The EU commitment to the UN peacekeeping: Promoting values and norms

Transcription

1 The EU commitment to the UN peacekeeping: Promoting values and norms by Ketevan Kerashvili Introduction With the changing nature of peacekeeping, the demands of UN peace operations have grown in size and scope and the organization needs closer partners, which possess the necessary capabilities to engage in complex tasks. 1 The current development of EU military capabilities has enabled it to provide a crucial support to the organization engaging more deeply in UN-mandated operations not only in Europe, but in Africa and the Middle East as well. In addition the EU has consistently maintained that the development of its capacities is taking place within the broad framework of the UN, 2 thus, closely linking its own development to the success of the UN. Besides, the EU has been the largest financial contributor as well as provided the largest contingent of peacekeepers to the UN peacekeeping. 3 These developments were unexpected, because one of the key assumptions till 2003 has been that the EU would be unlikely to develop its peace operations in cooperation with the UN and the UN would not become a primary partner of the EU in crisis management, 4 nevertheless, following the successful cooperation in Bosnia and the Democratic Republic of Congo, the EU and the UN have developed a close cooperation and the EU is a major contributor to the UN peacekeeping. Thus, the aim of the paper is to examine the importance of EU s support to the UN system, particularly to the development of peacekeeping. It will try to analyze, why does the EU commit to the UN peacekeeping operations and seek to receive the mandate of the 1 Jan Wouters and Tom Ruys, the European Union, the United Nations and crisis management: the road to partnership, Institute for International Law, Working paper #80, 2005, available at 2 Alexandra Novosseloff, EU-UN partnership in crisis management: developments and Prospects, 2004, available at 3 Jean-Maurice Ripert, EU statement for the opening session of the Fourth Committee on Peacekeeping, Speech on Peacekeeping Operations, October 24, 2008, available at 4 Thiery Tardy, the Challenges of EU-UN cooperation in peace operations, in Cooperation in peace operations: the United Nations and Europe, Favorita Papers no. 3, 2003, available at

2 organization for its activities, declaring the primary responsibility of the organization for maintaining global peace and security, 5 when it can develop independent operations. The paper will start by examining the evolution and transformation of the nature of peacekeeping operations and by describing the EU commitment to the UN followed by analyses of the reasons for such assistance. To explain the EU commitment to the UN, it is very important to consider the documents published by the EU, which emphasize the importance of multilateralism and the role of the UN in promoting peace and assess the image of the Union as a normative power supporting the multilateral organizations and promoting values and norms through supporting the strengthening of the UN. Evolution of peacekeeping The first peacekeeping forces were deployed in 1946 to observe and report on conflict in Greece, however, the first peacekeeping mission, which used military personnel to create a buffer zone between the warring parties, was the UN Emergency Force in response to the 1956 Suez crisis. 6 Following the success of the mission it established the basic principles of traditional peacekeeping, particularly the non-use of force, the need of consent of the parties to the dispute and impartiality. During the Cold War the UN set up only 13 peacekeeping operations. 7 Traditional peacekeeping developed under restrictive conditions, it was limited to the areas beyond the spheres of influence of superpowers and their functions were limited to monitoring borders and establishing buffer zones after the agreement of cease-fires. The missions were usually composed of lightly armed national troops from neutral member states. 8 After the end of the Cold War from 1988 the number of peacekeeping operations in the world considerably increased; moreover, more ambitious operations were established. 9 This has been accompanied by the basic changes in the nature of peacekeeping, the tasks and composition of operations became more diverse. Modern peacekeeping has become multilateral involving several levels of actors, multinational and also multidimensional including military, civilian police and other components. 10 The military forces are larger and 5 European Security Strategy, Secure Europe in a better world, available at 6 Ministry of Public Works and Government Services Canada, Peacekeeping: concepts, evolution and Canada s role, 1997, available at 7 Wibke Hansen, Oliver Ramsbotham and Tom Woodhouse, Hawks and Doves: Peacekeeping and conflict resolution, 2004, available at 8 Ministry of Public Works and Government Services Canada, Peacekeeping 9 Ibid. 10 Wibke Hansen, Oliver Ramsbotham and Tom Woodhouse, Hawks and Doves 1

