After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to:

Transcription

1 Political Geography 8 Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 8.1.1: Explain the three eras of rapid growth in UN membership. Learning Outcome 8.1.2: Explain why it is difficult to determine whether some territories are states. Learning Outcome 8.1.3: Explain the concept of nation-state and how it differs from earlier ways to govern. Learning Outcome 8.2.1: Understand the difference between a nation-state and a multinational state. Learning Outcome 8.2.2: Describe the differences among states formerly in the Soviet Union. Learning Outcome 8.2.3: Describe patterns of distribution of ethnicities in Russia and the Caucasus. Learning Outcome 8.2.4: Explain the concept of colonies and describe their current distribution. Learning Outcome 8.3.1: Describe the types of physical boundaries between states. Learning Outcome 8.3.2: Describe the types of cultural boundaries between states. Learning Outcome 8.3.3: Describe five shapes of states. Learning Outcome 8.3.4: Describe differences among the three regime types. Learning Outcome 8.3.5: Explain the concept of gerrymandering and three ways it is done. Learning Outcome 8.4.1: Describe the principle alliances in Europe during the Cold War era. Learning Outcome 8.4.2: Describe the principle economic alliances in Europe in the period since World War II. 99

2 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Learning Outcomes 8.4.3: Explain the concept of terrorism. Learning Outcomes 8.4.4: Describe ways that states have sponsored terrorism. Chapter 8 Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are States Distributed? Political geography is concerned with the study of the way governments organize and administer space on Earth s surface, and especially the geographic dimensions of conflict. One of Earth s most fundamental cultural characteristic is the division of our planet s surface into a collection of spaces occupied by individual countries. Wars have broken out in recent years both between small neighboring states and among cultural groups within countries over political control of territory. Old countries have been broken up into collections of smaller ones. Geographers use geographic methods to examine the causes of political change and instability and to anticipate potential trouble spots around the world. A state is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs. It occupies a defined territory on Earth s surface and contains a permanent population. A state has sovereignty, which means independence from control of its internal affairs by other states. The United Nations The most important global organization is the United Nations. The United Nations has provided a forum for the discussion of international problems. On, occasion the UN has intervened in conflicts between or within member states, authorizing military and peacekeeping actions. The UN seeks to promote international cooperation to address global economic problems, promote human rights, and provide humanitarian relief. The UN members can vote to establish a peacekeeping force and request states to contribute military forces. The UN tries very hard to maintain strict neutrality in separating warring factions. The League of Nations was the world s first attempt at in international peacekeeping organization. The League of Nations was never an effective peacekeeping organization because it could not stop aggression by these states against neighboring countries. The United States never joined the League of Nations and it fell apart in the 1930s. The United Nations was created at the end of World War II and only had 51 member states. The number of UN members reached 193 in Korea: One State or Two? Not all states are universally recognized or well defined. Korea was divided in half into two occupation zones by the United States and the former Soviet Union after they defeated 100

3 Chapter 8: Political Geography Japan in World War II. The division of these zones became permanent in the late 1940s, when the two superpowers established separate governments and withdrew their armies. In 1992, North Korea and South Korea were admitted to the United Nations as separate countries. Progress toward reuniting Korea was halted by North Korea s decision to build nuclear weapons. China and Taiwan: One State or Two? Most countries consider China (officially the People s Republic of China) and Taiwan (officially the Republic of China) as separate and sovereign states. China does not consider Taiwan to be a separate state but part of China. The question of who was the legitimate government of China plagued U.S. officials in the 1950s and 1960s. The United States considered the Nationalists in Taiwan the official government of China until The United Nations voted that year to transfer China s seat in the UN from the Nationalists in Taiwan to the Communist government in China. Taiwan is now the most populous state not in the United Nations. Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic) Most African countries consider the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic a sovereign state. Spain controlled the territory until withdrawing from the area in An independent Sahrawi Republic was declared. Morocco and Mauritania annexed the territory, but Mauritania decided to withdraw three years later. Morocco now claims most of the territory and has built a wall around it to keep the rebels out. The United Nations has tried but failed to reach a resolution in this situation. Polar Regions: Many Claims The South Pole contains the only large landmass on Earth s surface that is not part of a state. These states claim portion of the South Pole: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Chile and the United Kingdom have conflicting and overlapping claims. The United States, Russia, and other countries do not recognize the claims of any countries in Antarctica. States may establish research stations there for scientific investigations, but no military activities are permitted. Ancient States The state concept developed in the Middle East. The first states were territories surrounding cities. A city-state is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. Walls clearly delineated the boundaries of the city. The city controlled the agricultural land surrounding the city that produced food for the urban residents. The countryside also provided the city with an outer line of defense against attack by other city-states. One city may gain military dominance over the others and form an empire. Medieval States The largest unified political territory of the preindustrial times was the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The empire comprised 101

