Chapter 3 EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES

Transcription

1 Chapter 3 EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES A. Education There are four levels of education, namely, primary (grades 1-6), lower secondary (grades 7-9), upper secondary (grades 10-12), graduate and above. There are many public and private universities and technical schools in Cambodia. The students need to pass the examination after completion of each level. The general education for grades 1-12 is free. There are 23 provincial and one municipal educational directorates each directed by one director, few deputy directors and staffs. The educational office of each district controls primary schools within the district The Traditional School System The traditional education in Cambodia was offered by the local wats (Buddhist temples), and the teachers were in Khmer bronzes. The students were mostly young boys and the education was limited to memorizing Buddhist chants. During the period of the French protectorate, an educational system based on the French model was inaugurated alongside the traditional system. Initially, the French neglected the education in Cambodia. Only seven high school students graduated in 1931, and only 50,000 to 60,000 children were enrolled in primary school in In the year following independence, the number of students rapidly increased. Education of any kind was considered an absolute good by Cambodians. From the early 20 th century until 1975, the system of mass education operated on the French model. The 1917 Law on Education passed by the French colonial government introduced a basic primary and secondary education system. However, the new system was elitist, which reached only a very small percent of the indigenous population and functioned mainly as a means of training civic servants for colonial service through French Indochina Formal Education System in Cambodia 28 Modern education progressed slowly in the country. The French colonial rulers pay attention to educating Khmers. It was not until the late 1930s that the first high school opened. After gaining independence from France, the government of Prince Norodom Sihanouk made substantial progress in the field of education in the 1950s and 1960s. Elementary and secondary education was expanded to various parts of the country, while higher learning institutions such as vocational institutions, teacher-training centers and universities were established. However, the progress of these decades were obstructed by the civil war following the overthrow of Prince Sihanouk in 1970 and destroyed by the Khmer regime. In an attempt to rebuild a new Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge set out to eradicate the old patterns of Cambodian society, including the former education system. Like their Maoist counterpart in China, the Khmer Rouge leaders emphasized manual labor and political correctness over knowledge. They claimed, ricefields were books and hoes were pencils, implying that Cambodia did not need educational system. The Khmer Rouge leaders deliberately destroyed the foundations of a modern education. People with higher education such as doctors, lawyers, teachers, professors, and former college students were killed or forced to work in labor camps. The Khmer Rouge also engaged in the physical destruction of institutional infrastructure for higher education such as books, buildings, and other educational resources. At least half of the written materials available in the Khmer language were destroyed, and about 80 percent of Cambodian educators were killed, died or left the country. After coming to power with the help of Vietnam in 1979, the government of the People s Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) redeveloped the educational system. Although significant progress was made, educational redevelopment was hampered by war and lack of human and material resources. The PRK government undertook a massive rehabilitation program aimed at enrolling as many students as possible. The slogan for that was those who know more teach 27

2 those who know less. Those with almost any level of education was encouraged to work as teachers, and efforts were made to identify and encourage former teachers, professors and bureaucrats in the field of education to participate in this endeavour. Potential teachers were given short-term training for one month, three weeks or even two weeks and then assigned teaching jobs. With many buildings destroyed, classes were taught in shacks made of leaves with dirt floors or in some places instruction was given outside under the trees. With the destruction caused by the Khmer Rouge regime, significant progress in the field of education was not seen until 1980s. From an empty handed position, the PRK government was able to re-establish a semblance of an educational system from pre-school to university. A number of students were offered scholarships by host countries in the former Soviet block to pursue higher education. The field of education was not given priority as a result of the fighting civil war with the Khmer Rouge and non-communist resistant movements. With the budgetary constraints, the need for manpower to serve in the army and a centrally planned economy, the government set limits on the number of students who entered upper secondary schools and universities. Such restrictions generated widespread corruption, favoritism, and nepotism as wealthy and influential parents either paid bribes or used political power to secure seats for their children in these institutions. The situation was compounded by low skills of educators which significantly slowed the development of the educational system and resulted in the low literacy rates. In the 1990s, after the Paris Agreement and the United Nations (UN) sponsored elections, there were significant changes in the educational system. As part of the country s new election campaign, many new school buildings were constructed and more materials became available through donor funding. For example, in , the expenditures on books were about 50 riels (about US$0.2) per pupil, which was equivalent to one book per student in every 20 years. Seven or eight students were sharing one book. Since the new curricula, teachers manuals and student textbooks were developed for grades 1-9. These new books were printed in sufficient numbers, making one book available for every child in every subject. The 1998 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) report noted That for many children, this was the first book they ever owned. In 1998, teachers were given additional training, though the educational level of teachers remained low. Six percent of Cambodia s teachers had a primary education, 77 percent attended lower secondary school, 14 percent upper secondary school and only 3 percent had a tertiary education. The new curricula shifted from traditional methods to more active learning models. Also, a non-formal education system included literary classes for adults. In 2000, there was an increase of private schools, especially at the secondary and higher education levels. The universities found in Cambodia included: The University of Health Sciences (TUHS), The Royal University of Fine Arts (TRUFA), The Institute of Technology (TIT), The Faculty of Law and Economy Sciences (TFLES), The Royal University of Agriculture (TRUA), The Royal University of Phnom Pehn (TRUPP), The National Institute of Management (TNIM), The Maharishi Vedic University (TMVU) and the Faculty of Pedagogy (FP). The education system was divided into primary, secondary, higher and specialized levels. Public education was under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, which exercised full control over the entire system. It established syllabi, hired and paid teachers, provided supplies, and inspected schools. An inspector of primary education, who had considerable authority, was assigned to each province. Cultural committees under the Ministry of Education were responsible for enriching the Cambodian language. 29 The primary education was divided into two series of three years each and was carried out by the state and temples. The primary education curriculum considered arithmetic, history, ethics, civics, drafting, geography, hygiene, language and science. The curriculum also included physical education and manual work. Khmer was the language of instruction in the first level. French 28

