south intervention in Hungary, the Vietnam Wars, the Nigerian Wars, the intervention in Czechoslovakia, the recurrent crises in the Middle East in the 1960s and 1970s, the civil conflicts for independence in Southern Africa, the Iran-Iraq War and the genocide in Cambodia are crucial examples for it. Consequently, the politics of the Cold War era has enhanced the theory of peacekeeping (MacFarlana, 2003:7-8). In the post-cold War era, the scope of peacekeeping was expanded by peacemaking, peacebuilding and peace enforcement operations (Sorenson and Wood, 2005:3). Peacemaking is involved in diplomatic efforts to conclude the conflicts and peace-building struggles to stabilise post-conflict situations by bolstering national institutions (Osmancavusoglu, 2000:1). Peace enforcement involves the use of armed forces to dissociate combatants and to create a peace agreement (Domke and Solon, 1993: Internet Source). In the post-cold War, traditional peacekeeping has been transformed at the conceptual and operational level (Hitchcock, 2003:38). The Brahimi Report written by Lakhdar Brahimi, who is special adviser to the Secretary- General of the UN, proposed an important roadmap for reconstituting UN peacekeeping operations in The Report proposed innovations in the three areas for peacekeeping operations: a) doctrine and strategy, b) capacity to manage and reinforce operations, and c) rapid and productive deployment. The Report highlighted that UN peacekeeping operations must be beneficial, professional and successful. It is said that the Brahimi Report widened the scope of peacekeeping in a wide range of activities (Durch, Halt, Earle and Shanahan, 2003:9-10) The classifications of peacekeeping Peacekeeping operations have been undertaken in many forms up to now. Diehl et al. (1998:34-35) contended that there are various types of approaches to classifying peacekeeping operations. The most common classifications are traditional peacekeeping and second generation peacekeeping operations. Since the end of the Cold War, traditional peacekeeping has become less important, however new peacekeeping or second-generation missions have become more important.

15 15 Thakur (2005:3-7) argued that there are two sorts of peacekeeping: classical (traditional) and modern peacekeeping. The function of classical peacekeeping operations was to promote international stability, and it emerged with the end of the Cold War era. However, modern peacekeeping has a comprehensive scope including multinational efforts, humanitarian relief and civilian, military and police personnel. Furthermore, there are two extensive categories of UN peacekeeping. These categories are traditional/first generation peacekeeping and post-cold War/second generation peacekeeping. It is a fact that there are broad differences between first generation and second generation peacekeeping. In general terms, first generation peacekeeping has been undertaken as limited, simple and small operations. On the other hand, second generation peacekeeping has expanded as a multidimensional activity (Arachchi, 2002: Internet Source) The first generation peacekeeping (classical\traditional peacekeeping) The first generation peacekeeping operations were initiated after World War II under the auspices of the UN for maintaining international peace and security. Namely, the first generation of peacekeeping emerged in response to the Suez Crisis. The major principle in the establishment of the first peacekeeping operation was to segregate the crisis from the Cold War. The first peacekeeping operations were undertaken by the Security Council of the UN to maintain international peace (Iribarnegaray, 2002:7). There were three important fundamentals concerning the first generation peacekeeping missions: a) Political independence of the operations; b) Political independence of the states, c) Non-use of force apart from self-defence. Moreover, the first generation of peacekeeping had some problems: a) A country which supported the peacekeeping operation could withdraw its support for peacekeeping later; b) The contribution to a country s peacekeeping operation sometimes affected the balance of power of the great powers; c) Peacekeeping was not used as an effective tool for keeping peace (Warner, 1995: ). Therefore, the traditional peacekeeping missions faced serious challenges.

16 16 Hill and Malik (1996: 26) classified traditional peacekeeping within three categories: 1) the birth of UN peacekeeping, ; 2) the assertive period, ; 3) the quiescent period, Observer missions were fundamental characteristics of the first period; the assertive period can be defined as an establishment of the most important peacekeeping missions like UNEF I and UN Operations in the Congo (ONUC) while one peacekeeping operation was seen in a quiescent period, the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), which was set up in The first generation or classical peacekeeping missions were utilised for monitoring the truce in the conflict areas in the Middle East, Africa and Asia. The UN undertook 13 peacekeeping operations between 1948 and 1988 and those operations are known as Blue Helmets and the first generation peacekeeping. In the Cold War era, lightly armed UN military observers were largely deployed to observe and to control the implementation of peace agreements in the warring parties. In addition, the first generation peacekeeping operations were small and limited and also used as a deterrent strategy for preventing conflict and violence (Watkins, 2003: Internet Source). Traditional peacekeeping operations were not mentioned in the UN Charter. Peacekeeping operations of the UN are undertaken under Chapters VII and VIII of the UN Charter. Traditional peacekeeping arose within the international community as a pragmatic solution for obstructing global conflict and instability (Slim, 1995: Internet Source).

17 17 Table 1: Peacekeeping Operations during the Cold War, Operations UN Special Commission on the Balkans (UNSCOB) UN Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) 1948-present UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) 1949-present UN Emergency Force I (UNEF I) UN Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL) June-December 1958 UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC) UN Yemen Observation Mission (UNYOM) UN India Pakistan Observer Mission (UNIPOM) UN Emergency Force II (UNEF II) UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) 1974-present UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) 1978-present Source: Hill and Malik (1996:27). Explanations Investigation into foreign support for guerrilla fighters in Greece Monitor and observe ceasefire lines between Israel and its neighbours Monitor and observe ceasefire between India and Pakistan in Kashmir Create a buffer zone between Israeli and Egyptian forces in the Sinai Monitor movement of arms, troops and equipment into Lebanon Provide military assistance to the Congolese Government and restore order and law Monitor movement of arms, troops and equipment into Yemen from Saudi Arabia Monitor ceasefire between India and Pakistan after the 1965 war Create a buffer zone between Israeli and Egyptian forces in the Sinai Monitor the separation of Israeli and Syrian forces on the Golan Heights Create buffer zone between Israel and Lebanon Goulding (1993:457) evaluated the major functions of traditional peacekeeping as advocating peacekeeping endeavours, monitoring truces and overseeing buffer zones. It has been suggested that traditional peacekeeping s success was related to peacemaking efforts. If the peacemaking efforts were ineffective for engendering peace, peacekeeping operations could endure for a long time. For instance, traditional peacekeeping operations of the UN have lasted for a long time in the Middle East as the UN Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) and the UN Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP). First generation peacekeeping operations were born as a pragmatic instrument and peacekeeping operations were very narrowly confined to sustaining peace agreements. Therefore, during the Cold War, endeavours for maintaining peace were mostly at a political level. With the end of the Cold War, the UN peacekeeping operations have become more active in order to promote peace, security and stability in regional conflicts (Challenges Project, 2006: Internet Source).

18 18 The mechanism of the UN peacekeeping efforts saw new trends as a thought and practice during the Cold War era. On the 27 th of February 1956, during the period of Hammarskjöld a former secretary-general of the UN, the role and mission of the UN in conflict prevention were expanded. Preventive action of the UN has been a very vital tool in order to reduce instability, to avoid the wars and mediate conflict and violence (Goodrich, 1965: ). During the Cold War era, peacekeeping served as an effective tool in maintaining peace and stability in terms of the superpowers rivalry. In the early years of the Cold War, the main function of peacekeeping was just to keep peace. However, peacekeeping did not have a wide range of activities but today it has become a very complex, comprehensive and unmanageable action. After signing a cease-fire between warring parties, the function of UN peacekeeping was to observe peace agreements and create a buffer zone between the hostile groups. Cold War peacekeeping missions largely concentrated on establishing stability after the conflict and maintenance of the status quo in that period (Eide, 2001:6). Oakley (1998: Internet Source) assessed that even though some traditional peacekeeping missions failed, most peacekeeping operations have had a positive impact on moderating regional conflicts. Lewis (1993:25) put forward that the UN peacekeeping missions emerged during the Cold War era, but the UN peacekeeping mechanism could not be used as an effective means in maintaining peace and security. Furthermore, an international definition of peacekeeping could not be achieved by the international community. For this reason, traditional peacekeeping missions could not be utilised as an effective tool. Those instances undermined the reputation of the UN in the world during the Cold War. Traditional operations were conducted as a political and military priority in order to strengthen international peace and security. Moreover, traditional operations had four major priorities: 1) Peacekeepers were lightly armed forces; 2) Peacekeepers moved into regional conflicts after a truce had been created and there had been durable peace; 3) Peacekeeping troops refrained from civil wars, 4) peacekeepers made efforts to behave towards the hostile groups in impartiality (Shaw, 1995:1). Johansen (1994:307) proclaimed an important determination of Diehl concerning the success of traditional peacekeeping operations. Diehl evaluated the traditional peacekeeping operations under two criteria to measure the success of the missions: 1) Limit

19 19 armed conflict, and 2) Promote conflict resolution. Diehl contended that peacekeeping operations which are taken under the auspices of two criteria are the more successful. Most of the mentioned peacekeeping operations failed. They are: the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I), from 1956 to 1967; UNEF II, from 1973 to 1979; the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC), from 1960 to 1964; the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), from 1964 to the present and the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), from 1978 to the present. According to Diehl, only one successful peacekeeping operation was undertaken in the above peacekeeping operations: UNEF II kept peace and security in the Egyptian and Israeli border and promoted conflict resolution. Consequently, the UN peacekeeping policy has changed in the past decade. Particularly, during the Cold War, the UN peacekeeping operations were much more limited and simple. In addition, the traditional peacekeeping missions did not effectively prevent the conflicts such as Somalia and Rwanda (Brahm, 2005: Internet Source). It should be noted that the UN Security Council has reflected the tensions between superpowers so that peacekeeping missions were not very productive and effective. Nevertheless, the UN peacekeeping operations have undertaken important roles for maintaining peace and security during the Cold War era such as in Kashmir, the Middle East and Cyprus (Akashi, 2000: Internet Source) The second generation peacekeeping (multidimensional peacekeeping) Since the end of the Cold War, the challenges of peacekeeping have changed and peacekeeping has become more complex. Second-generation peacekeeping was created to accomplish multiple political, economic and social issues. In fact, second-generation peacekeeping is different to first-generation peacekeeping and has comprehensive aims in terms of the functions of peacekeeping. Multidimensional peacekeeping generally includes civilian and military personnel and humanitarian relief. Furthermore, the soldiers are allowed to use force in some second-generation peacekeeping operations whereas the soldiers were not allowed to employ force except in self-defence during first-generation peacekeeping operations (Bria, 2007:44).