4 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 38 provinces, each using the same set of laws that had been created in Rome. The Roman Empire eventually collapsed in the fifth century. The European portion of the empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. Victorious nobles seized control of defeated rivals estates. A handful of powerful kings emerged as rulers over a large numbers of these European estates beginning about the year The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a king formed the basis for the development of states. Nation-states in Europe A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity. To preserve and enhance distinctive cultural characteristics, ethnicities seek to govern themselves without interference. The concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves is known as self-determination. By the early twentieth century most of Western Europe was made up of nation-states. After World War I the Allied leaders used language as the main criteria to create new states in Europe and adjust the boundaries of existing ones. Boundaries were drawn around the states of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Romania to conform closely to the distribution of Bulgarian, Hungarian, Polish, and Romanian speakers. During the 1930s, the Nazis claimed that all Germanic speaking parts of Europe constituted one nationality and should be unified into one state. The Nazis invaded Austria and the German-speaking part of Czechoslovakia. It was not until the Nazis invaded Poland (clearly not a German speaking country) that France and England tried to stop them. Key Issue 2: Why Are Nation-states Difficult to Create? Nation-states in Europe Denmark and Slovenia are close to being examples of true nation-states. Danes make up 90 percent of the population in Denmark. The Danes have a strong sense of unity that derives from shared cultural characteristics and language. Slovenia was a republic within Yugoslavia that became independent in Slovenes comprise 83 percent of the population. The relatively close boundaries between the boundaries of the Slovene ethnic group and the country of Slovenia has promoted the country s relative peace and stability compared to other former Yugoslavian republics. Both Denmark s and Slovenia s ethnic minorities are economic migrants from other countries in Europe. In the twenty-first century, ethnic identity has once again become important in the creation of nationstates in much of Europe. The breakup of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia during the 1990s gave numerous ethnicities the opportunity to organize nation-states. These ethnic groups were no longer content to just control a local government unit, but sought to be the majority in a completely 102