3 language instruction began in the second year. By the early 1970s, Khmer was used more widely in primary education. In the 1980s, primary school ran from the first to fourth grade. One primary school served each village. Secondary education was also divided into two series, one of four years taught at college, followed by one of three years taught at a lycee. Upon completion of the first two years of the second level, students could take a state examination for the second baccalaureate. The Cambodian secondary curriculum was similar to that found in France. Beginning in 1967, the last three years of secondary school were split up into three sections according to three subjects letters, mathematics and technology, agriculture and biology. In the late 1960s and the early 1970s, the country emphasized a technical education. Also, the secondary education was reduced to six years. 30 Higher education lagged behind primary and secondary education, until the late 1950s. The only facility in the country for higher education before the 1960s was the National Institute of Legal, Political, and Economic Studies (NILPES) which trained civil servants. In the late 1950s, it had abut 250 students. Wealthy Cambodians and those who had government scholarships sought university education abroad. Students attended schools in France but after independence, increasing numbers enrolled at universities in the United States, Canada, China, Soviet Union, and the German Republic. By 1970s, universities had a total enrollment of about 9,000 students. The largest, the University of Phnom Pehn, had nearly 4,570 male students and more than 730 female students in eight departments letters and humanities, science and technology, law and economics, medicine, pharmacy, commercial science, teacher training and higher teacher training. Universities operated in the provinces of Kampong Cham, Takev, Batdambang. Also in Phnom Pehn, the University of Agricultural Sciences and the University of Fine Arts offered training programs. However, the increased fighting following the 1970 coup closed the three provincial universities. 31 During the Khmer Rouge regime, education met severe setbacks and the successes achieved in literacy and education following independence was obliterated. Schools were closed and educated people were subjected to suspicion, harassment or execution. At the beginning of 1970s, more than 20,000 teachers lived in Cambodia; only about 5,000 teachers remained after a decade. Soviet sources reported that 90 percent of all teachers were killed under the Khmer Rouge regime. Only 50 of the 725 university instructors, 207 of the 2,300 secondary school teachers, and 2,717 of the 21,311 primary school teachers survived. The literacy was neglected, thus the succeeding generation of Cambodian children grew up illiterate. Illiteracy was more than 40 percent and most young people under the age 14 years were without any education. After the Khmer Rouge was driven from power, the education system was recreated. 32 Education regained strength after the establishment of the PRK. Main institutions of higher education embarked and were reported on the PRK; the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy (reopened in 1980 with a six-year course of study); the Chamcar Daung Faculty of Agriculture (opened in 1985); the Kampuchea-USSR Friendship Technical Institute (which included technical and engineering curricula), the Institute of Languages (IL) (Vietnamese, German, Russian and Spanish were taught); the Institute of Commerce (IC) ; the Center for Pedagogical Education (CPE) (formed in 1979); the Normal Advanced School (NAS); and the School of Fine Arts (SFA). 33 Education system under the PRK was based on the Vietnamese model where terms used in primary and secondary education were changed into direct Vietnamese terms. Under the PRK regime, the primary cycle had four instead of six classes, the first level of secondary education had three instead of four classes, and the second level of secondary education had three classes