20 20 With the end of the Cold War, UN peacekeeping has expanded, and a former Secretary- General Boutros Boutros-Ghali made a plan for strengthening the UN role in terms of maintaining peace and security in the conflict zones, and he reinforced the UN peacekeeping strategy. His plan is known as an Agenda for Peace (1992). Preventive diplomacy became a very important tool for UN peace and security during his time and it can be said that he expanded the scope of the UN peacekeeping with new concepts. They are as follows: 1. Preventive diplomacy prevents conflicts between warring parties. 2. Peace enforcement is undertaken by the authority of Chapter VII of the UN Charter and consists of wider armed national forces. 3. Peacemaking: the aim is to offer a truce to warring parties and to endeavour to stop conflict. 4. Peacekeeping: the aim is to deploy UN presence in the conflict area and control the cease-fire with the permission of warring parties and to increase negotiations with the hostile groups for stopping conflict. 5. Post-conflict reconstruction: the aim is to reconstruct the divided nation economically, socially and politically and to restore the infrastructure for a lasting peace. Ghali`s Agenda for Peace is still used as a significant part of second generation peacekeeping in the UN in order to maintain peace and security in the conflict areas. (United Nations, 1992: Internet Source). Slim (1995: Internet Source) asserted that today s peacekeeping operations have gone beyond peacekeeping. The major functions and practice of second generation peacekeeping missions are notably different from traditional peacekeeping. New peacekeeping consists of multi-dimensional operations. However, traditional peacekeeping has been widely composed of ceasefire monitoring and some of it has still continued for many years. Furthermore, traditional peacekeeping refrained from getting involved in civil wars because they were very dangerous and difficult. Typically, traditional peacekeeping had three important keys: consent, impartiality and minimum force.

21 21 Second generation peacekeeping operations have increased and changed their major functions since It is said that multidimensional peacekeeping more actively replaced traditional peacekeeping and provides more generic facilities of peace missions including national reconstruction, humanitarian relief, providing transition to democracy, monitoring human rights and disarmament (Murphy, 2007:3). First generation peacekeeping widely consisted of military functions and limited resources but second generation primarily consists of political and military functions of a complex character (Main, 1996:164). 2005:23-24). The UN peacekeeping operation which was undertaken in Cambodia in was the first multi-dimensional operation and it is well known that it was successful. In Cambodia the UN undertook multidimensional responsibilities including human rights, election monitoring and economic, social and political reconstruction. In addition, the UN played a strategic role in the establishment of constitutional democracy in Cambodia (Arachchi, 2002: Internet Source). Other successful UN multidimensional peacekeeping operations have been Namibia in , El-Salvador in , Cambodia in , and Mozambique in and Eastern Slavonia (Croatia) in The UN undertook various tasks in those operations, from economic rehabilitation to disarmament and reintegration (Doyle and Sambanis, 2006:15). In contrast, multidimensional peacekeeping is complicated. For instance, it responds to both inter-state and intra-state conflicts and deals with every situation of the conflict, from humanitarian assistance to human rights (Murphy, 2007:4). In the post Cold War, second generation peacekeeping operations have not been successful every time. For example, second generation peacekeeping failed in preventing genocide in Rwanda in 1994, and preserving the civilians of Srebrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Approximately 800,000 people were slaughtered during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. The UN accepts that the fundamental failure was the lack of resources and political inefficiency (United Nations, 1999a: Internet Source). Even though the international community realised the incident in Rwanda before the genocide, unfortunately it could not prevent and stop the genocide. The Rwandan and Srebrenica genocides demonstrated that there are big deficiencies of second generation peacekeeping in preventing conflicts, violence or genocide (Wha Lee, 2002:14-19).

22 22 Gardiner (2006: 4-9) claimed that there are many reasons for the Rwanda and Srebrenica failures of UN peacekeeping. He categorised those failures of UN peacekeeping under five groups: problems of leadership, a bad management, indiscipline, a broad inefficiency and a culture of corruption. According to Gardiner, the UN should urgently promote regeneration in the fields of accountability, transparency, peacekeeping and human rights. Otherwise, UN peacekeeping operations cannot protect vulnerable people and prevent future conflicts and genocides effectively and rapidly. Vankham (2002: Internet Source) alleged that the basic principles for successful peacekeeping are the consent of the parties, impartiality and non-use of force except in self defence, clearly identified mandates, objectives, command structures and secure financing. Muller (1996:55) contended that the UN peacekeeping mechanism should precisely be renewed with the following five fields: 1. The UN should open the new realities and prospects for promoting world peace and security; 2. The UN decision-making system should be reactivated and reconstructed; 3. The financial autonomy of the UN should be strengthened. Today, New York City s budget is bigger than the UN s peacekeeping budget. These financial problems block the UN peacekeeping mechanism (Thakur, 2005: 8); 4. The independence of the Secretariat should be enabled to serve as an independent and global actor for world peace; 5. The UN should serve as a social actor in the fields of religious movements, peace movements, consumer movements, ethnic movements or trade movements. In 2000, the Brahimi Report drew attention to the challenges of UN peacekeeping operations. Particularly, the Report underscored the deficiencies of peacekeeping operations and made tangible recommendations for UN peacekeeping to be more active and successful. The most important recommendations of the Report for peacekeeping are the creation of new UN peacekeeping mechanisms, to strengthen peace building, to boost staff and management support at the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), clearly to define objectives and mandates and to increase military, economic, humanitarian, political

23 23 and social aspects of peacekeeping operations (United Nations, 2000:Internet Source). In short, The Brahimi Report proved that the UN peacekeeping mechanism needs a reform process in order to effectively maintain peace, security and stability worldwide. DPKO of the UN proposed in 2005 to the UN Secretary-General a wide range of peacekeeping reforms entitled Peace Operations The Reforms consist of the five essential principles: a) Create high quality personnel; b) Define clearly objectives; c) Establish effective partnership within the UN and with other international organisations; d) Strengthen the fundamental resources to develop operations, and e) Increase UN peacekeeping capacity (United Nations: 2006b:Internet Source). As a result, Peacekeeping operations have been confronted with different challenges in the 21 st century. If peacekeeping mechanisms can be used as an effective means by the international community for world peace, it can make an important contribution to peace and stability Conceptual framework of the EU s peacekeeping policy With the end of the Cold War, new challenges and opportunities emerged in the world related to peace and security. During the Cold War, the bipolar structure dominated the international scene and the European countries were exclusively gravitated towards politico-military threats by the bipolar structure (Orhun, 2000:1). After the Cold War, internal and external demands erupted in Europe. These demands are summarised as follows: 1. What should be the formulation of the international policy of Europe in the fields of conflict prevention and management after the Cold War? 2. How should European interests including economy, policy and security be protected? 3. How should Europe develop its economic, political and military structures? 4. How could Europe become an important global actor? Those challenges brought prominent opportunities to Europe to forge a common security and defence policy and since then Europe has decided to establish a CFSP/ESDP (Sjursen, 2001: Internet Source). It can be said that the EU s peacekeeping policy is based on the

24 24 CFSP/ESDP. The primary aims of the CFSP/ESDP are to reduce the divergence of the member states of the EU and to improve its civilian and military capabilities in the fields of conflict prevention, management and resolution (European Commission, 2003: Internet Source). Setting a common security and defence policy has been the most important priority of the EU for the establishment of the EU. Despite the divergences of the EU member states, the EU has made progress in building a common security identity. In 1993, the EU adopted the "Treaty on European Union (The Maastricht Treaty)" that first set up a common foreign and security policy. The CFDP was created as a second pillar of the EU with the Maastricht Treaty. According to the Treaty, the Union shall carry out a common foreign and security policy. Particularly, the Treaty underscores that the following principles related to foreign policy and security as well as international peace and security: 1. To safeguard the common values, fundamental interests, independence and integrity of the Union in conformity with the principles of the United Nations Charter; 2. To strengthen the security of the Union in all ways; 3. To preserve peace and strengthen international security, in accordance with the principle of the United Nations Charter, as well as the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the objectives of the Paris Charter including those on external borders; 4. To promote international cooperation; 5. To develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law and respect for human rights and fundamental freedom (European Union, 2002:Internet Source).

25 25 Table 2: The Main Objectives of the ESDP It will give the EU a crisis-management and conflict prevention capability; It sets up new political and military structures for EU security and defence; It establishes a strong EU Rapid Reaction Force (RRF) Other countries may be invited to join to ESDP operations; The Western European Union (WEU) s crisis management and conflict prevention tasks; The RRF is not a European army and contributing states decide on their own deployments; RRF operations intend to draw on the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) assets and capabilities; It is viewed as complimentary to NATO, but not a rival of NATO Source: Jones, 2001:455. The EU signed the Treaty of Amsterdam in 1997 and the Treaty was entered into force in It can be said that the Treaty of Amsterdam has strengthened the peacekeeping policy of the EU by incorporating the WEU s Petersberg Tasks. The WEU s Petersberg Tasks consist of humanitarian and rescue tasks, peacekeeping tasks and the tasks of combat forces in crisis management, including peacemaking (Eurotreaties, 1997: Internet Source). Furthermore, the Treaty of Nice was approved by the European Council in This Treaty has reinforced the CFSP by creating a permanent military structure to play a more active in conflict prevention and management in Europe as well as worldwide (Institute for the Study of Civil Society, 2007: Internet Source) has become a milestone year for the EU s security and defence policy (Keohane, 2003: Internet Source). Javier Solana, the High Representative for the CFSP, proposed the first version of the European Security Strategy (ESS) to the Heads of States and Governments of the EU at the European Council in Brussels on the 12th of December 2003, and it was adopted as a framework of the ESS by the European Council. The ESS emphasises that the EU as a global actor has international responsibilities to prevent and resolve armed conflicts and genocides in troubled areas.

26 26 Furthermore, it highlights that conflicts affect the interests of Europe directly and indirectly and also devastate fundamental freedoms and human rights and social and economic infrastructure. Therefore, it has to play a more active role in preserving peace, security and stability all over the world (Council of the European Union, 2003a: Internet Source). Since 2003, the EU has begun to play a more active role in conflict prevention and resolution. Twelve international peace operations were undertaken under the auspices of the EU outside Europe in 2006, such as Afghanistan, Kosovo and Iraq (Hentschel, 2006:1-2). The ESDP has not only been widened in terms of the scope of activities it implements, but also enlarged speedily in different places of the world. The first autonomous operation was undertaken out of its area by the Union in Africa under a UN mandate named Operation Artemis in the DRC in June Simultaneously, peacekeeping operations of the EU in Europe were initiated in the Balkans in particular, Bosnia (Police Operation) and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) (Operations Concordia and Proxima) (Gnesotto, 2004:14). It has been suggested that the EU Peacekeeping Operation in the DRC was very significant for testing its peacekeeping skills because the Union alone got involved in peacekeeping in the DRC which excluded the NATO as well as being its first peacekeeping mission in Africa. Since 1994, the DRC has been disintegrated by ethnic dimensions and civil war. During the instability in the DRC, more than three million people have been killed. The functions of the peacekeeping in the DRC were to prevent conflict and sustain peace, security and stability as well as reconstructing civilian institutions. It is a truth that the EU extended its peacekeeping strategy and responsibilities with Operation Artemis (Dempsey, 2003: Internet Source). In 2003, the EU got involved in three peacekeeping operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and the DRC. Even though those operations were limited and short, they demonstrated that the EU has a great capability to prevent crisis and to make a contribution to peace and security worldwide. The EU played an important role in sustaining stability and security in DRC throughout the Operation Artemis, which was begun in June 2003 and ended in September 2003.

