World War I in Outline: Fourteen Points, Armistice, Treaty of Versailles

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1 IB Contemporary World History Mr. Blackmon World War I in Outline: Fourteen Points, Armistice, Treaty of Versailles a. Ludendorff's Spring Offensives i. Ludendorff believes that he must launch an offensive to break the Western Front quickly, or exhaustion would certainly defeat Germany. With Russia out of the war, and US troops not yet deployed, he believes that he must win in the spring of ii. Ludendorff adopts the new tactics and prepares a series of offensives with staggering technical skill. In the end, however, he mishandles the attacks because he had no clear strategic plan and also because he violated his own principles at crucial points. iii. On March 21, 1918, the first assault, codenamed "Michael," catches Haig by surprise and tears a gaping hole in the front by March 23. Ludendorff has achieved a breakthrough. Instead of exploiting the gap, he redirects the line of the offensive. (1) German troops, capturing well-stocked British supply depots, begin to fall out and loot instead of continuing to fight. These men are hungry. Continuous fighting and movement was bringing on physical exhaustion as well. (2) As large numbers of German troops compare the material wealth (not just weapons, but above all, food) of the Allies with their own condition, their morale begins to drop seriously. Their government had told them the submarines were starving the Allies. Discipline erodes. (3) By March 25, the Germans had outrun their artillery, and were attempting to supply themselves across devastated terrain. iv. Ludendorff loses his head, and stops the original offensive and instead launches a second attack ("Mars") on April 9. This also meets initial success, but runs down for the same reasons. (1) The Allies, under pressure of this drive, at last name a Commander-in-Chief to coordinate all armies: Marshall Ferdinand Foch. v. Ludendorff launches a third offensive, this time against the French on the Chemins des Dames on May 27. (1) The French deploy according to Foch's insistence of fighting for every inch of ground and counterattacking immediately and automatically, instead of using an elastic defense advocated by Pétain. (2) A terrible hole is torn into the French lines, and the Germans drive on Paris. They advance 40 miles Again, however, the troops wear down, and Pétain assembles

2 vi. vii. viii. ix. reserves (including 2 US divisions, equal in size to 4 French. The Americans were inexperienced but exceptionally aggressive and quick learners). The attack grinds to a halt. (a) By this point, 15 US divisions had been assembled in France since the offensives had begun, and more were pouring in. A 4th offensive is launched toward Soissons, but is stopped by French and US counterattacks. Ludendorff's last effort goes in July 15 against Reims. (There were 27 European divisions defending, and 9 US equal numerically to 18 European. US numbers are becoming significant). On one flank, where the French deployed along Foch's lines, the Germans drove deeply. On the other, using Pétain's elastic defense, the Germans are counterattacked and stopped. Ludendorff's offensives are over. His men are bled white, exhausted, and hungry. He had rolled the dice, and lost. On July 18, as Foch began directing Allied offensives, Ludendorff asked Hindenburg what Germany should do. Hindenburg replied "Do? Do? Make peace, you idiot!" (Stokesbury 280) July 18th is the date accepted by historians when the military balance on the Western Front shifted. b. The Allied Summer/Fall Offensives i. Ferdinand Foch is a fanatical proponent of the offensive. He at last has the resources to make it work. He begins coordinating a series of powerful offensives. ii. iii. The July 18th Aisne-Marne offensive, while limited, was an unqualified success. August 8th, "the black day" (1) An Anglo-French offensive is planned at Amiens. (2) Haig designates his best units, a Canadian and an Australian corps, for the attack. (3) The Allies will solve the problem of breaking the trench systems with the tank, first used successfully in numbers at Cambrai, November 20, The tanks would break down the wire, cross trenches, and attack machine gun nests. Infantry and tanks would work in close cooperation. The intention was to break the front with tanks, infantry, and artillery, and then pass faster Whippet tanks and cavalry through to pursue. The latter stage did not occur as a result of exhaustion of the crews and incompatibility of tanks with horse cavalry. In addition, the British commanders were psychologically incapable of exploiting the situation. (4) When the German Hutier tactics are wedded to the Allied