3 armed to defend themselves in the case of violence. In addition, the environments in which these missions are deployed have become more complex. Initially, most peacekeeping operations were set up with the consent and support of the host governments, while during the 90s missions are deployed in the context of civil wars, where paramilitary groups act autonomously, thus, the UN agencies often meet significant challenges. 11 The disillusionment with the unsuccessful experience of the UN unable to response to various forms of conflict, have led to another decrease of deployments after Eventually the doctrines of peacekeeping have redefined the essence of the operations and creating flexible and combat-ready operations have become the priority. Another distinguishing feature of the modern peacekeeping has become the fact that the control of missions is not always exercised by the UN - After the UN authorizes the mission, member states take the lead. 12 These developments revealed the need of support from powerful actors, because the UN often lacks resources to deal with the changing needs of international environment. Thus, in his report, Agenda for Peace, Boutros Ghali pointed out that cooperation with the regional organizations could ease the burden of the UN, as they have the potential to respond to the UN s growing needs. 13 In 2005 the organization led 16 missions and had deployed military personnel. Such a high level of involvement and the multifaceted nature of the missions also lead to the limits of the organization s capacity. Consequently, the changing and more demanding nature of the peace operations have increased the need for crisis management capacities and have led the UN to seek support from other powerful actors. Accordingly, it welcomes the EU efforts to cooperation in order to benefit from the development of EU crisis management. 14 On the other hand, the development of ESDP led the EU to seek legitimization of its actions, which were driven by the self-interest and the necessity to respond to new environment. 15 Currently, the ESDP missions are usually mandated by the UN. 16 Thus, the UN through the Security Council is the legalizing and legitimizing body for peace operations, and the only organization that can authorize the use of force in international relations, consequently a close cooperation has developed between these organizations. 11 Ministry of Public Works and Government Services Canada, Peacekeeping 12 Wibke Hansen, Oliver Ramsbotham and Tom Woodhouse, Hawks and Doves 13 Jan Wouters and Tom Ruys, the European Union, the United Nations and crisis management 14 Thiery Tardy, EU-UN cooperation in peacekeeping: a promising relationship in a constrained environment, in the European Union and the United Nations: partners in effective multilateralism, Chaillot paper #78, 2005, available at 15 Ibid. 2

4 Development of EU-UN cooperation Therefore, the current development course and the increasing demands of global peacekeeping have broadened the need of capacities for operations and have made the support of the EU to the UN crucial. The UN has recognized the importance of relying on the active and capable EU as an operational partner. Thus, the EU is becoming the UN s most important Western partner considering the US s gradual retreat from the organization and its decreasing influence. 17 The relationship between the EU and the UN in the field of peacekeeping has undergone the major changes during the last decade. Before 2003 the relations between the EU and the UN were mostly symbolic. In 2000 the Presidency report on ESDP emphasized the primary responsibility of the UNSC in maintaining peace and stability and concluded that the efforts to develop ESDP will enable the EU to respond more effectively to the requests of the organization. 18 Initiatives started to develop from 2001 during the Swedish presidency, when providing the real added value for UN crisis management was identified as a key goal for the EU. The operations in the Balkans and Congo were the background for the initiative. In addition, high level meetings between the EU high representative and UN secretary-general started from 2000, when Kofi Annan and Javier Solana established friendly relationship. In addition, the EU Policy Unit identified the Assistant Secretary-General office for Europe in the UN as its partner. 19 Task forces, consisting of the EU and UN committees, meet twice a year to coordinate the interaction of UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Council s General secretariat. 20 The EU engaged in crisis management operations only after General Affairs Council conclusions in 2003 made crisis management a priority in the EU s relations with the UN. In addition, the European Security Strategy has stated the importance of the United Nations in promoting international peace and stability, consequently, the strengthening of the UN and supporting it to fulfill its responsibilities has become the priority for the EU. 21 The first ESDP operations in support to UN missions in 2003 were in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Operation Artemis in DRC constituted 16 Jean-Maurice Ripert, EU statement for the opening session of the Fourth Committee on Peacekeeping 17 Hanna Ojanen, The EU and the UN: a shared future, FIIA report, 2006, available at 18 Thiery Tardy, EU-UN cooperation in peacekeeping 19 Alexandra Novosseloff, EU-UN partnership in crisis management 20 Permanent representation of France to European Union, Brief guide to the European Security and Defense Policy, 2005, 3