27 27 In addition, the EU established a Police Mission (EUPOL) in Kinshasa (DRC) in December In particular, EUPOL s fundamental goal was to intensify the internal security through the government transition process. With regard to conflict in Sudan, an internal conflict emerged between the Sudanese government and its rebel groups in February Thousands of vulnerable people were killed and 2 million left their homes due to conflict and violence. The EU specifically supported the African Union s Mission in Darfur for maintaining peace and security in particular, politically, financially and logistically (Grevi, Lynch and Missiroli, 2005:8-11). Solana (2001: Internet Source) expressed the opinion that the EU must engage in 21 st century challenges as an effective and global player in the world. According to him, if the neighbours of Europe including the Balkans, Russia, Ukraine and the countries of North Africa and the Middle East are unstable, Europe will be living in danger. Therefore, the EU must get involved in peacekeeping operations for maintaining peace and security in the world. The European Council accepted the Laeken Declaration in 2001 which testifies that the European security and defence policy should be consolidated in terms of its capabilities, both civil and military structures and crisis-management operations. The Declaration describes the changing role of the European Union as follows: What is Europe s role in this changed world? Does Europe not, now that it is finally unified, have a leading role to play in a new world order, that of a power able both to play a stabilising role worldwide and to point the way ahead for many countries and peoples? Now the Cold War is over and we are living in a globalised, yet also highly fragmented world, Europe needs to shoulder its responsibilities in the governance of globalization. The role it has to play is that of a power resolutely doing battle against all violence, all terror and all fanaticism, but which also does not turn a blind eye to the world s heartrending injustices (European Commission, 2001: Internet Source). Consequently, the EU peacekeeping strategy in Africa should be summarised with the following tasks and substructures: 1. Specifically, the EU has strong historical and economic relationships as well as interests with the African countries. Therefore, the Union does not want instability and conflict in any African countries. The EU cares about the conflict and instability, and in particular Côte d'ivoire, the Darfur, Burundi, DRC and Rwanda as well as the political and economic issues in Zimbabwe,

28 28 2. The EU has endeavoured to strengthen the AU s involvement for preserving peace and stability in Africa, 3. The EU should carry out international responsibilities for maintaining peace and security and co-operate with other international organisations including the UN, NATO and regional organisations, 4. The ESDP should be reinforced for peacekeeping operations in particular, in Africa (Assembly of Western European Union, 2004: Internet Source) Conceptual framework of the AU s peacekeeping policy The AU adopted the "Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union" in Durban on the 9 th of July It explains the peacekeeping policy of the AU in more detail and highlights the fact that the AU as a regional actor bears important responsibilities to prevent and resolve conflicts in Africa. It can be said that the AU's peacekeeping policy is based on this Protocol. Importantly, the AU established an African Standby Force (ASF), Continental Early Warning System (CEWS) and Panel of the Wise in the Protocol in order to reinforce of its peacekeeping mechanisms. The major tasks of those peacekeeping mechanisms are to prevent conflicts and to maintain peace, security and stability in Africa (African Union, 2002a: Internet Source). The AU also adopted the Solemn Declaration in 2004 which was held in Libya The Solemn Declaration is an important initiative in establishing a CADSP. The Declaration strongly highlights that creating a common defence and security identity is crucial to promote peace, security, stability, justice and development in Africa. The CADSP consists of the following themes: promotion of peace and security, peace building and peacekeeping and in particular post-conflict rehabilitation and reconstruction including demobilisation, disarmament and reintegration (African Union, 2004a: Internet Source). The Solemn Declaration is known as a prominent component of the AU's peacekeeping policy. The Constitutive Act of the African Union has three basic principles related to the AU's peacekeeping policy. Firstly, to strengthen the co-operation with the international and subregional organisations for sustaining peace and security. Secondly, to intensify the security

29 29 framework of African states. Thirdly, to endeavour to increase the dignity of the continent by preserving peace and security at a global level (African Union, 2000:Internet Source). The Constitutive Act highlights the fact that establishing a security framework for maintaining peace, security and stability in Africa is the first priority for a lasting peaceful continent. Article 4 of the Constitutive Act of the AU sketches the following themes: 1. "Set up a common security and defence policy, 2. Engage in peaceful resolution of conflicts through member states, 3. Forbid use of force among member states, 4. Follow the fundamental principle of non-interference by any member states in the internal affairs of another, 5. Raise the right of the Union to intervene in member states pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, genocide and war crimes against humanity, 6. Strengthen peaceful co-existence throughout member states to enable peace and security, 7. Promote the right of member states to request intervention from the Union in order to restore peace and security" (African Union, 2000: Internet Source). The Central Organ of the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution of the AU authorised the deployment of the African Union Mission in Burundi (AMIB) on the 2 nd of April 2003 and it was the first peacekeeping operation of the AU. The major tasks of the AU peacekeeping operation in Burundi were to observe the truces between the parties, keep peace and security and to integrate combatants into civilian life (Boshoff, 2003: 3). Even though the AMIB has faced serious challenges including limited troops and financial problems, it has contributed to peace and stability in Burundi (Agoagye, 2004: 14-15). According to the AU, two remarkable political and security issues have clearly been seen since Particularly, the conflicts have undermined economic and political stability and dignity of the continent at global level. The efforts of the global and regional organisations for preventing genocides, wars and violent conflict have not been always successful and effective. For example, the genocide in Rwanda in 1994 was a disgraceful incident for international and regional organisations. The DRC and Rwandan crises demonstrated that

30 30 the continent urgently needs to be re-constructed in terms of its security architecture. Therefore, the AU has to play a more active role in building peace and security on the continent. In recent years, the AU has made efforts to sustain peace and stability in the conflicts areas such as Sudan and Somalia (Aning, 2005: 1). Conclusion The essence of this chapter was to overview the conceptual framework of peacekeeping. The end of the Cold War caused important shifts on the international scene in particular, in terms of peace and security. Peacekeeping firstly evolved during the Cold War and has become a strategy of the Cold War era in order to maintain international peace and stability. Keeping peace and security has been an important priority of the international community since the end of the Cold War. Even though peacekeeping operations have some serious challenges, it is still used as a strategic means to preserve peace and stability in the areas of conflict in the world. During the Cold War, peacekeeping operations were largely undertaken to observe and monitor the implementation of the ceasefire agreements between the warring parties. Peacekeeping has not been used as an effective means by the international community during the Cold War. However, peacekeeping today has many objectives to preserve peace and security including humanitarian relief, monitoring human rights and post-conflict reconstruction and disarmament. Therefore, it has recently been utilised as a very complex and unmanageable tool. Peacekeeping operations have dramatically been transformed since the Cold War. There are different types of approaches to classifying peacekeeping operations. The most common classifications are traditional peacekeeping and second generation peacekeeping operations. Since the end of the Cold War, traditional peacekeeping has become less important, however new peacekeeping or second-generation missions have become more important. The chapter also dealt with the conceptual framework of the EU/AU's peacekeeping policy. The EU s peacekeeping policy is based on the CFSP/ESDP. The primary aims of the

31 31 CFSP/ESDP are to reduce the divergence of the member states of the EU and to strengthen its civilian and military capabilities in the fields of conflict prevention, management and resolution. The AU adopted the "Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union" in Durban on the 9 th of July It highlights the fact that the AU as a regional actor has important responsibilities to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts in Africa. It can be said that the AU's peacekeeping policy is based on this Protocol which is to prevent conflicts and to preserve peace, security and stability in Africa. Both the EU/AU have still developed their peacekeeping policies to engage in peacekeeping effectively and rapidly in Africa. It can be said that they have recently taken concrete steps in conflict prevention, management and resolution in Africa. The following chapter will analyse cooperation between the EU and the AU with regard to peacekeeping operations including the crises in the DRC, Burundi and Sudan.

32 32 Chapter 3 Cooperation between the AU and the EU with regard to peacekeeping operations in Sudan, the DRC and Burundi Introduction Peace and security are seen as the main prerequisites for economic and political development and for the developing world in particular. The international community as well as major political actors is increasingly involved in the preservation of peace and security in the African continent. This chapter will highlight how the EU and the AU are cooperating for the establishment of peace in conflicting areas particularly in Africa Peace and security in Africa In the 21st century peace and security have become the preconditions for economic development not only for the African continent, but also for the whole international society. Africa s geographical proximity, the spread of international terrorism since the September 2001 attacks on the United States of America (USA), as well as mass emigration are important issues of security, requiring immediate action. The maintenance of peace and security is a more difficult goal to achieve. For this reason, international cooperation for sustaining peace and security has been a more crucial strategy for the UN in particular and other international and sub-regional organisations such as the AU, the EU, NATO, the New Partnership for Africa s Development (NEPAD), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the ECOWAS and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) (Johansen, 2007: Internet Source). Among the major objectives of the international community are to prevent conflicts and violence and sustain peace and security in the world. In this regard, on October 1999 the

33 33 UN Security Council adopted an important Declaration on peace and security. The Declaration emphasises that peace and security are always the objectives of the international community. Besides this, the promotion of peace and security is a fundamental task for the UN and other relevant international organisations. According to the UN Security Council, international cooperation for the promotion of peace and security must be essential (United Nations, 1999b: Internet Source). According to the EU, the most important challenge of today is to be able to keep peace, security and stability in the world, because during the Cold War there was a divided and complex world so that conflicts and wars have threatened millions of lives and also undermined economic and political stability in the world. Furthermore, conflicts threaten human rights, democratic values and fundamental freedoms (European Commission, 2004: 4). For this reason, peace and security are essential for socio-economic and political development in Africa but also for the preservation of European interests in this region. For example, 85% of Africa s exports have been to Europe and the EU is also the biggest trade partner for Africa in the world (Commission of the European Communities, 2005: Internet Source). Therefore, the EU has to play an active role to make Africa a stable place for the promotion of international trade and development. This is where the idea emerged in December 2003 for the Heads of States and Governments of the EU to adopt the ESS and the maintenance of international peace and security are the key objectives of the ESS. The ESS declares that: Europe still faces security threats and challenges. The outbreak of conflict in the Balkans was a reminder that war has not disappeared from our continent. Over the last decade, no region in the world has been untouched by armed conflict. Most of these conflicts have been within rather than between states, and most of the victims have been civilians Europe should be ready to share in the responsibility for global security and in building a better world (Council of the European Union, 2003a: Internet Source). The EU highlights its political and financial support in order to play a more active role in the prevention of violent conflict, which is one of the fundamental principles of the EU s external relations through the EU Programme for the Prevention of Violent Conflict. The EU has become a substantial contributor to peace, security and stability in the world and in particular Africa. It can be said that with the Cairo Declaration, the Lisbon Declaration