5 Chapter 8: Political Geography independent nation-state. The ethnic groups with smaller populations unfortunately found themselves existing as minorities in multinational states or divided among more than one of the new states. Independent Nation-states in Former Soviet Republics For decades, the many ethnicities within the Soviet Union were unable to realize their nationalist aspirations and form independent nation-states. The Soviet Union consisted of 15 republics, based on its 15 largest ethnicities. With the breakup of the Soviet Union into 15 independent countries, a number of less numerous ethnicities are now divided among these states. Reasonably good examples of nation-states have been carved out of the Baltic, European, and Central Asian republics. Peaceful nation-states have not been created in any of the small Caucasus republics. The Largest Multinational State: Russia Russia officially recognizes the existence of 39 nationalities, many of which are eager for independence. Independence movements are flourishing because Russia is less willing to suppress these movements forcibly than the Soviet Union. Particularly troublesome for the Russians are Chechens, a group of Muslims who speak a Caucasian language and practice distinctive social customs. The Chechens declared independence in 1991, but Russia ignored their declaration. The Russians fought hard to retain control of the territory because it contains large petroleum deposits and they did not want other ethnicities to also try to break away. Turmoil in the Caucasus The Caucasus region is situated between the Black and Caspian seas and gets its name from the mountains that separate Azerbaijan and Georgia from Russia. When the Caucasus region was part of Soviet Union the Soviet government promoted allegiance to the Soviet state and quelled disputes among ethnicities, by force if necessary. With the breakup of the region into several independent countries, long-standing conflicts among ethnicities have erupted into armed conflicts. Every ethnicity in the Caucasus wants to carve out a sovereign nation-state. The region s ethnicities have had varying degrees of success in achieving this objective, but none has fully achieved it. Colonialism A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. Colonialism is an attempt by one country to establish settlements and impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory. European states started establishing colonies in the Western Hemisphere in the 1400s. The European colonial era ended in the Western Hemisphere by European states then started to establish colonies in Africa and Asia. Most African and Asian colonies became independent after World War II. The United Kingdom and France had the largest colonial empire. The Remaining Colonies Only a handful of colonies remain today. The U.S. Department of State lists 68 places in the world that it calls dependencies or areas of special sovereignty. The list includes 43 with 103

6 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography indigenous populations and 25 with no permanent population. Most current colonies are islands in the Caribbean Sea. The most populous remaining colony is Puerto Rico, which is a commonwealth of the United States. Key Issue 3: Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems? A boundary is an invisible line that marks the extent of a state s territory. Boundaries completely surround an individual state to mark the outer limits of its territorial control and to give it a distinctive shape. Historically, frontiers rather than boundaries separated states. A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control. Frontiers between states have been replaced by boundaries. Physical Boundaries Physical boundaries such as deserts, mountains, and water are all used to separate states and may be effective in part because they represent a physical barrier to movement. Physical boundaries also make good boundaries because they are easily seen, both on a map and on the ground. Cultural Boundaries Two types of cultural boundaries are common geometric and cultural. Geometric boundaries are simply straight lines drawn on a map. Cultural boundaries such as religious boundaries and language boundaries can be problematic because they rarely divide all individuals perfectly between each side of the boundary. An example of a boundary reinforcing differences on either side is that of Cypress, which is divided between Turkish and Greek control. Compact States: Efficient In a compact state, the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly. The ideal theoretical compact state would be shaped like a circle, with the capital at the center and with the shortest possible boundary to defend. A compact state has efficient communication and transportation. Elongated States: Potential Isolation An elongated state has a long and narrow shape. Elongated states may suffer from poor internal communications. A region located at an extreme end of the elongation might be isolated from the capital, which is usually placed near the center. Prorupted States: Access or Disruption An otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension is a prorupted state. Proruptions can provide a state with access to a resource, such as water. Proruptions are also used to separate two states that would otherwise share a boundary. Perforated States: South Africa A state that completely surrounds another one is a perforated state. In this situation, the state that is surrounded may face problems of dependence on, or interference from, the surrounding state. South Africa completely surrounds the state of Lesotho. 104