4 Buddhist Education 35 Before the French organized a Western-style educational system, the Buddhist wat, with monks as teachers, provided the only formal education in the country. The monks traditionally regarded their main educational function as the teaching of Buddhist doctrine and history and the importance of gaining merit. Other subjects were regarded as secondary. At the wat schools, young boys (girls were not allowed to study in these institutions) were taught to read and write Khmer, and they were instructed in the rudiments of Buddhism. In 1933, a secondary school system for novice monks was created within the Buddhist religious system. Many wat schools had so-called Pali schools that provided three years of elementary education from which the student could compete for entrance examination to the Buddhist lycnes. Graduates of these lycnes could sit for the entrance examination to the Buddhist University in Phnom Pehn. The curriculum of the Buddhist schools consisted of the study of Pali, of Buddhist doctrine, and of Khmer, along with mathematics, Cambodian history and geography, science, hygiene, civics, and agriculture. Buddhist instruction was under the authority of the Ministry of Religion. Nearly 600 Buddhist primary schools, with an enrollment of more than 10,000 novices and with 800 monks as instructors, existed in The Preah Suramarit Buddhist Lycne (PSBL) a four year institution in Phnom Pehn founded in 1955 included courses in Pali, in Sanskrit, and in Khmer, as well as in many modern disciplines. In 1962 the student body numbered 680. The school s graduates could continue their studies in the Preah Sihanouk Raj Buddhist University (PSRBU) created in The university offered three cycles of instruction; the doctoral degree was awarded after successful completion of the third cycle. In 1962 there were 107 students enrolled in the Buddhist University. By the academic year, more than 27,000 students were attending Buddhist religious elementary schools, 1,328 students were at Buddhist schools, and 176 students were enrolled at the Buddhist University. The Buddhist Institute was a research institution formed in 1930 from the Royal Library. The institute contained a library, record and photograph collections, and a museum. Several commissions were part of the institute. Private Education 36 For a portion of the urban population in Cambodia, private education was important in the years before the communist takeover. Some private schools were operated by ethnic or religious minorities Chinese, Vietnamese, European, Roman Catholic and Muslim so that children could study their own language, culture or religion. Other schools provided education to indigenous children who could not gain admission to a public school. Attendance at some of the private schools, especially those in Phnom Pehn, conferred a certain amount of prestige on the student and on the student s family. The private educational system included Chinese-language schools, Vietnamese-language (often Roman Catholic) schools, French-language schools, English-language schools, and Khmer-language schools. Enrollment in private primary schools rose from 32,000 in the early 1960s to about 53,500 in 1970, although enrollment in private secondary schools dropped from about 19,000 to fewer than 8,700 for the same period. In 1962, there were 195 Chinese schools, 40 Khmer schools, 15 Vietnamese schools, and 14 French schools operating in Cambodia. Private secondary education was represented by several high schools, notably the LycИe Descartes in Phnom Penh. All of the Vietnamese schools in Phnom Penh and some of the Chinese schools there were closed by government decree in There was no information available in 1987 that would have indicated the presence of any private schools in the PRK, although there was some private instruction, especially in foreign languages. 28

5 The Curriculum Reform and Expansion of Education System 37 Changes in political and socio-economic sectors led to successive reforms in the country s education system. Before 1975, the country adopted a French-based education system that required 13 years of education ( ) with 4 or 5 major examinations. After 1979, the Ministry of Education, in consideration of the country s urgent needs, executed a 10-year education system (4+3+3) and then expanded it to an 11-year education system from 1986 to The Ministry has continued to improve the education system. The curriculum was reformed, new textbooks were developed and new teaching skills were provided to teachers to prepare ground for the introduction of a new 12-year education system (6+3+3) in the school year. The new system has increased the number of learning hours for every grade in the cycle of primary education. In the framework of this new 12-year education system, one school year lasts 38 learning weeks, with 5 learning per day per week, 6 periods of learning per day, and each period of learning lasting 45 minutes. Under the old curriculum, one school year lasted only weeks, and pupils attended only 4 hours of learning per day. In consideration of the shortage of classrooms, the Ministry allowed school to teach only 5 periods per day and each period of learning lasted only 40 minutes. According to a survey jointly launched in March 1999 by the Department of Planning, MOEYS, and World Bank Project, the new curriculum should apply 1,140 periods of learning, which is equal to 855 teacher-pupil contact hours. The teaching and learning hours stipulated by MOEYS are 950 periods of learning hours or 633 teacher-pupil contact hours but, in practice only 825 periods of learning hours of 533 teacher-pupil contact hours are available. In fact, the amount of practical teaching and learning hours are far lower than what is stipulated by the Ministry as a good number of schools teach level less than 5 periods of learning per day. Many prolonged holidays also affect effective learning hours. a) Internal efficiency The MOEYS aimed to increase the learning hours and reduce the repetition rate. In 1999, the repetition rate in Grade 1 was high at 40.9 percent, but the promotion rate is 48.4 percent. Generally, Grade 1 students have the highest repetition rate. Also in the same school year, dropout rates were high. Moreover, the nationwide pupil-teacher ratio was at 48:1, and 37:1 in urban primary schools. The shortage of classrooms was critical for schools in the urban areas, having 87 pupils per classroom, forcing some schools to conduct 3 shifts each day. The enrollment rate is relatively low and the learning achievements or internal efficiency of the education system is very low (Table 5). The school-age population increased in school year and the net enrollment was 78.3 percent. This implied that about 21.7 percent (or about 0.4 million) of the population aged 6-11 remains outside the school, of which some received only or 5 years schools. The low enrollment rate and internal efficiency resulted to loss on the country s resources in finance, materials and equipment, and time. The MOEYS endeavour to address these concerns and solve such problems. 38 Indicators Gross Admission Rate Net Admission Rate Gross Enrollment Rate Net Enrollment Rate Table 5. Selected Education Indicators (%), Source: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports Website: 29