34 34 and the adoption of the EU Strategy for Africa, the EU has accelerated its comprehensive relations with the AU in particular in the field of the conflict cycle such as conflict prevention and early warning to conflict management and post-conflict peace-building. In this regard the European Council has adopted the EU policy framework of support for Security Sector Reform (SSR) in June 2006, and declared a Joint EU Concept of Support for Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) in December These instruments set forward a comprehensive approach to conflict prevention to address root causes of conflicts and prevent crises and conflicts (Council of the European Union, 2007a: Internet Source). It is clear that the role of the EU has increased continuously in promoting peace and stability in the world and in particular in Africa. According to the Council of the EU, Europe and Africa are bound together by history, by geography, and by a shared vision of a peaceful, democratic and prosperous future for all their people. (Council of the European Union, 2005a: Internet Source). Hence, the EU took a historic step in Cairo in 2000 to forge a long-term strategic partnership to develop cooperation and to integrate the two continents as well as maintaining peace and security in Africa. According to the Council of the EU, a long-term strategic partnership with Africa has four important goals: 1. To promote the EU-Africa political partnership, to reinforce institutional ties and find solutions to concerns of Africa; 2. To forge regional and continental integration and elevate the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Africa as well as to promote peace, security and stability and human rights; 3. To solve global challenges such as conflicts, insecurity, human rights, trade, HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, climate change, energy security and sustainability, science and technology and terrorism; 4. To provide reinforcements for relationships with non-state and civil society actors, and make possible stronger conflict prevention management and post conflict reconstruction (Council of the European Union, 2007b: Internet Source). The first EU-Africa dialogue was initiated in April 2000 in Cairo. The Cairo Declaration and the Cairo Plan of Action were adopted by the Heads of the African and European

35 35 States at the Summit. More importantly, the Cairo Declaration is described as a roadmap for the EU-Africa dialogue until at present" (European Union, 2007a: Internet Source). Kotsopoulos (2007:4) described the Cairo Summit as a comprehensive framework for political dialogue between the EU and Africa. Since the Cairo Summit, Europeans and Africans have regularly convened at official and ministerial levels in order to address common issues such as peace and security, HIV/AIDS, human rights and poverty (European Union, 2007a: Internet Source). Speiser (2002: Internet Source) in his assessment suggested that the EU has understood the importance of Africa with the first ever EU-Africa Summit. The EU has strengthened relationships with Africa in the fields of regional economic co-operation and peace efforts for Africa such as good governance, peace building and conflict resolution. German Foreign Minister Joschka Fisher was of the opinion that the Cairo summit is a considered golden chance to focus and to learn the problems facing the black continent (Arabicnews, 2000b: Internet Source). It is very important to note that the Cairo Summit was the first ever summit between the two regions. More importantly, it launched the new development projects between the two continents and accelerated the EU-Africa dialogue. Besides, the first African-Europe Summit brought together African and European Heads of State. Since the African-Europe Summit in Cairo in 2000, the relationships between the EU and Africa have been strengthened in terms of building peace and security. For example, the African Peace Facility (APF) was established by the EU in 2004 in support of the AU peacekeeping operations. It is said that the Cairo Summit was the most important and concrete step to set up a strategic partnership between the two continents (African Union, 2007a: Internet Source). Osama El-Baz who is a senior political advisor to the president of Egypt said that The African-Europe Summit is the first time Europe deals with African states as a unified group (Arabicnews, 2000a: Internet Source). The EU at the Cairo Summit highlighted that over the years, Africa has been characterised by genocides, conflicts, HIV/AIDS, instability and insecurity situations as well as social and economic issues. To put it in a different way, poverty, diseases and conflicts could damage Europe s own interests in the future. Therefore, the EU must urgently deal with finding the problems of Africa (Caritas Europa

36 36 and Pax Christi International, 2003: 4). Javier Solana who is the High Representative for the CFSP underscored that the Cairo Declaration has the three significant objectives: 1. To strengthen democracy, human rights and economic development in Africa; 2. To build a stable and secure region; 3. To promote cooperation between Europe and Africa (Council of the European Union, 2000: Internet Source). The Cairo Declaration and the Plan of Action approached the African challenges in a wide variety of fields. Notably, the EU and the OAU -currently the AU- emphasised that peace and security are fundamental for sustainable development because without peace there is no durable development, and it is vital to put an end to conflicts and insecurity situations. What is more, working together closely with the sub-regional organisations in Africa in order to prevent conflicts and instability is vital. The Plan of Action was accepted at the African-Europe Summit. It focuses on the following objectives: 1. Economic matters (regional and continental economic cooperation and integration in Africa); 2. Human rights, democratic principles and institutions, the rule of law and good governance; 3. Peace-building and conflict prevention, management and resolution in Africa (particularly post conflict assistance and disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration and conflicts); 4. Development issues (eradication of poverty, issues of education, health and food security) (European Union, 2007a: Internet Source). The Cairo Declaration also affirms that, "Over the centuries, ties have existed between Africa and Europe, which have led to many areas of cooperation, covering political, economic, social, as well as cultural and linguistic domains. These have developed on the basis of shared values of strengthening representative and participatory democracy, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, the rule of law, good governance, pluralism, international peace and security, political stability and confidence among nations. In the light of the current rapid globalization trend, we are determined to strengthen this cooperation in our mutual interest and make it more beneficial to the two regions. In order to give a new strategic dimension to the global partnership between Africa and Europe for the Twenty-first Century, in a spirit of equality, respect, alliance and cooperation between our regions, we are committed to the basic objective of strengthening the already existing links of political, economic and

37 37 cultural understanding through the creation of an environment and an effective framework for promoting a constructive dialogue on economic, political, social and development issues" (Institute for Security Studies, 2000: Internet Source). The Second EU-Africa Summit was held in Lisbon in From this summit the new strategic partnership is strongly enhanced. The EU-Africa Joint Strategy was also adopted by both sides at the Lisbon Summit. The EU and the AU have emphasised that it is time to build a joint long-term strategic partnership. Both sides have agreed that the world has changed steadily and global challenges have emerged. In the light of these developments, cooperation between Africa and Europe has grown continuously in a broader field, particularly the maintenance of international peace and security in Africa and Europe. The EU and the AU have made a strong commitment to work together and cooperate in building peace and security. Africa and Europe understand that peace and security are preconditions for political, economic and social developments. Both organisations have deepened cooperation in the fields of conflict prevention, longterm peace-building, and conflict resolution and post conflict reconstruction at the Summit. It is more important to say that the EU has been playing a strategic role to reinforce the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), African peace-making, peace-keeping and peace-building mechanisms. The EU has strongly encouraged and supported the AU PSC for the maintenance of international peace and security, in particular through the CEWS, the Panel of the Wise and the ASF (Presidency of the European Union, 2007: Internet Source). Kotsopoulos (2007:1-4) stated that to establish a long-term strategic partnership with Africa is more crucial for the EU. First of all, new international changes and developments as well as increasing international competition in Africa are important factors. Moreover, other major reasons are to provide sources for energy and raw materials and create a market for investment to Europe. Security challenges are the most crucial issue for the EU. For these reasons, the EU is involved in several peacekeeping operations including the DRC, and Sudan in the framework of the ESDP. The EU has deep interests in a peaceful and flourishing Africa. A strong partnership between the EU and the AU has been steadily sustained. The EU has chosen the AU as a

38 38 reliable organisation partner in order to work together with, in particular in the fields of the maintenance of international peace and security, and plays the role of facilitator to peace operations, peacekeepers and peacemakers to bring an end to armed conflicts and political instability in areas of conflict. The EU and the AU have laboured hard for sustainable peace and stability in post-conflict situations such as in the DRC, Côte d'ivoire, Sierra Leone and Burundi. Furthermore, the EU has been trying to reinforce Africa s own efforts within the framework of the AU for crisis management and post-conflict stabilisation. The EU and the AU are seemingly more concerned about peace and stability in the African continent than any other problem within this region. The major principles of the EU and the AU with regard to keeping peace are to achieve peace and security, to prevent conflicts and strengthen peace and security (European Union and United Nations, 2007: Internet Source). The analysis of this chapter indicates that the EU and the AU have played a key role in the successful democratic transition of the DRC and in the implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in Darfur. So far, the EU has supported the AU s African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) in order to reinforce Africa s peacekeeping capacity as well as African peacekeeping operations such as in Darfur, the CAR, the Comoros and the AU Mission in Somalia (AMISOM). It is evident that the EU established the APF in cooperation with the AU in order to play a more active role in preserving peace and security. In addition, the EU has also made a financial contribution to reinforce the PSC of the AU. The EU and the AU work together in the framework of a Joint EU-African Strategy adopted at the EU-Africa Summit in Lisbon in December 2007 and it is based on the values of ownership and mutual accountability (European Union and United Nations, 2007: Internet Source). At the AU Summit in Durban in July 2002, the European Commission and the AU Commission decided to develop a relationship between the two continents in relation to the promoting of peace and security. In July 2003, the partnership between the continents culminated with the establishment of the APF by the EU at the Maputo Summit. The establishment of the APF is a strategic step for the EU as well as for Africa. The then Commissioner for External Relations Chris Patten said "The European Union is making an

39 39 increasing contribution to peacekeeping worldwide, including in Africa. The Peace Facility will provide a more stable mechanism for our contributions in the future, in the belief that peace and stability are necessary conditions for sustainable development to take place." The main purposes of the APF are specially to find African solutions to African countries, to encourage African solidarity and to develop all African countries in terms of economic structure (European Union and United Nations, 2003a: Internet Source). The APF has given a hand to the AU and the African organisation for African Peace Support Operations (PSOs) for the reinforcement of the African capability. So far, the APF has been supporting the following PSOs missions: the African Union Mission in Sudan, the multinational force of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community in the CAR, and the African Union Mission in the Comoros. Moreover, the APF has provided financial support to the following areas: reinforcing capabilities of the AU Commission, establishment of the ASF and the CEWS. The EU has thus strongly supported the AU on conflict prevention to preserve peace and security on the continent (Council of the European Union, 2007a: Internet Source). The EU and the AU have cooperated to prevent and resolve conflicts in Africa. Particularly, both the EU and the AU have made big efforts to stop the conflict in Sudan. The current crisis in Western Sudan erupted in February of Since 2003, one million people have been displaced and more that 140,000 people have been oppressed to immigrate into neighbouring countries during the conflict. According to international observers, between 10,000-30,000 civilians have been killed (United States Government Accountability Office, 2006:1). The former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan depicted it as a second genocide after the Rwandan genocide. Moreover, the UN described it as one of the biggest humanitarian crisis (Reuters Foundation, 2007: Internet Source).