7 Chapter 8: Political Geography Fragmented States: Problematic A fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory. Fragmented states separated by water can face problems and costs associated with communications and maintaining national unity. Fragmented states separated by an intervening state sometimes have problems dealing with the states in between the fragments. Landlocked States Landlocked states have difficulty engaging in international trade because they lack direct access to the ocean. A landlocked state is completely surrounded by other countries. Landlocked states are most common in Africa, where 14 of the continent s 54 states have no direct access to the ocean. The prevalence of landlocked states in Africa is a remnant of the colonial era. Landlocked states must cooperate with neighboring states that have seaports. National Scale: Regime Types An autocracy is a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people. An anocracy is country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic, but rather displays a mix of the two types. Democracies and autocracies differ in three essential elements: selection of leaders, citizen participation, and checks and balances. The Arab Spring shows how the world is becoming more democratic. Local Scale: Unitary and Federal States State organization of internal territory falls into a continuum from a unitary state (strong central government) and a federal state (strong local and regional government). The unitary government system works best in nation-states characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity. Smaller states are also more likely to adopt a unitary government system. Local government poses considerable authority to adopt their own laws in a federal state. The federal system empowers different nationalities, especially if they live in separate regions of the country. The federal system is more suitable for large states because the national capital may be too remote to provide effective control over isolated regions. Electoral Geography The process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power is called gerrymandering. The boundaries separating the 435 legislative districts within the United States are redrawn periodically to ensure that each district has approximately the same population. Boundaries must be redrawn because migration inevitably results in some districts gaining population and losing population. The political party in control of the state legislature naturally attempts to redraw boundaries to improve the chances of its supporters to win seats. 105

8 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Key Issue 4: Why Do States Cooperate and Compete with Each Other? Era of Two Superpowers During the Cold War era, The United States and Soviet Union were the world s two superpowers. To maintain strength in regions that were not contiguous to their own territory, the United States and Soviet Union established military bases in other countries. Both superpowers repeatedly demonstrated they would use military force if necessary to prevent an ally from becoming too independent. Because the power of the United States and Soviet Union was so much greater than the power of all other states, the world comprised of two camps, each under the influence of one of the superpowers. After World War II, most European states joined one of two military alliances dominated by the superpowers-nato (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) or the Warsaw Pact. NATO was a military alliance among 16 democratic states, including the United States and Canada plus 14 European states. For NATO allies, the principle objective was to prevent the Soviet Union from overrunning West Germany and other smaller countries. The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement among seven communist Eastern European countries to defend each other in case of attack. The Warsaw Pact provided the Soviet Union with a buffer of allied states between it and Germany to discourage a third German invasion of the Soviet Union in the twentieth century. Economic Alliances in Europe Economic power is eclipsing political and military power on the world stage. The European Union (EU) has emerged as the world s leading superpower because it turned Europe into the world s wealthiest market. The main task of the European Union is to promote development within the member states through economic and political cooperation. The EU now has 27 member countries, and several more European countries will likely join the EU in the next decade. A single bank, the European Central Bank, was given responsibility for setting interest rates and minimizing inflation in the EU countries. Most importantly, a common currency, the euro, was created for electronic transactions beginning in 1999 and in notes and coins beginning in European leaders bet that every country in the region would be stronger economically if it replaced its national currency with the euro. For the first few years that was the case, but the future of the euro has been called into question by the severe global recession that began in Economically strong countries, especially Germany, have been forced to subsidize the weaker states. Alliances in Other Regions Economic cooperation has been an important factor in the creation of international organizations that now can be found far beyond Western Europe. Other regional political 106