6 b) Access and Participation in Education The primary education is the first level of education. Schools re-opened in early 1979 after the collapse of the Khmer Rouge regime where strong joint efforts of the community, local authorities, and the MOEYS led to the re-establishment of the education system. During the school year, the country had a total 5,026 primary schools, 350 lowersecondary schools and 125 upper-secondary schools. Of the total number of primary schools, about 50 percent did not have the complete range of grades (Grades I through VI) for the primary cycle. Children who live far away from a school with the complete range of grades find very hard to continue learning and some of them inevitably become drop-outs (Table 6). According to the United Nations Cambodia, over 80 percent of children were attending primary school as of Table 6. Selected Indicators in Primary Education, 1998 Grade Level Promotion Repetition Dropout Grade I Grade II Grade III Grade IV Grade V Grade VI Source: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports Website: A number of children were drop-outs due to many causes, including the incomplete range of grades for the primary cycle. Moreover, certain segments of the population perceived that education is not necessary for themselves nor to their families due to poverty and shortage of labor in the family. The increasing number of drop-outs in lower grades caused higher rate of illiteracy. In order to be safe from falling into lapse again, a child must at least complete grade 4 or grade 5. The situation was worse in remote provinces as the net enrollment rate was even lower than 50 percent. This affected the socio-economic status of Cambodians wherein a survey on Girls Education jointly conducted by Department of Planning, MOEYS, and CARE International in July 1998 revealed that those who achieved primary education level did not earn much more than those without education. On the other hand, those who completed lower secondary school always received higher income than those who completed primary schools. Higher education is a sub-sector that has objectives and operations quite different from other education sub-sectors. The General Department of Higher and Technical Education and Vocational Training (GDHTEVT) is in charge of coordinating higher education development while concerned ministries handle management aspects by their respective specializations. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport directly supervised six higher education institutions and the Ministries of Health, Agriculture and Culture and Fine Arts supervise three others. In , there were seven percent of children who were enrolled in pre-primary school; 91 percent girls and 96 percent boys were in primary school; 19 percent girls and 30 percent boys were enrolled in secondary school; and 3 percent of the population in tertiary age was in tertiary education. Of those who enrolled, 67 percent of children completed a full course of primary. 30

7 Table 7. Literacy Rates, Sex Place of Residence Percentage Literate Total Both Urban Rural Total Males Urban Rural Total Females Urban Rural Source: NIS. MoP CIPS. Website: Overall, there was an increase in the literacy rate by 11 percentage points from 1998 to 2004 (Table 7). A higher rate can be noted among males (82.1%) compared to females (67.4%) by 15 percentage points. Also, a higher literacy rate was evident in the urban (83.5%) compared to rural (72.7%) areas. c) Finance and Community Participation in Education As Buddhists, Cambodians have a long tradition of organization merit-making festivals to build pagodas, schools and roads. After the collapse of the Pol Pot regime, the Cambodian people enthusiastically made large contributions, according to their own means and resources, to construction of schools that benefit the local community. The riel (local currency) was not put back into curriculum following the Pol Pot era, so Cambodians committed themselves to continue strengthening the education system through contributions either in terms of materials or labor. Education surveys showed that Cambodia is one of the countries in the world in which a very high proportion of the resources for primary education come from the local community. This may have resulted from the fact that the Cambodian people had suffered greatly through a murderous regime, thus boosting their desire to restore their country s education system. To keep schools functioning well, the community raised money through Parents Associations or Schools Supporting Committees to cover not only the recurrent expenses, but also to sponsor all sport and art activities. The national budget for education covered staff salaries (teachers and education administrators) and a small part of recurrent expenditures incurred by central and provincial levels. For the year 1998, the government allocated 147 billion riels (about $US 40 million at current exchange rate) to the education sector, which represented 10.3 percent of the national budget (about 1.5 percent of the GDP). Nevertheless, the value of the 1998 budget is far lower than the actual needs in the MOEYS. Education Financing and Budget Allocations 39 The share of education as a percentage of government expenditure significantly increased over the recent years ( ) (Table 8). The government decreased spending on defense and security and increased expenditure on priority social sectors. Table 8 showed that government education spending as a percentage of GDP doubled during the period 1997 to 2002 and the education share of total government expenditure increased from 7 percent in 1997 to 12 percent in As a percentage of the government s budget in 2002, education was about 18.5 percent, which represented almost twice the share in