40 40 Table 3: The Organisations and Peacekeeping Operations in Africa Organisations Year Mandate (ACMC) Administrative Control and Management Centre (AMIB) African Union Mission in Burundi (AMIS) African Union Mission in Sudan (APF) African Peace Facility (APRM) African Peer Review Mechanism (APSA) African Peace and Security Architecture (Artemis) EU-led military mission in the DRC (ASF) African Standby Force 2005 Provide and coordinate donations for the AU Observe and verify the implementation of the ceasefire agreements and provide humanitarian assistance Monitor and verify the Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement and maintain peace and security 2004 Support peacekeeping operations in Africa 2002 Promote political and socio-economic integration among African countries 2003 Preserve peace, security and stability in Africa 2003 Stabilise security conditions and improve the humanitarian situation in Bunia 2002 Prevent wars and provide humanitarian assistance (AU) African Union 2002 Foster political, economic and social integration among African countries and keep peace, security and stability in Africa (AU CEOM) Civilian 2006 Monitor and observe the election in the DRC Electoral Observer Mission (AU PSC) African Union Peace and Security Council 2002 Promote peace, security and stability in Africa (CEC) Commission of the European Communities (CEMAC) Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CENI) Independent National Electoral Commission (CEWS) Continental Early Warning System (CFC) Ceasefire Commission (CHD) Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue 1951 Implement the decisions of the Parliament and the Council 1994 Boots economic integration in Central Africa 2000 Prepare elections in Burundi 2002 Facilitate prevention of conflicts 2004 Observe and verify the implementation of the ceasefire agreements in Sudan 1999 Facilitate peacemaking and peacekeeping efforts

41 41 (DAEC) Darfur Assessment and Evaluation Commission (DDDC) Darfur-Darfur Dialogue and Consultation (DITF) Darfur Integrated Task Force (DPKO) Department of Peacekeeping Operations 2006 Implement the Darfur Peace Agreement 2005 Recommend and observe to the Darfur and national authorities 2005 Cooperate with international partners to reinforce the AU 1992 Manage peacekeeping and peacemaking operations (ECCAS) Economic Community of Central African States (EDF) European 1983 Foster regional economic co-operation and set up a Central African Common Market 1957 Provide aid to develop partnership Development Fund (EU) European Union 1993 Promote political, social and economic integration among European countries (EUFOR RD Congo) EU deployment in the DRC (EUPOL Kinshasa) EU Police Mission in the DRC (EUSEC RDC) EU Security Reform Mission in the DRC (HAM) High Authority for the Media (IEC) Independent Electoral Commission (IEMF) Interim Emergency Multi-national Force (IGAD) Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IPU) Integrated Police Unit (JLOC) Joint Logistics Operations Centre (JVMM) Joint Verification and Monitoring Mechanism (MCPMR) Conflict Management Division and the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution 2006 Carry out successfully the DRC electoral process, to preserve peace and security and to support the UN Mission (MONUC) Become a police coordinator and to help the electoral process in the DRC 2004 Make recommendations to the Congolese authorities in building peace and security Support the democratic process by reinforcing public and private media in the country 2003 Organise the electoral process in the DRC 2003 Sustain peace, security and stability in Bunia in the DRC 1996 Promote regional development among member states 2003 Ensure the internal security and protect the state institutions in the DRC 2005 Facilitate the AU peacekeeping operations and plan for the AU peacekeeping operations 2006 Implement the Comprehensive Ceasefire Agreement in Burundi 1993 Deal effectively with peace and security and prevent conflicts in Africa

42 42 (MIOB) African Union Observer Mission in Burundi (MONUC) the UN Organisation Mission in the DRC (NATO) North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NEPAD) New Partnership for Africa s Development (OAU) Organisation of African Unity 2003 Observe and verify the ceasefire agreements in Burundi 1999 Preserve liaison with the parties and implement the ceasefire agreement in the DRC 1949 Ensure a collective security in Europe 2001 Foster an integrated social and economic development in Africa Promote unity and solidarity and eradicate colonialism (ONUB) United Nations Operation in Burundi (ONUC) United Nations Operation in the Congo (OSCE) Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (PTSG) Partnership Technical Support Group (RRM) Rapid Reaction Mechanism (SADC) Southern African Development Community Maintain peace, security and stability Preserve law and order 1995 Address human rights, economic and political problems as well as security issues 2004 Coordinate donations in support of the AU peacekeeping operations 2001 Play a more active role in peace-building activities and post-conflict reconstruction 1980 Develop socio-economic, political and security cooperation among 15 southern African states (UN) United Nations 1945 Encourage cooperation in human rights, economic and social development as well as international peace and security (UNEF I) First United Nations Emergency Force (UNHCR) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNSC) United Nations Security Council (WEU) Western European Union Source: Own compilation Secure and observe the cessation of hostilities in Egypt 1950 Solve refugee problems in the world and protect and assist refugees 1946 Maintain international peace, security and stability 1948 Cooperate on defence and security

43 The Darfur conflict Sudan is the largest country in Africa and its population is about 40 million (Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook, 2008: Internet Source). The population of Sudan comprises of two important groups which include Arabs and black Africans. There are many different sorts of ethnic and tribal groups as well as languages in Sudan. The recent conflict began in the western region of Sudan in February of 2003, when the rebel groups in Darfur, the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), started assaulting the government of Sudan (United States Government Accountability Office, 2006:6-11). The Government of Sudan countered with the Sudanese Armed Force and JanJaweed militias against the rebel groups. The conflict is mainly known as a war between Arab aligned pro-government groups and non-arab aligned groups. Many elderly and vulnerable people including children and women have been tortured, raped and killed during the conflict (Darfur Australia, 2007: 1). Salih (2005:26) contended that the Government of Sudan should be centralised and represent all of the ethnic groups impartially. Also, it must leave its marginalised political view and find solutions to Sudan s challenges including drought, overpopulation and poverty because these problems are the most important challenges in the country. The other problem in the Darfur crisis is also related to the rebel groups. The SLA is a major rebel force in Sudan and makes peace talks difficult and undermines them. Furthermore, there has not been solidarity between the rebel groups including the SLA, the JEM and the others. It is therefore believed that factions of the rebel groups are a major frustration in the making of a comprehensive political agreement (International Crisis Group, 2005a:1). The roots of the ongoing conflict are based on historical elements. These elements which include the following are complicated and continue to affect the recent conflict: 1. Economic and political marginalisation of the Government of Sudan: This has damaged sustainable development and social coherence in Darfur and in particular has raised ethnic segregation;

44 44 2. Environmental and ecological factors: In fact environmental and ecological factors are directly or indirectly affecting the life of people as well as the behaviours of governments. Drought, desertification and overpopulation are serious challenges in Darfur. They then constitute the causes of the conflict; 3. The role of the government of Sudan against the ethnic conflict: Government can play a positive role in the fight against the isolation of ethnic conflicts. One can say that the government of Sudan is not active enough in stopping ethnic conflict in Darfur, and has failed to bring the conflicts between the Arab tribes and African tribes under control; 4. External factors: Sudan has historical ties with neighbouring countries. In particular, Chad and Libya fought for the region of Darfur for more than thirty years. Thus, the other cause of the current conflict is still related to interests of the foreign countries (Young and Osman, 2006:10-11). The UN, the AU and the EU are deeply concerned about the Darfur crisis. According to the international community, there are four important steps to make a comprehensive political agreement: 1. To bring an end to disputes between the rebel groups as soon as possible; 2. The SLA conference should represent everybody equally and be used to forge a consensus in keeping peace and security; 3. The SLA and the JEM must try to find solutions to the conflict and play an active role during peace talks; 4. The international community must organise relationships between the rebel groups and support them in preserving peace and security (International Crisis Group, 2005a:1). On the 5th of July 2005, the rebel groups, the SLA and the SEM, and the Government of Sudan made a comprehensive peace agreement entitled Declaration of Principles for the Resolution of the Sudanese Conflict in Darfur. On the other hand the progress of peace has been continuing very slowly (Manger, 2006:1). Today, the situation in Darfur still remains very complex and tragic. The UN Security Council has deployed a 26,000 strong peacekeeping force for Darfur but it is not guaranteed that they are sufficient to soon provide a durable peace process. The humanitarian crisis continues to affect the lives of civilians very badly. The international community has to play an active role in resolving the problem. Meanwhile, the rebel groups and the Government of Sudan must establish a political agreement, otherwise, the crisis will continue and more vulnerable people will die. If the crisis is not stopped as soon

45 45 as possible, the Darfur crisis will be accepted in the world as a second genocide after the Rwandan genocide. Map 1: Map of Sudan Source: International Crisis Group, 2004b: 14.

46 The EU and the AU`s security policy in Darfur The AU has been concerned about the Darfur conflict since its beginning. The AU has thus put into action the Protocol Relating to the Peace and Security Council (PSC) on the 26 th of December The fundamental objectives of the PSC of the AU are in general as follows: 1. Promote peace, security and stability in Africa; 2. Prevent conflicts and violence; 3. Promote and implement peace-building and post-conflict reconstruction activities; 4. Organise continental efforts in order to prevent international terrorism and conflicts; 5. Improve a common defence policy for the Union; 6. Promote and support good governance, human rights and fundamental freedoms (African Union, 2002a: Internet Source). The Protocol highlights that it is necessary to maintain peace and security for sustainable development because it is impossible to develop without security. In the case of Sudan crisis, the African Union PSC established the AU Mission in Sudan (AMIS) in April 2004 in order to sustain peace, security and stability in Sudan. In addition, AMIS was expanded and reinforced as AMIS II on the 28 th of April 2005 in order to keep peace and security effectively and efficiently (AMIS-Sudan, 2007a: Internet Source). The PSC of the AU emphasised that the Darfur crisis is a serious humanitarian one and must be stopped immediately. The conflict devastates all civilian population and threatens human rights principles. Besides, it underlined that attacks against innocent people by the Janjaweed militias are unacceptable, and the government of Sudan must neutralise and disarm them as well as other rebel groups (African Union, 2004d: Internet Source). More importantly, the AU PSC stressed that the AU should play a more active role in resolving the Darfur crisis and also work closely with the international community, the UN and the EU for the maintenance of peace and security in the region. Moreover, it called urgently upon all parties including the GoS, the SLM and the JEM to implement the

47 47 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement. The AU PSC also highlighted the fact that the AU Mission should be strengthened for a more robust peacekeeping operation, and the civilian population should be saved from any kind of violence and supported in terms of humanitarian assistance (African Union, 2004d:Internet Source). The AU PSC has three crucial tasks for the sustainability of peace and security in the Darfur crisis: 1. To protect the civilian population; 2. To disarm and neutralise the Janjaweed and 3. Facilitate the delivery of humanitarian relief. Even though the AMIS has some obstacles to maintain peace and security in Darfur, AMIS has made a contribution to peace, security and stability in the region (Powell, 2005: 32). The AMIS has therefore filled an important gap on security area in Darfur crisis. On the other hand, it has encountered some barriers to preserve peace and security strongly and effectively. For instance, limited capacity, insufficient resources and the political situation are challenges of the AMIS (International Crisis Group, 2005c:1). According to the ESS, the EU has to play a more active role in tackling global challenges and key threats including terrorism, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, state failure, organised crime as well as regional conflicts. The EU has been active in order to keep peace and security in the conflicting region because the current security problems escalate terrorist attacks (European Union, 2005a: Internet Source). Mutton (2007:1) contended that instability and conflicts in Africa demolish social and economic developments as well as interests of the EU. Thus, the EU should get involved in peace and security in Europe as well as beyond Europe. In recent years, the EU has deployed military peacekeeping operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and the DRC. The EU has also authorised civilian missions in Bosnia Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the DRC and Georgia and a rule of law mission in Iraq (European Union and United Nations, 2005: Internet Sources). In this regard, the EU believes that peace and security are essential for sustainable development. Also, international cooperation is very important for the EU to sustain international peace and security such as with the UN, the AU and other relevant organisations. It can be said that the EU has recently rapidly increased international cooperation with both the UN and the AU in the fields of peace,