9 Chapter 8: Political Geography and military organizations include the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of American States, the African Union, and the Commonwealth. Terrorism against Americans The systematic use of violence by a group in order to intimidate a populace or coerce a government into granting demands is considered terrorism. Terrorists attack common citizens instead of military personnel or political figures. A terrorist considers all citizens responsible for the actions he or she opposes. It is generally considered that terrorists operate outside of government, but this definition is problematic when applied to state sponsors of terror. Distinguishing terrorism from other acts of political violence can also be difficult. September 11, 2001, Attacks The United States has experienced a number of terrorist attacks since the late 1980s, but the attacks of September 11, 2001, caused dramatic concern. The twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City were the two tallest buildings in the United States before they were destroyed in the attacks. The Pentagon was also damaged. The attacks resulted in nearly 3,000 fatalities. The al-qaeda network led by Osama bin Laden was implicated in the 9/11 attacks. Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan from Saudi Arabia in the mid-1980s to support the fight against the Soviet army and the country s Soviet-installed government. Osama used his several hundred million dollar inheritance to fund al-qaeda around 1990 to unite jihad fighters in Afghanistan. Osama left Afghanistan in 1989, and was later expelled from both Saudi Arabia and Sudan. He returned to Afghanistan in In 1996, he issued a declaration of war against the United States because of U.S. support for Saudi Arabia and Israel. Al-Qaeda Al-Qaeda is not a single unified organization and the number of people involved is unknown. In addition to the to the original organization founded by Osama bin Laden responsible for the World Trade Center attack, al-qaeda also encompassed local franchises concerned with country-specific issues, as well as imitators and emulators ideologically aligned with al-qaeda but not financially tied to it. Sanctuary for Terrorists Afghanistan and (probably) Pakistan have provided sanctuary for al-qaeda terrorists. The Taliban came to power in Afghanistan in 1995 and imposed strict Islamic fundamentalist law on the population. The Taliban rule came to an end in 2001, following the U.S. invasion. Destroying the Taliban was necessary in order for the United States to go after al-qaeda leaders who were living in Afghanistan as guests of the Taliban. The United States also believes that Pakistan security was aware that Osama bin Laden was living in a fortified compound located in the city of Abbottabad which is only 75 miles from Pakistan s capital. Supplying Terrorists The United States removed Iraqi president Saddam Hussein in 2003 because the U.S. government believed that he had biological and chemical weapons that could eventually fall into the 107

10 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography hands of terrorists. UN experts concluded that Iraq had these weapons at one time but destroyed them in 1991 after its Desert Storm defeat. U.S. officials believed instead that Iraq hid the weapons, though they were never able to find them. The United States also said that close links existed between Iraq s government and al-qaeda. Saddam Hussein was not an observant Muslim and did not derive his philosophies from religious principles. The United States also accused Iran of harboring al-qaeda members. State Terrorist Attacks: Libya The government of Libya was accused of sponsoring a 1986 bombing of a nightclub in Berlin, Germany, that was popular with U.S. military personnel then stationed there. Libyan agents were found to have planted bombs on Pam Am Flight 103 that killed 270 people over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988, as well as 170 people on UTA Flight 772 over Niger in Introducing the Chapter Students frequently associate the topic of this chapter with real geography, and many students report taking an introductory geography class to learn more about different countries. This chapter allows those students to quench some of their curiosity in this regard, as well as the larger issues of political geography: the formation of states, including the origin of the state concept, the legacy of colonialism, and political cooperation and conflict, including the new global dimensions of terrorism. Terrorism is as useful a context as any to begin the chapter; the text does this with the dramatic beforeand-after shots of the World Trade Center. The text s later discussion of terrorist attacks on the United States prior to September 11, 2001, is also an interesting starting point for student discussion. Icebreaker: Mental Maps Mental mapping is a great way to demonstrate how we perceive the world. It s particularly useful for understanding how little we know about some places. This exercise can be used for a variety of lessons, political geography among them. First, instruct students to start with a fresh sheet of paper in their notebooks. You may wish to hand out blank sheets of copy paper for this exercise. Instruct the students, Draw a map of your childhood. You may choose to draw whatever location and time period you wish, at whatever scale you wish. Include whatever details and memories you see fit. You have five minutes. 108