8 Table 8. Total Government Expenditure on Education (Riels, Billions), Total Education Expenditure, Capital & Recurrent Education Expenditure, 0.9% 1.2% 1.3% 1.7% 2.0% Percentage of GDP Education Share of Total 7% 8% 8% 9% 12% Government Expenditure Education Share of Total Recurrent Expenditure 10% 14% 14% 15% 18.5% Source: World Bank/ADB. Cambodia Integrated Fiduciary Assessment Public Expenditure Review A combination of government, private, and donor sources financed the education sector. In , the contribution of Government increased significantly from 21 percent in 1997 to about 50 percent. The share of donor project financing decreased significantly from 41 percent in 1997 to 31 percent in 2000 with further decline to an about 16 percent. IFAPER analysis suggested that share of parental and private contributions were about percent of total education spending. A strategic priority for the next phase of education reform will be to both mobilize additional resources for education and sustain the current Government spending for basic education. MOEYS continued to take advantage of rising budget allocations to further focus on ESP/ ESSP policy priorities. By , a government spending of 14.6 percent was allotted for education, which was distributed per level: pre-primary (1%), primary (73%), secondary (21%), and tertiary (5%) (Figure 6). Fig. 6. Distribution of Public Expenditure on Education per Level (%), Primary 73% Pre-primary 1% Tertiary 5% Secondary 21% In , the net enrollment rate was 83.8 percent, an increase from 77.8 percent in About 16 percent of children aged 6-11 years remained outside the school system. This non attendance varied regionally, reaching as high as 50 percent in some remote provinces. However, the repetition rate was also high (i.e. 40% for grade one). These showed that many students in the lowest grades of primary school were older and attending the same class for the second or third time. Drop-out rates for grades one, two and three were 10.6 percent, 10.8 percent and 11.1 percent, respectively. Class sizes were also large, having an average of 50 students at the primary level. Parents do not discriminate children s education by sex. However, due to high educational fees and low incomes, boys are favored in terms of schooling over the girls. Moreover, girls are more likely to stay at home to help with household work and care for younger siblings. Girls are 32

9 also not allowed to travel long distances and live away from the family to attend upper secondary schools. Despite the improved government funding for education, financial problems remained. The MOEYS reported that there is little possibility of providing every child the prescribed nine years of education. There were also problems with teaching quality, particularly in schools in urban and rural areas. Moreover, teachers are paid low salaries. Due to insufficient wages, they supplement their income with other jobs that often result in cutting classes or provision of teaching outside the regular class hours with a fee. Likewise, there are inadequate educational facilities, large class size, long travel time of pupils to schools and high costs for the families. At the upper levels, these problems are compounded by the payment of bribes to qualify in the upper secondary level exams and secure admission to universities. In 2000, literacy levels of the country were lower than previously estimated. The levels were categorized as: completely illiterate (36.3%), semi-literate (26.6%), and literate (37.1%). The latter was further subdivided into those with basic literacy (11.3%), medium level (64%), and selflearning level (those who read all kinds of materials) (24.7%). In all these categories, the rates were lower for women while 45 percent were completely illiterate, and only 20 percent of the literate women were in the self-learning category. By combining the first two categories, this implies that 63 percent of adult population (6.5 million people) were basically illiterate. In 2004, the literacy rate rose to 74 percent, with a literacy level of 84 percent in the urban areas (higher than that in the rural areas of 73 percent). Male-female differentials were slightly higher in the rural areas (15.5 percentage point difference in favor of the male) than in the urban areas (10.2 percentage points). The literacy rates increased by 11.6 points from 1998 (62.8%) to 2004 (74.4%) (Table 9). It can be noted that the rates for both males and females (83.4%) in 2004 were higher in urban areas as compared to 75.5 percent in Moreover, the rural rates for both sexes were higher by 12.4 points from 1998 to Table 9. Literacy Rates by Sex and Residence (%), Literacy rates Males Females Both Males Females Both Urban Rural Total Source: NIS, CIPS Further analysis of adult literacy (population 15 years and over) in 2004 revealed an overall level of 73.6 percent, 6.3 percentage points higher than that obtained in 2004 the census of 1998 (Table 10). The gap between the male and female literacy levels was considerable (20.6 percentage points). Such disparity persisted among urban and rural residents, but the percentage point difference was higher in the rural (21.7 percentage points) than the urban areas (14.9 percent), and these were lower than the 1998 census. Differences between males and females by age group were marked in older ages from 45 years onward. Among 65 years and older, only 15.7 percent females were literate compared to 71.4 percent males. These levels were higher than the levels in 1998 for both sexes. As for the youth, literacy rates increased for both males and females from 1990 (73.5%) to 2004 (83.4%). Table 10. Adult and Youth Literacy Rates By Sex (%), Indicators Regional Average ( ) Adult (15+) Both Sexes Males Females Youth (15-24 years) Both Sexes Males Females