48 48 security and stability as well as the spread of human rights norms and democratic government (Council of the European Union, 2005b: Internet Source). According to the Council of the European Union, the EU is actively involved in all diplomatic solutions and efforts for the Darfur crisis and has consistently worked for the implementation of the CPA signed between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). The EU has urgently approved a comprehensive political and security basket for providing peace, security and stability in Darfur. This basket comprises the following areas: 1. To back efforts of the international community in resolving the Darfur crisis; 2. To achieve a political and diplomatic settlement of the conflict in Darfur; 3. To accelerate the implementation of the CPA; 4. To promote dialogue between the different ethnic groups; 5. To advocate positive relations between the Government of Sudan and other Sudanese groups as well as non governmental organisations; 6. To sustain regular contact with the Sudanese authorities; 7. To strengthen capacity of the AU in terms of political, economic and military conditions and support its political, military and police efforts in order to maintain peace and security in the region of Darfur (Council of the European Union, 2005c: Internet Source). The Council of the EU also accepted guidelines for implementing ESDP to support peace and security in Africa as well as to bring an end to the Darfur crisis in Sudan. These guidelines consist of supporting the principles of African ownership and cooperation with the international community through the UN and the AU (Council of the European Union, 2006a: Internet Source). Solana (2006: Internet Source) contended that the Darfur crisis is the worst humanitarian crisis on the continent. All parties must refrain from any kind of violence and show respect of the N djamena cease-fire. On the 18 th of July 2006, a comprehensive conference regarding the Darfur crisis was held in Brussels. Solana explicated the following security policy of the EU for the Darfur crisis at the conference: 1. To encourage the implementation of the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA); 2. To support the efforts of the AU and AMIS in providing peace and security; 3.

49 49 To provide integration into the UN and the AMIS for a more strong peacekeeping role immediately; 4. To reinforce cooperation including the UN and the AU for effective transition (Council of the European Union, 2006a: Internet Source). Particularly, the EU has increased cooperation with the AU and the UN to bring peace and security throughout the Darfur conflict. Even though the EU has made effort to stop the conflict in the region of Sudan and implemented its security policy, it could not prevent the conflict in Sudan immediately. The humanitarian and political crisis still continues to jeopardise the lives of civilian people and is also spreading to the whole region steadily. The security issue in Darfur is the first priority of the EU because Sudan plays a strategic role between Africa and the Arab world. Moreover, Sudan has an ancient history including its diversity of languages and ethnic groups. For this reason, the EU is actively engaged in this crisis and is trying to find a solution for it. The EU is committed to the AU and has been supporting it in terms of financial, logistical and other assistance The cooperation between the AU and the EU with regard to peacemaking and peacekeeping throughout the Darfur Crisis The EU and the AU have played a strategic role to maintain peace, security and stability and to create peace conditions on the continent. The APSA is strengthened in charge of the AU and also African peacemaking, peacekeeping and peace building mechanisms are reinforced rapidly. It is said that African countries understand that maintenance of peace and security is a top priority for sustainable development. The EU has also continued to support the AU in terms of financial, human resources and experience through the principle of African ownership and a strategy of long-term capacity building including the Continental Early Warning System, the Panel of the Wise and the ASF. The AU is also the most important institutional partner for the EU in matters related to the maintenance of peace and security (Council of the European Union, 2007b: Internet Source).

50 50 Map 2: Major Peacekeeping Operations in Africa Source: Economist, 2007: Internet Source The EU and the AU have recently reinforced a strategic partnership through a common and comprehensive framework in the fields of security, conflict prevention and long-term peace-building, conflict resolution and post-conflict reconstruction. More importantly, the EU Commission and the AU Commission adopted the Cairo Declaration in 2000 and the Lisbon Declaration in Both Declarations have three crucial principles: 1. To strengthen and promote the EU-Africa political partnership; 2. To promote peace, security and stability and to address the root causes of conflicts and 3. To cooperate against global challenges and security threats (Council of the European Union, 2007b: Internet Source). It is clear that the EU and the AU have endeavoured to resolve and manage conflicts in Africa as well as to strengthen cooperation.

51 51 Throughout the Darfur conflict, there are two kinds of cooperation between the EU and the AU: 1. Political and diplomatic cooperation, 2. Military support and capacity building (International Crisis Group, 2005b: 9). The Humanitarian Cease-fire Agreement (HCFA) was signed in N`Djamena on the 8 th of April 2004 between the rebel groups and the Government of Sudan (International Relations and Security Network, 2004: Internet Source). During the Agreement, the role of the AU was to facilitate the Agreement with the EU, and all expenditures of the agreement were financed by the EU. In addition, the EU actively participated in the Ceasefire Commission (CFC) and Joint Commission with the AU and other international actors in Addis Ababa (Council of the European Union, 2004a: Internet Source). The CFC consisted of the AU, the EU, Chadian mediation, the Government of Sudan, JEM and the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A). The objectives of the CFC are to investigate among other things any violations of this Agreement and report to the Joint Commission regarding the implementation of the rules and stipulations of the ceasefire. The Joint Commission is also comprised of the AU, the EU, Chadian mediation, the US and the members of the parties. The fundamental missions of the Joint Commission are to coordinate investigations, conduct verifications and to monitor (AMIS-Sudan, 2004: Internet Source). The EU also operated closely with the AU Special Envoy, Dr. Hamit Algabid, during the Abuja peace talks and agreed to the initial step of the negotiation process which started in Abuja, Nigeria on the 23rd of August Furthermore, the EU joined the first round of the Abuja peace talks held by the AU from the 15 to the 17 July 2004 in Addis Ababa. Also, the EU has provided financial support of 1 billion as well as personnel and political support in liaison with the AU and the UN for the Abuja peace talks/process and the CFC (Council of the European Union, 2004a: Internet Source). The AU and the EU specifically focused on the following issues during the Abuja peace talks: 1. Humanitarian issues;

52 52 2. Security issues; 3. Political issues and; 4. Socio-economic issues (African Union, 2004b: Internet Source). The Abuja peace talks brought some strategic implementation policies for the AU and the EU as well as the international community. Firstly, The Abuja talks have served a basic facility for the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA). Secondly, it has accelerated the implementation of the HCFA. Thirdly, the Abuja peace talks increased the importance of the CFC (Sudan Tribune, 2004: Internet Source). According to the Declaration of the EU regarding the resumption of the Abuja talks on the 29 th of June 2005, the EU will fully endorse the AU in order to play a critical role in the Abuja peace talks. When the Abuja peace talks ceased on the 10 th of June 2005, the EU and the AU established a shuttle diplomacy to initiate the negotiations again and they urgently called upon the Sudanese Government and the rebel groups in order to instigate the Abuja peace talks as well as to cooperate actively with the AU monitoring mission. Moreover, the EU also stated that the EU will fully back the AU mediation and the appointment of Dr. Salim Ahmed Salim as the AU Special Envoy for the Inter-Sudanese Political Talks on Darfur (European Union, 2005b: Internet Source). EU Special Envoy Haavisto said that the EU and the AU have been working together to enhance the HCFA and to protect civilians during the Abuja peace agreement (Wilson Center, 2006: Internet Source). On the 5 th of July 2005, The GoS, the SLM/A and the JEM signed the Declaration of Principles in Abuja, Nigeria under the auspices of the AU to bring an end to the conflict in Darfur (Sudan Tribune, 2005a: Internet Source). Solana expressed the opinion that the signing of the Declaration of Principles on the Darfur conflict opened a new chapter in Sudan, and admired the efforts of the AU for its signing. He said that the EU will strongly continue to cooperate with the AU in order to stop the conflict and to build peace and security in Sudan (European Union, 2005c: Internet Source). On the 18 th of July 2005 the EU assigned Mr. Pekka Haavisto as an EU Special Representative to facilitate the negotiation and political process for Sudan. His basic tasks are to achieve a political reconciliation between the Government of Sudan and the rebels, to

53 53 expedite the implementation of the CPA, to elevate dialogue in order to remove provocations between the regional ramifications and to strengthen the principle of African ownership as well as reinforce the EU`s civilian-military action in order to support the AMIS (Council of the European Union, 2005c: Internet Source). The EU has actively supported the signed DPA between the GoS and the SLM/A on the 5 th of May 2006 in Abuja. Alpha Omar Konare, a former Chairperson of the African Union Commission, contended that the AU was supported by the international organisations including the EU and the UN throughout the peace process and their support facilitated the peace process of the DPA (AMIS-Sudan, 2006: Internet Source). The EU and the AU held the 7 th EU-Africa Ministerial Troika Meeting in October 2006, and underlined the importance of the HCFA. Throughout the meeting, the two parties highlighted their deep apprehension that the security and humanitarian situation in Darfur is of crucial importance. Most importantly, they strongly committed each other to cooperate in preserving peace and security in the Darfur conflict (Council of the European Union, 2006b: Internet Source). The EU has also worked together with the AU in the implementation of the Preparatory Committee for the Darfur-Darfur Dialogue and Consultation (DDDC) process and the Darfur Assessment and Evaluation Commission (DAEC) (Council of the European Union, 2006a: Internet Source). The DDDC was launched by the AU on the 9 th of November DDDC is a kind of mechanism for mobilising mission for the DPA and resolving the issues of peace and reconciliation as well as to facilitate a durable solution for the Darfur crisis. Furthermore, this mechanism is also an integral part of the Abuja peace process and serves as a consultative mechanism to decision making powers relating to the Darfur conflict (Conciliation Resources, 2006: Internet Sources). The DDDC comprises the EU, the AU, the UN, the League of Arab States, tribal leaders, civil society organisations, representatives of the parties and some stakeholders. The AU Commissioner for Peace and Security Ambassador Said Djinnit stated that the DDDC has played a key role in finding a common reconciliation between the Sudanese Government and the rebel groups during the negotiations of the Abuja peace talks (Sudan Tribune, 2006: Internet Source).