11 Chapter 8: Political Geography Students will produce detailed, sometimes intricately so, maps of their childhood memories and places, especially if given longer than five minutes. Ask for volunteers to share their maps. This might be made easier by sharing your own map first. Next, say Turn your papers over and put a dot in the center. Label it with the name of our town. Now fill in as much information as you can on the rest of the map. You have five minutes. Students will be able to draw more or less complete maps of the region. It s interesting to note the scale at which they draw, that is, whether neighboring regions are included or only nearby towns. Many students are fairly challenged by this task. Finally, have the students take out a new sheet of paper. Say I want you to draw Africa (or substitute another world region). Again, fill in as much information as you can. You have five minutes. Depending on the world region chose, most students will have a difficult to nearly impossible time with this task. Emphasize that the point of this exercise is not to make the students feel stupid, but to understand how we think about and perceive the world. Ask the following questions: What was put into the map of Africa? The Nile River and Egypt sometimes are the only named features. Ask what other states were named and make a list of the most frequently named countries. Why are these states on our mental maps and not others? Are our mental maps complete? Challenges to Comprehension State vs. Country The geographic use of the term state confuses students who are familiar only with the United States use of the term. Be sure to define the term state as it is used in the book and contrast this with the use of the term in the sense of the United States. Terrorists or Freedom Fighters? A real challenge lies in the separation of the political spin and media hyperbole from what may actually be occurring in any particular conflict. Students may fall into any number of camps, but feelings can be quite strong about right and wrong sides in any particular conflict. For perspective, try this question: If you are a parent with an injured child, does it matter to you if the people who hurt your child were liberators or terrorists? 109

12 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Assignments Review/Reflection Questions When referring to European nations occupying areas around the world, taking over governments and often brutally suppressing any resistance, why do you think the word colonialism is used instead of invasion? Explain and elaborate. Using a world map, identify two examples each of the following types of states not referenced in the text: compact, elongated, landlocked, and fragmented. What are the implications of gerrymandering? Is there any way that voting districts could be divided up that would not result in one group complaining of inappropriate representation? Look at the text s definition of terrorism. Modify it or create your own if you wish. Now consider the following questions: 1. Over a nine-month period in , the German Luftwaffe (air force) bombed London, destroying more than 1 million houses and killing approximately 43,000 people. Except for the fact that this act was carried out by the state, does it meet your definition of terrorism? 2. Over a period of two nights (February 13 15) in 1944, the U.S. and British air forces dropped approximately 3,900 tons of highly explosive and incendiary (fire-causing) bombs on Dresden, Germany. Their objective was to destroy Dresden s rail yard, but they dropped so many bombs all around the city that the resulting firestorm killed about 30,000 people, most of whom were burned alive. Except for the fact that this act was carried out by the state, does it meet your definition of terrorism? 3. Should we draw a distinction between terrorism and war as separate concepts? Explain your reasoning. 110

13 Chapter 8: Political Geography Thinking Geographically Questions 8.1: A century ago the British geographer Halford J. Mackinder indentified a heartland in the interior of Eurasia (Europe and Asia) that was isolated by mountain ranges and the Arctic Ocean. Surrounding the heartland was a series of fringe areas, which geographer Nicholas Spykman later called the rimland, oriented toward the oceans. Mackinder argued that whoever controlled the heartland would control Eurasia and hence the entire world. To what extent has Mackinder s theory been validated during the twentieth century by the creation and then the dismantling of the Soviet Union? I don t believe that his theory was correct at all. The Soviet Union was extremely powerful, but it has fallen apart. After the Soviet Union collapsed, the United States became the undisputed world superpower. China will soon be equal to the United States in economic and military power. Many experts think that China will eventually surpass the United States and become the world s great superpower. China is obviously located in Eurasia, but it does not control the heartland. With the exception of Moscow and maybe a couple of other large cities in Russia, most of the country is doing very poor economically. Russia is the only country I can think of where the life expectancy of its people is actually declining. Alcoholism has become a huge problem in Russia. Russia is doing so bad that some people wish that the communist era never ended. If the Russians do end up finding large amounts of oil in the Arctic Ocean or Siberia, it could propel the country to superpower status again. 8.2: The world has been divided into a collection of countries on the basis of the principle that ethnicities have the right of self-determination. National identity, however, derives from economic interests as well as from such cultural characteristics as language and religion. To what extent should a country s ability to provide its citizens with food, jobs, economic security, and material wealth, rather than the principle of self-determination, become the basis for dividing the world into independent countries? If a country can t provide for its citizens, it should probably not become a country in the first place. When I hear about an ethnic region of a country trying to gain independence I always think to myself, How would this new state even survive economically? It is pointless for these groups to strive for autonomy if they don t have an established economic plan. Most of these newly established states probably expect that the United Nations will supply them with food and material goods. That s fine in the beginning, but they need to become self sufficient very quickly. 111