10 Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics Education in Cambodia. An analysis of educational attainment of literate persons aged 25 years and above showed that 4.3 percent of the population did not go to school at all. Percentages were similar for men and women and higher than those obtained in 1998 (4.3 vs. 2.0 for males and 4.3 vs. 2.2 for females). However, at older ages, a higher percentage of females who have not gone to school were reported. More females did not complete any primary education (63.6%) compared to males (45.8%). With education progression, more males moved beyond the primary school with marked sex disparities among older ages. The literacy status of males and females influenced their employment opportunities. More skilled workers with high educational attainment are more employed. As for school attendance, about 36 percent of males and 28 percent of females aged 7 years and above were attending school or academic institutions. Urban areas had almost the same attendance rate as rural areas. The male-female difference was less than one percent in both urban and rural areas. About 87 percent of population aged 7-14 years attended schools; 49 percent and 9 percent of population aged and attended school, respectively; and less than one percent of population aged 25 and older were in school. Furthermore, CIPS 2004 revealed that the percentage of literate population was higher in respect of migrants where 44 percent completed primary level and higher. The corresponding percentage, among male non-migrants was 33 percent. About a fifth (23%) of female migrants had the same level of education. Secondary and tertiary schools were attended by 8 percent of male migrants and only 3 percent of male non-migrants. The corresponding percentage among female migrants was 3 percent with 1.3 percent among female non-migrants. 40 B. Socio-Economic Situation Since 1993, Cambodia enjoyed sustained economic growth (5.5% annually), except in following regional financial crisis, civil violence and domestic political infighting. While its share in the economy fell from 46 to 31 percent between 1994 and 2004, Cambodia s agricultural sector which includes crops, livestock, forestry and fishery, and is the primary livelihood of the poor, continued to support more than 70 percent of the labor force in The share of the industrial sector in the economy doubled to 29 percent, while that of services remained at around one-third. The economy was also dependent upon a few products where garments accounted for 80.4 percent of total exports in The GDP grew at five percent in 2000, 6.3 percent in 2001, and 5.2 percent in The 2006 Poverty Assessment (PA) found that Cambodia made significant progress in reducing poverty in the past. The proportion of the population living below the national poverty line fell from 47 percent to 35 percent ( ). Over this decade, Cambodia consolidated peace and achieved economic growth of over 7 percent a year. Improvements in non-income indicators, which included ownership of consumer durables, housing quality and school enrollment, confirmed the rising living standards of many Cambodians. About 36 percent of the population lived below the basic needs national poverty line, with rural households that accounted for 90 percent as poor. Cambodian society was characterized by entrenched inequality, in many essential dimensions, spanning across gender status and geographical locations. Most of the economic growth of the past decade was confined to urban, while rural growth barely kept pace with the increase in population. The depth of poverty was quite shallow, with the exception of certain vulnerable groups, and inequality was lower in the rural areas. In 2004, 91 percent of poor Cambodians lived in rural areas. Poverty rates were highest in remote rural areas with limited access to roads, markets and basic services. Despite Cambodia s past decade of progress with poverty rate having fallen by one percent each year for the last decade the 2006 Poverty Assessment reported that poverty remained widespread 34