5 the real breakthrough in the relations of the two organizations; it forced them to get familiar with each other s practices and led to the adoption of the Joint Declaration on EU-UN cooperation in Crisis management of 2003, 22 which provided the framework for the EU-UN cooperation covering both the civilian and military operations. It has identified tracks to implement the EU commitment to support the UN in crisis management, 23 building on the premise that the primary responsibility for the promotion of international peace and security rest with the United Nations Security Council, in accordance with the United Nations Charter. 24 The 2007 Joint Declaration on EU-UN cooperation in Crisis management reestablished the commitments put in the 2003 declaration. 25 The EU continues to stress its support to the UN to protect civilians, promote peace and protection of human rights, to fight against terrorism, etc. 26 The EU support to the UN in peacekeeping To show that the EU commitment to multilateralism is not simply rhetorical, the EU is proud to maintain its generous share of UN funding as a sign of support for the UN system. According to the UN Secretary General the EU assistance is crucial, as it has welldeveloped capacities for crisis management, humanitarian relief and rapid response. The two organizations are successfully working together on peacekeeping. 27 The EU member states participated in all ongoing UN peacekeeping operations after 2003 and, moreover, together they are the largest financial contributors to the UN system. The EU pays 38% of the UN's regular budget - about one-half of all UN Member States' contributions to UN funds and programmes. In 2005, the Community contributed almost $1 billion to the 21 Jan Wouters and Tom Ruys, the European Union, the United Nations and crisis management 22 Thiery Tardy, EU-UN cooperation in peacekeeping 23 European Council, EU-UN co-operation in Military Crisis Management Operations: elements of implementation of the EU-UN Joint Declaration, 2004 available at 24 Joint Declaration on UN-EU Co-operation in Crisis Management 25 European Security and Defence Assembly, European Union Support to the UN peacekeeping: reply to the annual report of the Council, December 2, 2009, available at 26 EU Statement at the United Nations Security Council: Debate on cooperation of the UN with regional organizations in maintaining international peace and security, January 13, 2010, available at 27 UN Secretary General, In address on United Nations Peacekeeping, July 7, 2009, available at 4