14 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8.3: Given the movement toward increased local government autonomy on the one hand and increased authority for international organizations on the other, what is the future of the nation-state? Have political and economic trends since the 1990s strengthened the concept of the nation-state or weakened it? I think the concept of the nation-state has been somewhat weakened since the 1990s. The World Trade Organization compromises the power and sovereignty of individual countries because it can order changes in taxes and laws that it considers unfair. The World Bank and International Monetary Fund conditionally loan money to certain countries which influences the economic policies of the countries receiving the loans. The European Union has essentially made Europe one large country. There are other international organizations like the Organization of American States in the Western Hemisphere and the African Union that try to influence member country s policies. Globalization has severely weakened the power of nation-states. 8.4: In his book 1984, George Orwell envisioned the division of the world into three large unified states, held together by technological controls. How accurately has Orwell s vision of a global political arrangement been realized in an age of terrorism? Oceania was somewhat similar to NATO. Oceania s core territories are the Western Hemisphere, the British Isles, Australia, and Southern Africa. Eurasia was somewhat similar to the Warsaw Pact. Eurasia included all of continental Europe and Siberia. There is no sort of super-state that has anything in common with Eastasia. There could be an alliance between Japan, China, Korea, and other Southeast Asian countries in the distant future, but there is no planned alliance for this region in the near future. Pause and Reflect Questions 8.1.1: How might UN membership substantially increase in the future beyond the current level? It would take more nationalities seeking autonomy and breaking away from already established states. Almost every country is a member of the UN, so it would require more countries being created. The regions of the world where these new states would most likely occur are in Africa, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. 112

15 Chapter 8: Political Geography 8.1.2: The polar ice caps are receding with the warming of Earth. How might this affect competing territorial claims? The United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (because Greenland is a Danish colony) will be fighting over territorial rights to the Arctic Ocean. The reason all these countries are interested in establishing territorial claims in the Arctic Ocean is because there is potentially a lot of oil underneath the ocean floor : What is the importance of the Fertile Crescent in the development of religions as discussed in Chapter 6? How do you think the development of ancient states and religions in the region are related? When people were nomadic hunter and gathers there was never a religion that was practiced by a large number of people. Each little wandering group had its own beliefs. People became more sedentary when plant and animal domestication became common. Because of the agricultural surplus that the domestication of plants and animals provided, not every person had to be actively involved in agriculture. This contributed to the development of city-states. It allowed for the establishment of a formalized religion practiced by thousands of people : Referring to Figure 7-40, where do the boundaries of Slovenia not match language boundaries? The political boundaries do not match the languages boundaries in the extreme eastern portion of Slovenia and in a small region in the southern portion of Slovenia : To what branches of Indo-European do the principle languages of Moldova belong? How might these linguistic differences affect politics in Moldova? Most people in Moldova speak Romanian which is a language in the Romance branch. Since Romania shares a border with Moldova and no other country near Moldova speaks a language in the Romance branch, it could cause Moldova to want to become part of Romania eventually : If Abkhazia and South Ossetia become independent states, how would they compare in size to microstates described earlier in this chapter? Many of the microstates that were mentioned earlier in the chapter are islands. Abkhazia and South Ossetia are not islands so they would not be your typical microstate, but their sizes would be similar. 113