11 and multidimensional, with a third of the population still living below the poverty line and one in five living below the food poverty line. Cambodian women represented 51 percent of the active labor force and head 25.7 percent of Cambodian households where they faced substantial discrimination on the labor market (earning 30 to 40 percent less than men). There exist rampant gender inequalities in the economy. Cambodia had one of the highest female labor force participation rates in the region, of which most of this employment was in the informal sector. Women were often in low-paid, unskilled positions and vulnerable to exploitation in the workplace. 43 C. Labor Force and Employment With the country s young population in 2004, the dependency ratio was 74 percent (59.7% and 76.8% in the urban and rural areas, respectively). More than 60 percent of the population were employed in The percentage was slightly higher for males (61.3%) than females (60.3%) (Table 11). Sex differentials were also noted in urban and rural areas, the difference being less among rural residents. Among the females, employment rate was higher in rural (62.4%) than in urban areas (49.1%). This may be due to the higher percentage of rural people who were agricultural workers (74.2% of the employed population). The age-specific rates in Table 11 showed the highest level of employment among the years of age. There was a sharp rise in employment in the years group (68.1%), with 65 percent among males and 71.2 percent among females. The female employment rate, which was higher than the male, suggests more female child labor. Data by residence revealed lower female participation in the urban areas. Age Group (years) Table 11. Percentage of Employed Population in Each Age Group, By Sex and Residence, 2004 Urban Rural Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Males Females Total Total Source: NIS CIPS. Seven million individuals (54%) of the total population (12.8) million are in the labor force. As children aged 0-6 years are not considered economically active, and only a small percentage of those aged 7-14 years are in the labor force, the labor force participation rate is higher in the older ages. About 66 percent of the population aged 7 years and over and 84 percent of the population aged 15 years and over are economically active. Male and female activity rates were almost the same. The activity rate in urban areas was 51.2 percent for males and 46.4 percent for females. In rural areas, however, the activity rates for males and females were 55.7 and 56.6 percent, respectively. The lower rate for males is attributed to the larger number of males under age 15 years, mostly not active. At young ages (15-19 years) higher proportions of girls than boys are in the labor force. 35

12 Although labor force participation rates were high, significant proportions of those in the labor force were unemployed. Overall, seven percent of the labor force were unemployed, and 6 percent came from the urban areas. The overall unemployment rate for females was 6.7 percent compared to 7.6 percent in males. Moreover, the unemployment rates for the literate and illiterate persons were 7.3 and 5 percent, respectively. Urban unemployment rates for literate and illiterate persons were 6.1 and 8.1 percent, respectively. Rural unemployment rates were 8.1 and 4.8 percent for literate and illiterate persons, respectively. These showed that people in rural areas could get a job even though they are not literate. It is evident that the higher the educational level, the lower is the unemployment rate. This is true in both rural and urban areas. At the national level, unemployment rates for literate men and women were almost similar with 7.9 and 7.3 percent, respectively. The economically inactive persons are mainly the homemakers, students, dependents, renters and retirees. Due to the young age structure of the Cambodian population, half of those persons who were not economically active were students. There were more students and less female homemakers in urban areas where about one third of females (29.6%) were dependents while more than half of economically inactive males (59.9%) were in school. Students constituted a slightly higher proportion of the economically inactive population in urban (52.6%) than rural (49.6%) areas. Forty one percent of the inactive population were dependents (42.8% males and 41.1% females). Only 11.5 percent of economically inactive females were homemakers, with 22.3 percent in urban areas and 9.2 percent in rural areas. Table 12. Percentage Distribution of Employed Persons, By Employment Status, Sex and Residence, 2004 Area of Sex Employment Status Residence Employer Paid Own Account Unpaid Family Other Employee Worker Worker Urban Males Females Both Rural Males Females Both Total Males Females Both Source: NIS CIPS. The employment status reflects the low level of development of the economy since only 13 percent of the workforce were paid employees and 0.2 percent were employers (Table 12). The rest were divided approximately equally between own account workers and unpaid family workers. The employment status differed between urban and rural areas. In urban areas, 30 percent of the labor force were paid employees and 27 percent were unpaid family workers. In contrast, in rural areas, 10 percent of workers were paid employees and 48 percent, unpaid family workers. An examination of individuals by sex and employment status demonstrated a predominance of female unpaid family workers compared with men. The higher proportion of female unpaid family workers was evident in rural areas. The percentage of paid employees among males was almost twice that of females in urban and rural areas. The percentage of own account workers was almost the same for males and females in urban areas but a little less than half among females compared to males in rural communities. (Table 12) 36

13 The distribution of employed population in 2004 showed that the modal occupational category was agriculture. There were 69.4 percent males and 75.7 percent females in this sector particularly in rice production. There was only 5 percent of females who were white-collar workers compared to 6 among males. About 16 percent of males and 14 percent of females were white-collar workers in urban areas. The percentage of male urbanites, who were blue collar workers, was 45 compared to 43 among females. In rural areas, 80 percent of males and 81 percent of females were agricultural workers. More than 10 percent of the population were blue-collar workers (14% in males and 13% in females) in rural areas. (Table 13) Over 74 percent of the employed persons worked in the primary sector, including agriculture, forestry and fishing; 7 percent worked in the secondary sector of mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction; and 18 percent worked in the tertiary or services sector. In urban areas, 13 percent of the workforce were in the secondary sector and 52 percent worked in the services sector. Females in both urban and rural areas were more likely than males to work in the primary sector, and consequently less likely to work in either the secondary or tertiary sectors. For the country, the highest percentage of employed persons were engaged in agriculture, hunting and forestry (72.6%), followed by wholesale and retail trade (8.9%), manufacturing (5.3%), public administration and defense (2.6%), transport (2%), social and personal services (2%), fishing (1.5%) and construction (1.3%). The percentages in other industries were less than 1. In urban areas 32.9 percent of employed persons were in agriculture. These areas also have land for cultivation. 37