6 UN system. 28 The EU countries role is also evident with regard to the mission leadership of UN operations. For example, leading political functions in UN operations in Congo are held by representatives of Sweden, in Ethiopia by the representative of Germany, etc. 29 in addition, according to UN Under-Secretary-General for peacekeeping operations the personnel provided by the EU for the UN peacekeeping represents a crucial asset being among the best trained and prepared in the world, which reveals the EU member states commitment to effective multilateralism and their willingness to share responsibilities. 30 Intensive cooperation has developed throughout the Balkans, which includes, the UN Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), where the EU is in charge of the reconstruction pillar ; the current EU Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (based on UNSC Resolution 1396) to deploy police to take over international police duties from the UN-led International Police Task Force (IPTF); and the ongoing EU military operation Concordia in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (based on UNSC Resolution 1371) to help build peace and stabilize the political situation there. 31 In addition, the two organizations closely cooperate in Africa and the Middle East. Recently the EU was engaged in operations in DRC and Lebanon. The EU has assisted the UN in Chad, on the coasts of Somalia, etc. 32 Furthermore, the EU has deployed its observers in Georgia complementing the UN and OSCE missions and currently the EUMM although being an autonomous monitoring mission, it works in harmonization with the UN principles. 33 The EU supports the UN by providing military capabilities and by launching EU operations in answer to a request from the UN. Main options for the EU is to conduct operations under the UN mandate either alone, as in Bosnia and Herzegovina or take responsibility within the structure of the UN mission, as in the case of Kosovo. In addition, especially important are the operations when rapid response is necessary, as long as the UN faces shortages mostly in rapid reaction capacity. 34 Despite such determined support to the UN initiatives, the EU contribution has been decreasing during the last decade in quantitative terms because of the restrictions in defense 28 Presidency of the EU, Overview: the European Union at the United Nations, 1 January, 2007, available at 29 Jan Wouters and Tom Ruys, the European Union, the United Nations and crisis management 30 Jean-Marie Guehenno, Foreword, in the European Union and the United Nations: Partners in effective multilateralism, ed. Martin Ortega, Chaillot Paper no.78, June, 2005, available at 31 Presidency of the EU, Overview: the European Union at the United Nations, 1 January, 2007, available at 32 EU Statement at the United Nations Security Council 33 Jean-Maurice Ripert, EU statement for the opening session of the Fourth Committee on Peacekeeping 34 Thiery Tardy, EU-UN cooperation in peacekeeping, 51 5

7 budgets and the commitment to peacekeeping in the Balkans, which needs complex resources. In this regard, the EU sometimes refuses the UN proposal to support its operations, as in case of the UN Secretary General s request to provide help in eastern Congo in 2008, or to lead the peacekeepers in Somalia in Moreover, it should be mentioned that being a complex actor and taking into consideration the differing opinions of the member states, providing the operational support to the UN is also complex. However, the EU member states share the values and perceptions concerning peace and security, making them valuable partners for the UN. 36 Thus, it is unlikely that the EU will be able to substantially increase its contribution to UN peacekeeping. Nevertheless, in qualitative terms, the forces from the EU member states working for instance, in Liberia, Cote d Ivoire and Haiti, provide crucial technical support to the UN forces. 37 Moreover, the lack of EU troop contribution to the UN-led operations should be assessed together with their presence in the UN-mandated operations. 38 Currently, of the twenty three existing ESDP operations, fifteen are deployed alongside the UN operations, providing substantial assistance. 39 Autonomy vs. Legitimacy Despite such strong support to the UN peacekeeping from the EU, Novosseloff believes that there is a dualism in the EU s relationship to the UN, it recognizes the dominance of the UN, but is concerned about setting its own conditions for cooperation. The EU is a strong supporter of the UN in accordance with the ESS and the concept of effective multilateralism, yet, on the other hand, it places strong emphasis on the political autonomy, which leads it to distance itself from the UN. 40 The development of crisis management capability reflects this desire of independence in decision-making during the peacekeeping operations, thus, it favours the subcontracting model, which implies that the UN creates an operation and subcontracts it to the EU, which receives the legitimacy and preserves autonomy. 35 Richard Gowan, The EU should do more to support UN peacekeeping in Africa, Center for European Reform Bulletin, 2009, available at 36 European Security and Defence Assembly, European Union Support to the UN peacekeeping 37 Martin Ortega, the EU and the UN strengthening global security, in Effective Multilateralism: Europe, Regional security and a revitalized UN, ed. Espen Barth Eide, available at fpc.org.uk/fsblob/350.pdf 38 Thiery Tardy, EU-UN cooperation in peacekeeping 39 Richard Gowan, The EU should do more to support UN peacekeeping in Africa 40 Alexandra Novosseloff, EU-UN partnership in crisis management 6