3 tank, we are on the way to the development of Blitzkrieg (5) The German army holding the front simply collapsed. Large numbers of soldiers surrendered, scenes of panic, insubordination and desertion were widespread. (6) The German section of the line was held by seriously under strength units of poor quality (a) In order to launch his offensive, Ludendorff had been forced to cull out his best troops for training in the Hutier tactics for use as "shock divisions." The remaining "trench divisions" were made up of poorer material. In addition, Ludendorff's last efforts had drafted increasing numbers of industrial workers, including skilled workers, older workers, and especially anyone who challenged complete military authority. Not only did this weaken the industrial effort underlying the war, but it introduced Socialist agitators into the trenches. (b) (Barnett 349, Holborn 502) Corelli Barnett draws a strong parallel between the French mutiny and the collapse of many German units and notes "how far a war of nation states, fueled by a nationalistic 'ingroup psychology, had been modified by a new international class war, with 'ingroup' psychology based on class solidarity." (349-50,) (7) August 8th is called by Ludendorff "the black day" for the German Army. He begins to unravel mentally. He becomes not only vindictive and eager to avoid taking responsibility for defeats (qualities he had always had) but also unrealistic, vacillating, and hysterical. (a) (b) Ludendorff tells the Kaiser that the war is lost and Germany should negotiate a peace. At that time, Ludendorff still had two prepared defensive lines, an organized army of 2,500,000 that could still fight defensively, and was opposed by armies without an overwhelming overall numerical advantage commanded by men who were unable to visualize anything other than piecemeal offensives. The reason he gives in so completely is the Americans: in August 1918, the US now had 1,400,000 men in France. Britain and France won the battles of 1918; America would win those of Germany was not "stabbed in the back" but overwhelmed economically, politically, technically, morally, and militarily. Germany had fought total

4 war, and had lost totally. (Barnett 353) iv. August to November 1918 sees a series of Allied blows intended to drive the Germans back, and sever the rail links upon which German supplies depended. Behind the lines, the German Army is swiftly disintegrating. On the front, the more reliable units fight doggedly to preserve a more or less orderly retreat. There is some very hard fighting ahead, particularly in the Meuse-Argonne (the American sector, where the terrain was very difficult) and Flanders, but the Allied attacks are irresistible. 2. Peace Negotiations and Armistice a. The end comes swiftly. b. Bulgaria collapses under an offensive from Salonika in September. They sign an armistice on September 29 that permits the Allies to continue to advance against Austria. c. Turkey, having lost Baghdad, and with the Arabian desert in full revolt, now loses Palestine to Allenby (who enjoyed a 3:1 advantage over Liman von Sanders) at the Battle of Megiddo September 19. Turkey signs an armistice October 30. d. The Austrian front collapses at Vittorio Veneto in late October. Their army disintegrates. e. Czechoslovakia declares formal independence on October 21. f. Yugoslavia declares independence on October 29. g. Austria and Hungary secede from their own state by October 31 h. Austria-Hungary, a nation that no longer existed, signs an armistice on November 3. Kaiser Charles abdicates Nov. 12, to no one's interest. (Stokesbury 299) i. The End of the Hohenzollern Empire i. June 19, 1917, the Catholic Center Party, led by Mathias Erzberger, hitherto a staunch supporter of the war, calls for a peace without annexations. ii. Wilson issues the Fourteen Points January 8, (1) open covenants openly arrived at (2) freedom of the seas (3) removal of trade barriers (4) arms reduction (5) impartial adjustment of colonial claims with due concern with the peoples as well as the imperial governments (6) German evacuation of Russia (7) German restoration of Belgium (8) German restoration of France (9) adjustment of the Italian frontier (10) self determination for the peoples of Austria-Hungary (11) restoration of Rumania, Montenegro, and Serbia (12) self determination for the peoples of the Ottoman Empire (13) reestablishment of Poland with access to the sea

