Literacy Rate in Source Districts (Assam) of Urban Poor in Guwahati ( )

Transcription

1 Literacy and level of education of slum dwellers and other urban poor have been remaining in focus in different works in this field. Studies have already revealed that as a result of migration, the level of educational attainment falls in areas of origin as well as in areas of destination as the level of education of migrants is higher than that of the native born nonmigrants but lower than the city born population to which they migrate (Desai, 1995). Although Guwahati city has a considerably higher literacy rate of per cent (2001), with for males and for females, the situation is dismal for the urban poor, who are mostly rural migrants. The prevailing literacy condition of the source regions definitely determines the number of literates among the migrants. It is important to note that all the districts except Kamrup and Nalbari of western Assam from which 54.7 per cent of city s poor have migrated, had less than 50 per cent literacy in 1991 and which improves to per cent only in 2001 (Table 6.1). In the central Assam Districts also, from which 6.1 per cent of city s poor have migrated, had less than 50 per cent literacy rate except in the Nagaon District. The scenario of the source regions definitely has bearings on literacy and level of education of the city s urban poor. The ward wise literacy rates in the city exhibit a uniform pattern as in most wards literacy rate is between 80 to 90 per cent. However, the rate is comparatively low in the wards located in the southern and eastern part of the city. The areas covered by these wards are less developed than other parts of the city. The lowest literacy rate (71) in the city is in ward number 60, which covers parts of Barsajai, Hatigaon and Notbama areas in the south east of the city. On the other hand, ward number 40 has the highest literacy rate in the city with 94 per cent (Fig 6.1). This ward covers Chandmari, Milanpur and Krishnanagar area. 138

2 Table 6.1.: Place of Origin Western Assam Districts and Guwahati Central Assam Districts Eastern Assam Districts Barak Valley Districts Literacy Rate in Source Districts (Assam) of Urban Poor in Guwahati ( ) Per cent of Total Sampled Households = Source : 1. Statistical Hand Book, Primary Data, Source Districts Literacy Rate () Dhubri Goalpara Kokrajhar Bongaigaon Barpeta Nalbari Kamrup Darrang Sonitpur Marigaon Nagaon North Lakhimpur Dhemaji Golaghat Jorhat Sibsagar Dibrugarh Tinsukia Cachar Karimganj Hailakandi

3 AZARA GUWAHATI PATTERN OF LITERACY, 2001 NORTH GUWAHATI Kilometers MEGHALAYA 91 40'0"E 91 45'0"E 91o50'0*'E N A Legend Literacy rate ^26'5'CrN

4 Illiteracy may be considered as a serious social problem for the urban poor in Guwahati as 53 per cent of the sampled population is found to be illiterate. Illiteracy is very high in areas like Riverbank (Machkhowa), Lakhtokia, Rupnagar, Bhutnath and Pandu Barabazar (Table 6.2), But, in all the wards, where these areas are located have illiteracy rate less than 15 per cent. Level of education among the urban poor is very low as 60 per cent of total literates have education limited to primary level only, which make up only 28 per cent of the total urban poor population aged seven years and above. The percentage of population having only primary level of education in different sampled areas varies from as low as 2 per cent in Machkhowa Riverbank area to 51 per cent in Pandu area. The percentage of population having education of high school level and more is 19 per cent : Female Illiteracy and Level of Education Female illiteracy rate among the poor is as high as 65 per cent. There is significant variation in female illiteracy in different sampled areas, as it varies from 5 per cent in Narakasur to 100 per cent in Riverbank, Kamakhyagate and Pachim Boragaon. In these areas all females have been found to be illiterate (Table 6.2), whereas in all the wards where these areas are located, female literacy rate is more than 70 per cent (Fig.6,2). Poor women have very low level of education as 68 per cent of the female literates have education limited to primary level only, which comprise 24 per cent of the total females aged 7 and above. On the other hand 11 per cent of the females have attained education beyond primary level. Again, there is marked spatial variation in level of education of females in sampled areas. The highest per cent of females with high school and more level of education is found at Narakasur (50) followed by Bimalanagar (45) and Indrapur (40). There are as many as 11 sampled areas where female with such level of education is not available (Table 6.2). In these areas poor are mostly Bangla and Hindi speaking except in Jyotikuchi. It is interesting to note that there are only 9 females in 8 sampled areas, who completed high school education and only 0.51 per cent females are educated beyond high school level. 141

5 z o Novoiaow AZARA GUWAHATI PATTERN OF FEMALE LITERACY, 2001 NORTH GUWAHATI RANI R. F Kilometers MEGHALAYA 91M0'0"E 91 45'0"E 91 50'0"E Fig. 6.2 N A Legend Female Literacy rate i