8 Nevertheless, the desire of the EU to be an independent actor developing its own crisis management operations can decrease the EU legitimacy in the eyes of other countries. 41 Hence, the EU recognizes that the UN is the only body which can authorize its activities and most importantly the use of force, 42 though obtaining the UN mandate is not seen as necessary in the case of operations deployed in Europe and with the consent of the host state. 43 A UNSC mandate provides legitimacy and impartiality that an invitation of the host country is not able to deliver. Such document highlights the nature of the operation and makes it more publicly visible, therefore, it helps to answer the criticisms often raised by the developing countries. 44 In addition, such mandate shows the EU s support to multilateralism which is very important in relations with other countries, such as China or India, which otherwise might question the commitment of the EU. 45 Accordingly, the EU always seeks the UN mandate, even though it is concerned about the autonomy of actions, because it needs to receive legitimacy and maintain its image of civilian or normative power, which has been criticized after the development of EU military capabilities. The EU as a Normative power Thus, the EU is concerned about publicizing and rationalizing its presence and support to the UN and its commitment to multilateralism in general, because it is crucial for the Union to maintain its image as a civilian or normative power. With the development of CFSP it had been widely recognized, that the EU had to be understood as a player, which differs from traditional great powers, because its foreign policy could not be seen from the lens of national interests. Thus, Duchene suggested the concept of civilian power, which focuses on economic capabilities, rather than on armed forces. In 2000 Romano Prodi stressed the continued importance of this notion. 46 The development of military capabilities of the EU gave way to criticisms of the Union s shift to the military power, Bull described the concept itself as promoting a mistaken view that military force did not matter any longer Thiery Tardy, the Challenges of EU-UN cooperation in peace operations, Hanna Ojanen, The EU and the UN: a shared future 43 Thiery Tardy, EU-UN cooperation in peacekeeping 44 Thiery Tardy, the Challenges of EU-UN cooperation in peace operations, Richard Gowan, The EU should do more to support UN peacekeeping in Africa 46 See Ian Manners, Normative power Europe: A contradiction in terms?, Journal of Common market studies 40, no. 2, 2002, Stelios Stavridis, Why the Militarizing of the European Union is strengthening the concept of Civilian Power Europe, EUI working papers 7

9 Nevertheless, recent conceptualizing suggests that the EU is in fact a post-modern entity, whose identity is based on normative values. 48 Stavridis argues that even the military means can be of a civilian character, if they promote democratic principles and values, because the civilian power does not mean pacifism. Thus, militarizing the EU does mot mean the end of the concept of civilian power by design. 49 Therefore, this new approach, further developed by Ian Manners, moves beyond the debate over the state-like characteristics of the Union and understands the foreign policy of the EU through its international identity reflecting norms and values. The evolution of the Union in the post-cold War period facilitated the placing of universal norms and principles in its foreign policy, leading it to become a normative power. The supporting and promoting norms and values in international relations allows the EU to demonstrate, that it is not merely a sum of its parts, and to gain greater legitimacy through these basic norms. 50 Thus, the EU acts in a normative way in world politics, as the norms derived from the integration process, serve as a guide for the formulation of foreign policy and the European institutions are keen to emphasize the importance of values in the foreign policy of the Union. They stress that the EU s support to international organizations originates from its deep commitment to global norms and values. The Union downplays the role of interests in international politics and concentrates on the issue of ethics. 51 As Jorgensen and Laatikainen believe, the EU pursues its interests in world politics, nevertheless, it is reluctant to make it obvious and focuses on showing its values-based foreign policy. 52 Thus, regardless of which approach can be adopted (that the EU is or merely wants to be recognized as a normative power), the Union sees promoting multilateralism and helping the UN as a crucial strategy for the development of this image, because the EU independent policy may sometimes be interpreted as reflecting its own interests, while the UN is seen to pursue an open agenda 53 and legitimization from this organization gives freedom for actions in crisis management. Thus, The EU is seeking visibility in cooperation with international organization 54 and, consequently, is eager to assist the development of UN peacekeeping 48 Knud Erik Jorgensen and Katie Laatikainen, The the UN: multilateralism in a new key? 2004, available at 49 Stelios Stavridis, Why the Militarizing of the European Union is strengthening the concept of Civilian Power Europe, 50 Ian Manners, Normative power Europe: A contradiction in terms?, Knud Erik Jorgensen and Katie Laatikainen, The the UN: multilateralism in a new key? 52 Ibid. 53 Hanna Ojanen, The EU and the UN: a shared future 54 Thiery Tardy, the Challenges of EU-UN cooperation in peace operations, 53 8