16 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8.2.4: What would need to change for Puerto Rico to no longer be classified as a colony of the United States? Puerto Rico would need to either become the 51st state of the United States or become a completely independent country : Where outside of Africa is an example of a physical boundary? Chile and Argentina are separated by the crest of the Andes Mountains : Where does the boundary between Canada and the United States follow physical features rather than geometry? The United States and Canada are separated by the Great Lakes in the eastern portion of the country : Where outside of Africa is an example of a landlocked state? Bolivia is a landlocked state : What region of the world appears to have the greatest concentration of autocratic regimes? Southwest Asia and Africa have a long history of autocratic regimes : How was the city of Las Vegas treated in the two maps drawn by political parties compared with the final map drawn by the court? The Democratic plan made Democrats more numerous than Republicans in three of the four districts. By clustering a large share of the state s registered Democrats in District 4, the Republican plan gave Republicans the majority of registered voters in two of the four districts. The map drawn by the court created regularly shaped districts that minimized gerrymandering : How does the map of military alliances in Europe during the Cold War compare to the map of regime types? The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was comprised of democratic countries. The Warsaw Pact was comprised of communist countries. 114

17 Chapter 8: Political Geography 8.4.2: What might be the reaction of people in Canada, Mexico, and the United States if the three countries simultaneously elected a North American Parliament? I don t think very many people would like it. People in the United States, Mexico, and Canada want autonomy and don t want to be overruled on major decisions by the other two countries. In 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was passed, many people were upset in all three countries. I don t think that the scenario described above will happen without massive and violent protests taking place : How has travel in the United States been affected by the 9/11 attacks? Traveling across the United States/Canada border and the United States/Mexico border has become much more difficult. The waiting time to get across the border has increased substantially. Airline tickets have gone up because of the increased TSA fees tacked on to the ticket price. Air travel has become much more of a hassle because of all the security screening that takes place at the airports : Suspected terrorists captured primarily in Afghanistan have been detained at a detention camp run by the United States at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Do you think that suspected terrorists should be tried in a U.S. military court, brought to the United States for civilian trials, or sent back to the country from which they were captured? I think they should be tried in military courts. They did not commit a crime in the United States or are they U.S. citizens, so trying them in the United States as civilians seems somewhat ridiculous. I don t really trust the legal system in Afghanistan so I would not try them there either : What events have occurred in Iran since this book was published? Answers will vary. Google Earth Questions GOOGLE EARTH 8.1: The smallest state is the Holy See (Vatican). What is housed in the government building immediately to the west of St Peter s (identified in Google Earth 6.1)? Palazzo del Governatore in Vaticano GOOGLE EARTH 8.2: The boundary between what states run through the Caucasus Mountains? Georgia, Russia. 115

18 The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography GOOGLE EARTH 8.3: Portions of what four states can be seen near the Libyan Desert? Libya, Egypt, Sudan, Chad. GOOGLE EARTH 8.4: If you zoom into the center of Abbotabad, Pakistan, where Osama bin Laden s hideout was located, turn on 3D, switch to ground-level view, and pan around, what is the only 3D building? Given the distribution of religions discussed in Chapter 6, why does this building seem out of place here? St Luke Church. A Christian church is in a predominantly Muslim community. Resources Country Name Quiz For those who consider place name geography important the Test your Geography Knowledge game is a great tool for helping the memorization of state locations. It s online at Good Kurds, Bad Kurds Though a bit dated, this 2001 documentary by Kevin McKiernan provides an excellent example of the relativism of U.S. foreign policy. In this case, the film investigates human rights abuses of Kurds in Turkey, a valuable U.S. ally, at the same time (late 1990s) that the United States was objecting to the oppression of Kurds in Iraq. Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 7 As ethnicity and nationality are often intertwined, so are ethnicity and political geography. Remind your class that states can represent the physical embodiment of nationalities, and therefore it should not surprise us when conflicts arise between states. Forward to Chapter 9 The transition between these two chapters represents a natural break of sorts, as the next chapter concentrates predominately on the study of economic geography. However, point out that development is often measured at the country level (despite the obvious concerns this raises with respect to uneven development) and that government structures are often looked to for explanation of development status. 116