54 54 The EU has also played an active role with the AU in the DAEC. DAEC is a mechanism for the international community to enter into force with the implementation of the DPA (European Union, 2007b: Internet Source). The EU has assisted the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (CHD) in order to accelerate the relationships between the AU and the EU during the Darfur conflict. The CHD is an independent foundation based in Geneva and operating to prevent and resolve armed conflicts as well as human suffering. The CHD has worked actively with the AU during the peace process and in particular during the N djamena peace talks (International Crisis Group, 2004b: 9). Furthermore, the EU set up an ad hoc coordination cell and assigned Mr. Pekka Haavisto as an EU Special Representative for Sudan to conduct it in Addis Ababa. The ad hoc coordination cell focused on the developments of the Abuja peace talks and the implementation of the CPA (International Crisis Group, 2005b:9). According to the Council of the European Union, the signing of the CPA between the Sudanese Government and the SPLM/A under the IGAD brought a lasting solution for the Sudanese politics. Reinforcing the EU-AU partnership is the best way to sustain and promote peace and security in Darfur. The EU expressed that it has continued to work closely with the AU for the implementation of the CPA (Council of the European Union, 2005c: Internet Source). Furthermore, the EU participated in all negotiations as an observer during the CPA with the AU and the other international players (Relief Web, 2005: Internet Source). With regard to military-operational partnership between the AU and the EU, there is a wide range of military-operational cooperation between the AU and the EU in the Darfur conflict. The EU has two important priorities in its cooperation with the AU during the Darfur crisis at operational level: 1. To strengthen the ability of the AU, and 2. To engage in peace support and peace operations in Africa. The AU Heads of State proposed to set up an effective and comprehensive peace facility in order to prevent wars, genocides and armed conflicts on the continent through the EU development cooperation at the Maputo Summit in The EU accepted the establishment of APF in order to strengthen the peace and security agenda of the AU and

55 55 promote peacekeeping in Africa in 2004 (European Commission, 2004: Internet Source). The APF is based on three important principles: 1. To strengthen African ownership; 2. To develop African-European cooperation and 3. To contribute to African solidarity. The EU has particularly given weight to reinforcement of peacekeeping operations of the AU and supported capacity building of the AU during the Darfur conflict. It must be noted that 35 million of the 250 million of the APF has been used for reinforcing capacity building of the AU (International Peace Academy and Geneva Centre for Security Policy, 2006: 10) and for the following activities: 1. Supporting the AU in the development of a comprehensive peace and security policy; 2. Supporting the establishment of a relevant planning capacity within the AU Peace and Security Directorate; 3. Supporting the establishment and training of reconnaissance teams to enhance the AU and sub-regional potential for the functional preparation of peacekeeping operations; 4. Enhancing the capacity of the AU and sub-regional organisations in the financial and administrative management of peace operations, either with AU backing or through donor support (European Commission, 2004: Internet Source). The APF is financed by the European Development Fund (EDF) which has also financed African peacekeeping forces, soldiers living expenses and development of capabilities. It is important to note that the bulk of the funds of the APF have been allocated to support and reinforce the AMIS. The EU also accepted responsibility to provide an additional amount of 300 million in order to continue to support the APF for the next three-year period ( ) (European Commission, 2006: Internet Sources). Paul Nelson who is the EU Commissioner for Development and Humanitarian Aid stated that the Peace Facility provides an important instrument to reinforce African peacekeeping efforts and builds security and stability in Africa. He paid tribute to the former President of the AU Commission, Alpha Omar Konare and the AU Peace and Security Commissioner Said Djinnit, for working closely with the EU in the establishment of the APF (EuropeWorld, 2004: Internet Source).

56 56 To begin with the AMIS, the AU made a decision to deploy a monitoring mission in Darfur in accordance with the N djamena Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement (NHCA) on the 28 th of May The first function of the AMIS was to deploy military observers and to monitor the Ceasefire Agreement. The African Union Mission in Sudan is known as AMIS I, it consisted of 465 personnel from ten African countries and was deployed in the Western Sudan at the beginning of June 2004 (AMIS-Sudan, 2007b: Internet Source). The EU and the AU have worked closely to consolidate the AMIS to sustain peace and security in the Darfur crisis (European Union, 2007b: Internet Source). The AU PSC decided to intensify the capacity of the AMIS on the 20 th of October 2004, because AU urgently wanted the support of the international community to strengthen the AMIS. Consequently, the AMIS was strengthened with civilian police and is now known as AMIS II (AMIS-Sudan, 2007b: Internet Source). The EU set up EU civilian military supporting actions to AMIS in response to a requirement of the AU, named AMIS EU Supporting Action. The reasons for the EU supporting action are to reinforce cooperation between the AU and the EU and to make the AU a central actor in the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts in Africa as well as to bring an end to the conflict in Darfur immediately by strengthening the AMIS (European Union, 2005d: Internet Source). The EU-AU Ministerial Meeting Final Communiqué was issued in Luxemburg on the 11 th of April During the meeting, the two sides underlined the strategic importance of the APF and the achievements of the AMIS during the Darfur conflict. Moreover, they strongly emphasised that the AU-EU cooperation will carry on with the maintenance of international peace and security (Council of the European Union, 2005g: Internet Source). It can be said that the AMIS under the APF has been implementing crucial and strategic functions since the beginning of the Darfur crisis.

57 57 The EU civilian-military supporting actions to AMIS are based on the following elements: Table 4: AMIS EU Supporting Action 1- Support in the area of Police: Reinforce the AMIS II CIVPOL chain of command; Assistance to the AU in Addis Ababa in expanding its capacity; Assistance to post and pre-deployment in- Mission Training for CIVPOL Personnel. 2- Planning and Technical Experts: Operate with AU Member States to choose experienced African officers for the AMIS II Chain of Command and supply financing for them; Supply operational and logistical planners for AMIS head office in Addis Ababa, Khartoum and El Fasher. 3- Airlift: Provision of strategic airlift and airlift co-ordination to back with AMIS II. 4- Logistic Support: Provision of vehicles, communications materials and other equipment. 5- Training, Assistance and Advisory Teams: Help AMIS II in cultivating and finding personnel; Offer training of pilots for AMIS II. 6- Military Observers (MILOBS): Provision of the Vice-Chairman of the Cease Fire Commission; Provision of monitors. 7- Financial:

58 58 Provision of financial support, pending further contributions; 162M has been allocated to support and enhance AMIS I and AMIS II through the APF. 8- Aerial Observation: Provision of aerial observation ability for AMIS II. 9- Media Support: Provide assistance to the AU to improve the AU media strategy. 10- Administrative and Management Coordination Cell: Provide management coordination cell for fast and reliable communication between Brussels and Addis Ababa; Provision of Liaison officers and movement coordination officers." Source: International Peace Academy and Geneva Centre for Security Policy, 2006: 9. Meanwhile, the Partnership Technical Support Group (PTSG), the Liaison Group, the Darfur Integrated Task Force (DITF), the Administrative Control and Management Centre (ACMC) and the Joint Logistics Operations Centre (JLOC) are important components of cooperation between the EU and the AU through the Darfur conflict. Within these structures, operational and logistic planners and military staff officers have been deployed from various European countries to the AU in order to provide the strategic, tactical and operational support through the Darfur conflict (International Crisis Group, 2005b: 10-11). All things considered, the EU has strengthened the AU financially and made it a central actor in peacekeeping operations throughout the Darfur conflict. Most importantly, the EU established the APF in 2004 to preserve peace and security in Africa. The establishment of the APF reinforced cooperation between the EU and the AU. Moreover, the AU deployed AMIS to prevent conflict immediately after the Darfur conflict erupted. The EU has reinforced AMIS with the APF to maintain peace and security in the region of Sudan. The EU and the AU realised that peace and security in Africa are top priority for political,

59 59 social and economic development. Therefore, the EU and the AU have worked together in a wide range of activities including from political cooperation to military cooperation throughout Darfur conflict The DRC conflict With regard to the DRC conflict, there are two wars which took place in the DRC. The first Congo War began in 1996 and ended in It took place between the two ethnic groups including the Lendu and Hema, in Ituri region. The Second Congo War began in August 1998 and officially ended in July The Second Congo War is mostly known as the Great War of Africa and Africa s First World War. 3.5 million people died since 1998 because of starvation, diseases and casualties of war. Also, 3.4 million were driven from their homes (United Nations, 2004: Internet Source). The DRC formerly known as Zaire- is one of the largest and the richest countries in terms of natural resources, gold and diamonds in Africa. Eight African nations and more than a dozen rebel parties were involved in the DRC conflict which took place between 1996 and 2003 (Vlassenroot and Raeymaekers, 2005: 4-5). The roots of the DRC conflict are mostly similar to others which have taken place in Africa. However, the DRC conflict is based on complex reasons. It is important to note that the conflict was fuelled and backed by different national and international groups which had a huge interest in the outbreak of the conflict. The most important reasons of the conflict in the DRC were the impact of poverty, ethnic divisions, tribal fragmentations, and land disagreements, competition for natural resources and gold and diamonds (International Rescue Committee and Burnet Institute, 2004: 1). The Second Congolese War was historically related to political developments in neighbouring country Rwanda. Rwanda is one of the smallest countries and comprises two major ethnic groups including the Hutu and the Tutsi. At least 800,000 people were killed during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Tutsis were slaughtered by Hutu militias (United Nations, 1999a: Internet Source). It is said that the DRC conflict started as a result of the Rwandan genocide. After the Hutu militias (Interahamwe) were slaughtered in Rwanda, they got away to their neighbouring country DR Congo and began attacking the Congolese

60 60 people in the eastern region of the DRC (International Crisis Group, 2004a:1-2). The Rwandese Patriotic Army (RPA) attacked the cities of Kinshasa, Gome and Uvira on the 2nd of August 1998 and the war started in the DRC. Map 3: Map of Democratic Republic of the Congo Source: International Crisis Group, 2007: 20. Also, the Uganda Army (UPDF) invaded the northern Kivu, the Oriental Province and the Equator on the 4 th of August 1998 (Mpango, 2004:4). During the Second Congolese War, the rebel groups including the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo (MLC) and the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) were backed by Rwanda, Uganda and Burundi and took over from President Laurent Kabila in August 1998 (Van Der Bij, 2000:12). Joseph Kabila came to power in the DRC when his father was murdered in January The

61 61 government of Joseph Kabila was supported by the international community due to efforts to end the conflict in the country (Jacob, Krill, Newalsing and Mitchell, 2002:12). Since 1997, 23 peace initiatives have been made to bring an end to the conflict in the DRC. The Global and Inclusive Accord which was signed between the Congolese parties in July 2002 brought peace in the country. The Parties accepted a cessation of hostilities and the establishment of a Transitional Government for the Democratic Republic of Congo. According to the Agreement, the unification and reconstruction of the country and organising of free and transparent elections were to be the first priority of the Government of the DRC (Dindelo, 2006:48). Presidential elections were held in the DRC in October According to the Democratic Republic of Congo s Independent Electoral Commission s Declaration, Joseph Kabila won the DRC presidential elections (Reuters Foundation, 2006: Internet Source) The EU and the AU s security policy in the DRC The European Council appointed Aldo Ajello as its special representative for the African Great Lakes Region on the 25 th of March His mission is to preserve peace and security and to support the UN and the AU for the long term stabilisation in the region. He has made effort to accelerate international initiatives and diplomatic negotiations to keep peace, security and stability in the DRC and also he has worked closely with the AU to create the peace process in the region (Council of the European Union, 2007c: Internet Source). According to the ESS, security is the first primary condition to development. Security is not only important for the continent of Africa, but also an imperative for Europe. For this reason, the EU has supported all African peace and security initiatives in the framework of the CFSP/ESDP (Council of the European Union, 2003a: Internet Source). Security is vital for political and economic stability in DRC. The EU has actively intervened in the DRC conflict since 2001 and has increasingly become an important player in preserving peace and security in this conflict within the CFSP/ESDP. Significantly, the DRC in the Great Lakes Region is a very important country for the EU in terms of its geographical situation