14 Table 13. Percentage Distribution of Employed Persons, By Industrial Category, Sex and Residence, 2004 Industrial Category Cambodia Urban Rural Males Females Males Females Males Females Number (thousand) Total (%) Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry 2. Fishing Mining and Quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, Gas and Water Supply 6. Construction Wholesale and Retail Trade; Repair of Motor Vehicles, Motorcycles and Personal and Household Goods 8. Hotels and Restaurants Transport, Storage and Communication 10. Financial Intermediation Real Estate, Renting and Business Activities 12. Public Administration and Defense; Compulsory Social Security 13. Education Health and Social Work Other Community, Social and Personal Service 16. Private Households With Employed Persons 17. Extraterritorial Organizations and Bodies Source: NIS CIPS. D. Child Labor and Laws Against Child Labor The Royal Government of Cambodia demonstrates its commitment to combat the worst forms of child labor by promoting children's education and improving the living conditions of its people. It adopted laws and regulations to eliminate the exploitative forms of child labor. In September 1992, Cambodia signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and ratified it in July Article 48 of the country's Constitution, also adopted in 1993, stated, "The State shall: protect the rights of children as stipulated in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, in particular the right to life, education, protection during wartime and protection from economic and sexual exploitation." In 1995, the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) of the International Labour Organization (ILO) began providing assistance to Cambodia. As a first step, an action program was developed and implemented to strengthen the capacity of the Ministry of Social Affairs, Labour, Vocational Training and Youth Rehabilitation (MoSALVY) to address policy 38

15 issues related to child labor. The Government sought initiatives that were preventive in nature, focusing on the flow of children from rural to urban areas. In January 1997, the National Assembly adopted a new labor code, which set the minimum age of employment at 15 years (Article 177). It stipulated that children between 12 and 15 years of age can engage in light work provided that: I) the work is not hazardous to their health and psychological development; and ii) the work will not affect their school attendance or their participation in vocational training programs approved by competent authorities. It was further stated in Article 181 minors, whatever their sex, younger than 18 years and still under the responsibility of their parents or guardians. The provisions on child labor in the current labor code are largely in line with ILO Convention NO. 138, ratified by the Government on 23 August In the code, the minimum age of employment or work is set at "the age of completion of compulsory schooling and, in any case not less than 15 years". For light work, the Convention sets the minimum age at 13 years and for hazardous work, 18 years. However, in exceptional cases, which were specified in the Convention, the basic minimum age may be lowered to 14 years, aged years for light work and age 16 years for hazardous work. A sub-decree issued in November 1995 established the Cambodian National Council for Children to serve as "the coordinating body for advocacy, planning, monitoring and implementing the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of the Child". The MOSALVY played a lead role in the council, which consisted of relevant ministries and local institutions. The Prime Minister presided over the council. Cambodia, like many other countries in the region, faces challenges with poverty, rapid growth of the population, rural-urban migration and weaknesses in the education system. These are factors that encourage the supply of child labor. Child labor is regarded as exploitative or unhealthy growth and well being of a young person. It produces a negative impact on health, interferes with education, and creates obstacles to the child s full and effective participation in society. Other negative effects include injuries and psychological stress from working in difficult and unhygienic conditions. Child Domestic Labor In several cultures in Asia, as well worldwide, children are regarded as under the control and guidance of their parents. The concept that children have independent rights is an unfamiliar one. The society and even many parents of children in domestic labor "accept" exploitative circumstances or even child servitude. Employers of child domestic workers were often seen as looking after them and providing them with food and shelter. A number of surveys were conducted regarding child labor by the NIS and the Ministry of Planning, such as the socio-economic surveys of , 1996 and 1999, and the Cambodia Child Labour Survey 2001 (CCLS). The CCLS was the first household-based survey on child labor. Unfortunately, none of those surveys explicitly estimated the numbers of child domestic workers in Cambodia. Poverty and orphan children (having no parents or close relative/guardian) are the two most common reasons why children and adolescents left their province or family home to work in Phnom Penh. Other major reasons include the desire for better opportunity, for education and migration together with the family. In 2003, Child Domestic Workers (CDW) survey revealed that about 3,119 CDWs, or 11.2 percent of all 27,950 CDWs, had parents/guardians living in Phnom Penh. Of them, 1,718 CDWs came from non-slum area, 1,401 CDWs in slum areas, and 48 percent (1,499) were males and 52 percent (1,620) were females. While more girls (47.9%) than boys (12.1%) said they moved to Phnom Penh and sought domestic work, more boys (65.6%) than girls (15.5%) were domestic 39