10 capacities, because the UN provides legitimacy and authority for the EU crisis management operations. 55 Therefore, the EU is concerned not only with strengthening its military capacities, but also with assisting the UN. Clearly the goal of promoting multilateralism and strengthening the United Nations is an ambitious objective and very difficult to achieve. This fact reveals the Union s aspiration to improve its image as a powerful global player. 56 Commitment to multilateralism Thus, the power and influence of the EU is growing in the UN, since it not only is a large financial contributor, but also dominates many regional groups in the organization. Nevertheless, the EU also has to develop its concepts as a promoter of multilateralism in order to play a powerful role in international relations 57 and not to be seen as a strong power, which can engage in unilateral actions, because many members of the UN have frequently complained about the dominance of the Union and criticized it for being overrepresented in the organization. In order to answer these criticisms and receive legitimacy for its actions on the international arena, the EU tries to appear a keen supporter of the UN system and thus, in its discourse has identified the aim of promoting multilateralism as one of the most important objectives of the Union. 58 Therefore, to improve its image, the EU has engaged in the course of commitment to effective multilateralism, which requires consistent communication with the UN. The EU has presented a multilateral vision of the world in its European Security Strategy, 59 which stresses the importance of the United Nations Security Council in maintaining international peace and stability and given that Europe s prosperity depends on the effective multilateral system strengthening the United Nations, equipping it to fulfill its responsibilities and to act effectively, is a European priority. Considering these objectives, the EU should become more active in crisis management and conflict prevention and support the UN in responding to threats to international peace and security and in assisting countries emerging from conflicts as well as in enhancing its capabilities in crisis management. 60 Thus, the EU as a 55 Hanna Ojanen, The EU and the UN: a shared future 56 Knud Erik Jorgensen and Katie Laatikainen, The the UN: multilateralism in a new key? 57 Ibid. 58 Knud Erik Jorgensen and Katie Laatikainen, The the UN: multilateralism in a new key? 59 Martin Ortega, the EU and the UN: strengthening global security 60 European Security Strategy, Secure Europe in a better world 9

11 global player should be ready to share responsibilities of global security and help to build a better world. 61 Moreover, the Union further develops its self-image in The enlarging European Union at the United Nations, in which the status of the Union is described as a significant world actor building its presence in the world in order to contribute more effectively to peace and development across the globe. The UN promotes the values of democracy, solidarity, market-based economy and the rule of law, which are crucial for the EU. Therefore, the EU contribution to the organization is driven by the commitment to these values, as promoting them will be more effective through the work in cooperation with the UN. The document also stresses the importance of the EU rapid reaction forces for the UN peacekeeping operations and draws on the success of the operations in Bosnia and Macedonia to show the extent of Union s contribution. 62 In addition, in its statements the European Council always emphasizes that the EU makes multilateralism, with a strong UN at its heart, a central element of its external action. According to Jorgensen, this document represents the Look-How-Big-We-Are doctrine. The EU tries to present itself as a power representing goodness in international community and, consequently, has adopted multilateralism as its international profile, which connects its progress strongly to the UN s success. 63 Thus, it has become of major importance for the EU to advance the status of the UN, 64 because it strongly affects the EU s image among other states. Accordingly, multilateralism is a means, rather than the aim of the Union, 65 because it needs to receive legitimacy from the UN as a promoter of peace and security in the world. Conclusion In conclusion, both organizations recognize that they will benefit from cooperation in crisis management. For the UN the EU support to its operations is crucial, because the organization needs the crisis management capabilities to deal with the changing environment and increasing demands of peacekeeping operations. On the other hand, the EU is concerned about its image as a normative power and as a promoter of fundamental norms and principles, 61 Hanna Ojanen, The EU and the UN: a shared future 62 The European Union, The Enlarging European Union at the United Nations: making multilateralism matter, January, 2004, available at ec.europa.eu/external_relations/un/docs/brochure0104.pdf 63 Knud Erik Jorgensen and Katie Laatikainen, The the UN: multilateralism in a new key? 64 Hanna Ojanen, The EU and the UN: a shared future 65 Knud Erik Jorgensen and Katie Laatikainen, The the UN: multilateralism in a new key? 10