62 62 and its natural resources. That is why the EU is playing an active role in the maintenance of peace, security and stability in the DRC (Hoebeke, Carette and Vlassenroot, 2007:2-8). The EU has initiated its security strategy in four ESDP missions for the DRC since These missions are categorised by military and civilian missions. Military operations have been undertaken as the EU-led military mission to the DRC (Artemis), and the EU deployment in the DRC (EUFOR RD Congo), and civilian missions have been undertaken as the EU Police Mission in Kinshasa (EUPOL Kinshasa) and the EU security reform mission in the DRC (EU SEC RDC) (European Union, 2007c: Internet Source). The EU got a UN mandate for the Interim Emergency Multi-national Force (IEMF) to contribute to peace, security and to restore order in the DRC through resolution 1484 (2003) on the 30 th of May 2003, and the Council of the European Union approved the setting up of a temporary force to sustain peace and security in the Ituri Region, within the UNSC Resolution 1484 (2003) (European Union, 2003: Internet Source). The EU launched Operation Artemis in the DRC on the 12 th of June 2003 and it finished on the 1 st of September The Operation Artemis s aims were to stabilise security conditions and improve the humanitarian situation in Bunia and to protect the airport, the civilian population and the UN personnel. It can be said that the Artemis mission contributed on the DRC peace process, stabilised peace and security in Bunia and prevented escalation of violence in the Ituri region (Grevi, et al., 2005: 4-5). Most importantly, the Artemis mission was the first EU peacekeeping mission outside Europe which took place in the DRC in Bunia. Also, the EU set up an EU advisory and assistance mission for security reform in the DRC. The mission s purposes were to assist and make recommendations to the Congolese authorities in building peace and security. The EUSEC RDC mission was launched as a SSR advisory mission at the end of The most important success of the EUSEC RDC mission has been in the framework of the Congolese security sector. The EU s basic objectives in the framework of security structures were to establish a transitional government and to support the electoral process. (Hoebeke, et al., 2007:9-12). Furthermore, the EU has supported the mandate of the United Nations Organisation Mission in the DRC (MONUC) during the electoral process for the restoration of peace, security and stability,

63 63 national reconciliation and the establishment of the rule of law (Council of the European Union, 2006c: Internet Source). Moreover, the EU initiated a police mission in Kinshasa through the framework of the ESDP called as the EUPOL Kinshasa. The EUPOL Kinshasa mission was officially initiated on the 12 th of April 2005 and ended in April EUPOL Kinshasa s objectives were to become a police coordinator and to help the electoral process. At the same time, EUFOR RD Congo was launched on the 23 rd of March 2006 to carry out successfully the DRC electoral process, to preserve peace and security and to support the UN Mission (MONUC) (Council of the European Union, 2005d: Internet Source). The EU s major tasks concerning its security policy in the DRC conflict were to forge a long-term peace and security, democratisation, good governance, human rights and the respect for the rule of law. The Operation Artemis, the EUPOL Kinshasa, the EUSEC RD Congo and EUFOR RD Congo missions are conducted by the EU in the DRC in the framework of the ESDP. These operations demonstrate that peace and security are an essential precondition for political and socio-economic development in Africa (Council of the European Union, 2005d: Internet Source). On the other hand, the DRC conflict is an extremely complicated situation which is based on endogenous and exogenous factors including the size and the geographical situation of the country, ethnic dimensions and its precious resources, the interests and the policies of neighbouring countries and international relations. In fact these parameters stemmed from a close relationship between the EU and the DRC as well as the EU s security policy through peace-building and political stabilisation in the country during the conflict (Kobia, 2002: 431). The AU PSC has the responsibility to manage peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding for the resolution of conflicts. According to the Protocol of the AU PSC, the PSC shall promote peace, security and stability in Africa for sustainable development. Moreover, it shall prevent conflict where conflicts have happened and undertake peacebuilding and post-conflict reconstruction tasks (African Union, 2002a: Internet Source). The AU has been involved in peace, security and stability since the DRC conflict began. The AU PSC made important decisions at its 23 rd meeting relating to the peace and security

64 64 situation in the DRC on the 10 th of January Particularly, the PSC underscored the armed groups including the ex-far and Interahamwe that threatened peace and security, as well as the transition processes in DRC. Finally, the PSC undertook to disarm and neutralise the armed groups in the country because disarmament and neutralisation of the armed groups are very crucial steps to keep peace and security in the DRC (African Union, 2005a: Internet Source). Hence, the AU has conducted a reconnaissance mission in Kinshasa to disarm and neutralise the armed groups (Muganga, 2007:3), and sent an evaluation team into the DRC to investigate the armed groups between the 7 th February to the 8 th of March 2005, and also organised a wide meeting to forge a long term security strategy with the Government of DRC, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, the Department of Peacekeeping of the UN, MONUC, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), EU and the USA in Addis Ababa on the 16 th of March The AU organised another important meeting that joined its military experts and representatives from Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda on the 22nd of April This meeting has helped to materialise the security strategy in the region (London School of Economics and Political Science, 2006:5). Furthermore, the AU underlined the importance of strengthening the MONUC, and decided to play a more active role in implementing the transition process as well as the electoral process. It is said that the AU PSC has made a huge effort to pay attention to the international community and the member states of the AU concerning the DRC conflict. The AU has also coordinated taking assistance from the member states including troops, security assistance, disarmament and neutralisation of the armed groups. In the meanwhile, the AU has worked very closely with the international community such as the UN, the EU and other stakeholders in order to preserve peace and security (African Union, 2005a: Internet Source). The AU has also played an important role during the electoral process and disarmed the armed groups in the East of the DRC. Furthermore, the AU deployed 11 military observers in Goma and Bukavu. The PSC of the AU made important decisions at its 54 th meeting held on the 2 nd of June 2006 regarding the DRC conflict. It underlined the fact that the presidential and legislative elections are very important steps to sustain peace, security and stability. During the electoral process, the AU PSC encouraged the people of the Congo to

65 65 vote in the elections. Elections in the country have been very important periods in building peace and national reconciliation. During the elections, the AU supported the institutions in transition, particularly the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC), the High Authority for the Media (HAM) and the Supreme Court (African Union, 2006a: Internet Source). Furthermore, the AU has provided technical, administrative and financial support for the electoral process. Also, the deployment of the AU Civilian Electoral Observer Mission (CEOM) made a crucial contribution to the electoral process. The AU CEOM performed in close coordination with the Government of the DRC (African Union, 2006a: Internet Source). The AU also has supported the efforts of the UN in the establishment of the MONUC to maintain peace and security. Moreover, the AU played an active role to forge diplomatic relations with the neighbouring countries of the DRC to put an end to the conflict and to keep peace and security (Institute for Security Studies, 2007a: Internet Source) The cooperation between the AU and the EU with regard to peacemaking and peacekeeping throughout the DRC crisis The AU and the EU have cooperated during the transition process in particular with the new Congolese authorities to bring an end to the conflict in the region. Both sides have played an active role to improve the governance system, democracy, reconstruction and sustainable development in the DRC. In addition, they have always underlined the importance of the SSR and called upon the armed groups to disarm and integrate into the national army and also encouraged the extension of the mandate of MONUC (Council of the European Union, 2007b: Internet Source). The Ninth Ministerial Meeting of the Africa and EU Troikas was held in Accra, Ghana on the 31st of October Both sides welcomed cooperation during the DRC conflict for long-term stability and development. They urged a comprehensive agreement and lasting solution to the problems and they are committed to work closely with the Congolese government in building peace and security, in improving the government system and in promoting post-conflict reconstruction and development. Moreover, they highlighted the

66 66 importance of the establishment of a national army (European Union, 2007d: Internet Source). The EU/AU cooperated throughout the DRC conflict to implement the transition process in the country successfully and advanced the governance and democratic system as well as political and socio-economic stability. Furthermore, the cooperation between the EU and the AU made contribution to peace and security by disarming the armed groups in the country. On the other hand, the EU/AU cooperation could not bring lasting solutions to the problems and prevent and resolve the conflict in the country. Today the conflict continues in the country and threatens the lives of the people. Both the EU and the AU need to find a comprehensive agreement between the parties including the rebel groups and the Government of the DRC in order to prevent the conflict The conflict in Burundi With regard to the conflict in Burundi, Burundi is a landlocked African country between Rwanda to the North, Tanzania to the East and the DRC to the West. Burundi s population is about at 6 million people. The economy is predominantly based on agriculture and it does not have valuable natural resources and developed industries (Central Intelligence Agency World Fact Book, 2008: Internet Source). In Burundi, the first democratically election was held on the 29 th of June 1993 and Mr. Melchior Ndadaye was the first ever elected as a leader of the country but he was assassinated in October 1993 after he came to power in the country. With the assassination of Ndadaye, a big and brutal civil war began between Hutu and Tutsi tribes based on ethnic dimensions. In April 1994, the new president Cyprien Ntaryamina was also assassinated and instability and insecurity escalated in the country. The country went to elections on the 19 th of August 2005 and Mr. Pierre Nkurunziza was elected as a President of the Republic of Burundi. The government accepted a new constitution and a majority Hutu government came in power in Burundi in 2005 (Hiles, 2005: Internet Source).

67 67 Burundi was a colony of Germany and Belgium until becoming independence in The main root of the Burundi problem was based on ethnic conflict between the majority Hutus and the minority Tutsis. The civil war between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi-dominated army began in 1993 and ended in During the conflict an estimated 1.2 million civilian people were declared refugees in the neighbouring countries and were assassinated in this small Central African country as a result of ethnic division. In fact ethnic conflict is a fruit of colonialism. The Burundian society was classified during the colonial times as races, tribes, and castes (Gahama, 2002:4-5). Kivimaki and Laakso (2002:47) stated that the civil war in Burundi is the result of political instability, marginalisation and manipulation of Burundian society. During the colonial times, social disparities were created and after the independence in 1962, the rise of discrimination in the society began to abuse the peasant majority. According to Brachet and Wolpe (2005: 5-8), the main causes of the Burundi conflict are the following: 1. Social, ethnic and economic diversities and regional inequalities; 2. Extreme poverty and land scarcity; 3. Political instability in the country; 4. Negative political tendencies of countries of DRC and Rwanda against Burundi. Historically, Tutsis held power in Burundi from 1400s until As the most educated in the society, the Tutsis had power in the judicial system, the government and all high positions as a whole. However, the Hutus, who were 85 percent of the population, were used as servants in the society. This led to a huge discrimination between the Tutsi and Hutus in the society. In the beginning of the 1990s, the democratic waves appeared in the country under the pressure of the international community. When democratic elections were held in 1993, Hutus won the presidential elections in the country. As a result of these elections the Hutu president and several government ministers were murdered and a cruel civil war began between the two tribes in Burundi (Actionaid, 2005: Internet Source).

68 68 Map 4: Map of Burundi Source: International Crisis Group, 2006b:13. Pierre Buyoya who represented the Tutsi-dominated army carried out a military coup, took over the government from President Sylvestre Ntibantunganya in July 1996, and dissolved the 1992 Constitution and the 1994 Convention of Government. A transition period was started in the country by Buyoya. Peace talks resumed in Arusha, Tanzania in The Buyoya regime and the opposition-dominated National Assembly made an agreement to accept the Transitional Constitutional Act and transitional political platform on June It is said that Burundi s relationship with its neighbours including Rwanda, Tanzania and