5 (14) a League of Nations iii. Ludendorff demands an immediate armistice be opened September 29, and concedes the end of authoritarian government by recommending the formation of a popular government. The party leaders of the Reichstag, who had been kept in the dark about military conditions, are stunned. iv. Prince Max of Baden is named Chancellor on October 4. Welleducated, liberal, an early advocate of a conciliatory peace, he is the finest and most capable chancellor since Bismarck. (1) Max asks for an armistice, accepting the Fourteen Points as a basis for peace negotiations. v. Wilson demands the cessation of submarine warfare, stated that no armistice would be allowed that would diminish Allied military superiority (ie: no breathing space), and bluntly inquired whether the present government represented the German people or the militaristic crowd that had started the war. vi. Wilson follows this with a note on October 24 stating that the Allies would not make peace with the King of Prussia (ie the Kaiser) or "'military masters and monarchical autocrats'." (Stokesbury 305) vii. Without consulting anybody, Ludendorff issues an appeal to "us soldiers" to fight to the bitter end. Considering the state of the army and nation, this was irrational. It created difficulties for Max, viii. since Wilson wanted to know who was really in charge. The Kaiser calls Hindenburg and Ludendorff to a meeting on October 26. Ludendorff bitterly criticized the government. The Kaiser coldly replied that the government was acting on Ludendorff's demand of September 29 for an immediate armistice. Ludendorff tendered his resignation, which was accepted. Hindenburg tendered his as well; however, the Kaiser refused to accept it and appealed to Hindenburg's monarchism to obey. Ludendorff never forgives Hindenburg. ix. The Kiel Mutiny October 29, 1918 (1) Naval officers determined on a last "death ride" against the Royal Navy. The government was not consulted. The enlisted men were not impressed. (2) The sailors refuse to obey orders. A spontaneous and disorganized movement, it spreads quickly through the fleet. The sailors take control of Kiel, and the mutiny spreads to naval bases at Wilhelmshaven, Hamburg, Brunswick and Hanover. The army refuses to put the mutiny down. Military authority collapses. (3) The government sends Gustav Noske, the military expert of the Social Democratic party, who establishes authority over them largely by agreeing with them.

6 (4) The sailors did not challenge the parties, but the authority of the Kaiser and the military caste. (5) Revolution and disorder spreads to Cologne and other key transportation centers. x. Kurt Eisner, an Independent Socialist (who was also a Jew) leads a successful revolution in Munich on November 7. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. November 9, the Berlin workers walk off the job. Abdication of Wilhelm II (1) That same day, Wilhelm proposes gathering the army and marching to reconquer Germany (2) Ludendorff's successor, Wilhelm Gröner, recognizes that the Social Democrats will have to organize a government, bluntly tells Wilhelm that the army would not obey him. The Social Democrats demand control of the government, and Max agrees. Friedrich Ebert becomes Chancellor. On November 11, 1918, in the forest of Compiegne, Matthias Erzberger signed the Armistice agreement. At 11:00, the guns fell silent.

7 IX The Cost France British Empire Population in ,000,000* 45,000,000* Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) 1,250, ,000 Total Number Mobilized ,410,000 8,904,467 Dead 1,357, ,371 Wounded 4,266,000 2,090,212 Prisoners/Missing 537, ,652 Total Casualties 6,160,000 3,190,235 Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties as Casualties Italy Russia Population in ,000, ,000,000 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) 750,000 1,200,000 Total Number Mobilized ,615,000 12,000,000 Dead 650,000 1,700,000 Wounded 947,000 4,950,000 Prisoners/Missing 600,000 2,500,000 Total Casualties 2,197,000 9,150,000 Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties as Casualties