12 thus, the documents published by the EU emphasize that the Union commits to multilateralism and acts within the framework provided by the UN. Consequently, The EU supports the UN peacekeeping operations and always seeks the UN mandate in order to receive legitimization of its actions and make them publicly visible. In addition, the EU helps the UN to develop its operational capacities, because, given that it has committed itself to the development of the multilateral system and the promotion of fundamental norms and values, the success of the Union as a global player strongly depends on the progress of the UN system. References European Council, EU-UN co-operation in Military Crisis Management Operations: elements of implementation of the EU-UN Joint Declaration, 2004, available at European Security Strategy, Secure Europe in a better world, available at European Security and Defence Assembly, European Union Support to the UN peacekeeping: reply to the annual report of the Council, December 2, 2009, available at EU Statement at the United Nations Security Council: Debate on cooperation of the UN with regional organizations in maintaining international peace and security, January 13, 2010, available at un.europa.eu/articles/es/article_9407_es.htm Guehenno, Jean-Marie. Foreword, in the European Union and the United Nations: Partners in effective multilateralism, ed. Martin Ortega, Chaillot Paper no.78, June, 2005, available at Gowan, Richard. The EU should do more to support UN peacekeeping in Africa, Center for European Reform Bulletin, 2009, available at Hansen, Wibke, Ramsbotham, Oliver and Woodhouse, Tom. Hawks and Doves: Peacekeeping and conflict resolution, 2004, available at 11

13 Jorgensen, Knud Erik and Laatikainen, Katie. The the UN: multilateralism in a new key? 2004, available at Manners, Ian. Normative power Europe: A contradiction in terms?, Journal of Common market studies 40, no. 2, 2002, Ministry of Public Works and Government Services Canada, Peacekeeping: concepts, evolution and Canada s role, 1997, available at Novosseloff, Alexandra. EU-UN partnership in crisis management: developments and Prospects, 2004, available at Ojanen, Hanna. The EU and the UN: a shared future, FIIA report, 2006, available at Ortega, Martin. the EU and the UN strengthening global security, in Effective Multilateralism: Europe, Regional security and a revitalized UN, ed. Espen Barth Eide, available at fpc.org.uk/fsblob/350.pdf Permanent representation of France to European Union, Brief guide to the Europaean Security and Defense Policy, 2005, Presidency of the EU, Overview: the European Union at the United Nations, 1 January, 2007, available at Ripert, Jean-Maurice. EU statement for the opening session of the Fourth Committee on Peacekeeping, Speech on Peacekeeping Opertaions, October 24, 2008, available at Stavridis, Stelios. Why the Militarizing of the European Union is strengthening the concept of Civilian Power Europe, EUI working papers Tardy, Thiery. The Challenges of EU-UN cooperation in peace operations, in Cooperation in peace operations: the United Nations and Europe, Favorita Papers no. 3, 2003, 52-59, available at Tardy, Thiery. EU-UN cooperation in peacekeeping: a promising relationship in a constrained environment, in the European Union and the United Nations: partners in effective multilateralism, Chaillot paper #78, 2005, 49-68, available at 12

14 The European Union, The Enlarging European Union at the United Nations: making multilateralism matter, January, 2004, available at ec.europa.eu/external_relations/un/docs/brochure0104.pdf UN Secretary General, In address on United Nations Peacekeeping, July 7, 2009, available at Wouters, Jan and Ruys, Tom. the European Union, the United Nations and crisis management: the road to partnership, Institute for International Law, Working paper #80, 2005, available at 13