8 U.S.A. Population in ,000,000 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) 150,000 Total Number Mobilized ,355,000 Dead 116,516 Wounded 204,002 Prisoners/Missing 4,500 Total Casualties 323,018 Mobilized 04.7 Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties 08.1 as Casualties Austria- Hungary Germany Population in ,000,000 65,000,000 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) 812,000 2,200,000 Total Number Mobilized ,800,000 11,000,000 Dead 1,200,000 1,773,700 Wounded 3,620,000 4,216,058 Prisoners/Missing 2,200,000 1,152,800 Total Casualties 7,020,000 7,142,558 Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties as Casualties

9 Ottoman Empire Population in ,000,000 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) 360,000 Total Number Mobilized ,850,000 Dead 325,000 Wounded 400,000 Prisoners/Missing 250,000 Total Casualties 975,000 Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties 34.2 as Casualties 04.8 * The population of Great Britain in 1914 was 45,000,000. The estimated population of the British Empire was 390,000,000. Casualty figures, however, are for the Empire (including Canadian, South African, and Indian casualties, for instance). I do not have a breakdown by Dominion and colony. * The population of metropolitan France was 40,000,000. The population of the French Empire was 58,000,000. Casualty figures are for the Empire. Britain's overseas empire provided a larger proportional contribution than did France's overseas empire, and casualties would reflect this. Sources: Different authorities have different figures. It is impossible to obtain truly accurate figures. This table is adapted from the Encyclopedia Britannica Vol. 29 p. 987 and Kagan, Ozment, and Turner p Died some, pro patria, non dulce non et decor... Walked eye-deep in hell believing in old men s lies, then unbeleiving came home, home to a lie, home to many deceits, home to old lies and new infamy. Ezra Pound

10 Works Cited Barnett, Corelli. The Swordbearers: Supreme Command in the First World War. New York: Signet, Ferro, Marc. The Great War: New York: Routledge, Fitzgerald, F. Scott. Tender Is the Night. New York: Scribner, Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany: Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, Horne, Alistair. The Price of Glory: Verdun New York: Penquin Books, Johnson, Paul. Modern Times. Rev. Ed. New York: Harper, Kagan, Donald, Ozment, Steven, and Turner, Frank M. The Western Heritage. 2nd Ed. New York: MacMillan, Liddell Hart, Capt. Basil H. The War in Outline: New York: Award Books, Stokesbury, James L. A Short History of World War I. New York: William Morrow and Co., "The World Wars." Encyclopedia Britanica Vol. 29 Chicago: Encyclopedia Britanica Inc

11 Works Consulted Albrecht-Carrié, René. The Meaning of the First World War. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Bernstein, Paul and Green, Robert W. History of Civilization. Vol II. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams and Co., Blum, Jerome, Cameron, Rondo, and Barnes, Thomas G. The European World Since 1815: Triumph and Transition. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, Messenger, Charles. The Art of Blitzkrieg. London: Ian Allan Ltd., Silkin, Jon, ed. The Penquin Book of First World War Poetry. 2nd Ed. (New York: Penguin,1981.

12 World War I Identifications Schlieffen Plan Helmut von Moltke the Younger Joseph Joffre First Battle of the Marne Tannenburg Paul von Hindenburg Erich Ludendorff Lusitania Gallipoli Treaty of London 1915 Verdun Henri Pétain the Somme Sir John Jellicoe Jutland Brusilov Offensive Nivelle Offensive Sussex Pledge Turnip Winter unrestricted submarine warfare Zimmerman Telegram to make the world safe for democracy convoy system Caporetto Treaty of Brest Litovsk War Socialism Walter Rathenau Law of Auxiliary Patriotic Service Union sacrée David Lloyd George Defense of the Realm Act John Maynard Keynes Woodrow Wilson Bernard Baruch War Industries Board War Labor Policies Board Shipping Board Food Administration Herbert Hoover Fuel Administration Espionage Act and Sedition Act George Creel Ludendorff s Spring Offensives Ferdinand Foch Douglas Haig Fourteen Points Prince Max of Baden Kiel Mutiny Friedrich Ebert

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