6 Table 6.2 : Illiteracy Rate and Level of Education of Urban Poor in Guwahati Areas Illiterate population Illiteracy rate () Population with primary education Population with secondary education T All F T M F Total M F Total M F 1. Sijubari (22) 27(27) 13(16) 27(15) 20(20) 7(9) 2 Bimalanagar (32) 20(30) 14(35) 56(53) 38(58) 18(45) 3. Narengi (31) 18(36) 17(27) 12(11) 8(16) 4(6) 4 Sitalabari (19) 11(26) 5(12) 5(6) 5(12) 0 5. Gandhibasti (23) 14(32) 3(10) Ambari * 61 54(24) 27(25) 27(24) 44(20) 27(25) 17(15) 7. Bharalumukh (45) 32(52) 24(38) 27(22) 18(29) 9(14) 8 Fancybazar (27) 42(30) 16(21) 13(6) 10(7) 3(4) 9. Athgaon (33) 43(48) 20(28) 8(5) 3(3) 5(7) 10 Patharquarry (28) 4(29) 4(27) 5(17) 3(21) 2(13) 11. Baripara (23) 6(25) 2(22) 10(30) 10(42) Darundha (19) 3(19) 2(18) 9(33) 7(44) 2(18) 13. Paltanbazar (20) 3(16) 2(33) 5(20) 5(26) 0 14 Lalmati (14) 3(10)' 4(21) 12(24) 11(37) 1(5) 15, Pachim Boragaon (5) 1(8) 0 5(24) 5(42) Jyotikuchi (37) 9(31) 7(50) 11(26) 11(38) 0 17 Uzanbazar Jahajghat (39) 7(54) 2(20) 5(22) 4(31) 1(10) 18. Santipur (28) 23(27) 20(35) 53(37) 45(52) 8(14) 19 Maligaon Shuttlegate 20. Pandu Barabazar 21. Maligaon Gotanagar 22 Kamakhya gate (24) 14(28)' 8(19) 4(4) 1(2) 3(7) (8) 4(13) 1(3) 4(6) 3(9) 1(3) (29) 16(32) 7(25) 11(14) 10(20) 1(4) (5) 1(25) Rupnagar (10) 2(13) 2(8) Indrapur (31) 19(33) 7(28) 40(48) 30(52) 10(40) 25, Bishnupur (35) 26(39) 19(32) 31(24) 20(30) 11(18) 26. Bhutnath (11) 3(13) 1(7) 2(5) 1(4) 1(7) 27. Hatigaon Bhetapara (31) 34(37) 18(23) 28(17) 33(25) 5(6) 143

7 28. Seujnagar (39) 14(54) 3(17) 2(5) 1(4) 1(6) 29 Kalipur (21) 13(24) 6(17) 23(31) 18(33) 10(28) 30. Lakhtokia (16) 2(22) 1(10) Riverbank (2) 1(5) 0 1(2)' 1(5) Narakasur (31) 3(16) 9(45) 24(62) 14(74) 10(50) 33. Dhirenpara (25) 7(39) 1(7) 13(41) 9(50) 4(29) 34. Bhaskarnagar (27) 19(28) 20(25) 37(25) 23(34) 14(18) 35. Hedayetpur (18) 4(15) 3(25) 17(44) 14(52) 3(25) 36, Jalukbari H.C (35) 3(30) 4(40) 4(20) 4(40) 0 37 Kailashnagar Pandu (51) 66(63) 33(37) 18(9) 13(13) 5(6) Total (28) 544 (32) 325 (24) 573 (19) 417 (25) 156 (11) Source : Primary Data Figures in parentheses are percentages of column categories. Female illiteracy exhibits a marked spatial variation across the topographical areas, the highest illiteracy being found in riverside areas (93), while in hilly areas it is only 40 per cent (Fig 6.3). The percentage of fem ales with high school level or more education is also relatively high in areas on hill slope than the fem ales with primary education only. In all other topographic areas the percentage of fem ales with secondary education is very low (Table 6.3). This variation in illiteracy and low level o f education in different topographic areas may be attributed to socio-econom ic background of the migrants. The hilly areas, dominated by indigenous Assam ese population with a better socio-econom ic background witness a better position in literacy and education scenario. On the other hand, variation in fem ale illiteracy in areas o f different land use is moderate (Fig 6.4 and Table 6.4). ' There is little variation in fem ale illiteracy in different distance zones (Fig 6.5 and Table 6.5). Variation is low in slum and non-slum areas as well (Fig 6.6 and Table 6.6). 144

8 <u as oc >s o ( = I Hill Slopes Swampy Riversides Plain Areas Lands Areas Female Illiteracy Male Illiteracy Figure 6.3: Pattern of Male and Female Illiteracy in Topographic Areas Illiteracy Rate Railway Tracks Residential Areas Commercial Areas Industrial Areas Female Illiteracy Male Illiteracy Areas Figure 6.4: Pattern of Male and Female Illiteracy in Areas of Different Land Use 145

9 20 10 Female Illiteracy Male Illiteracy 0 Inner Zone Intermediate Zone Zones Outer Zone Figure 6.5: Pattern of Male and Female Illiteracy in Different Zones Illiteracy Rate GO A Ul Illiteracy Rate GO -U CJ Slum Areas Non-Slum I Female Illiteracy I Male Illiteracy Figure 6.6: Pattern of Male and Female Illiteracy in Slum and Non-Slum Areas 146

10 Table 6.3 : Pattern of Female Illiteracy and Level of Education in Different Topographic Areas Topographic Areas Illiteracy and Education level Hill slopes Swampy Riverside Plains Total lands Total Female (7yrs & above) Female Illiterates Female literates Females with primary education Female with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data Table 6.4 : Pattern of Female Illiteracy and Level of Education of Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use, Guwahati Land Use Areas Illiteracy and Education level Along Railway Residential Comm tracks Areas Cen tres ercial Industrial Total Areas Total Female (7 yrs & above) Female Illiterates Female literates Females with primary education Female with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data Table 6.5 : Illiteracy and Educational level Pattern of Female Illiteracy and Level of Education of Urban Poor in Different Distance Zones of Guwahati Zones Inner Intermediate Outer Total Total female (7yrs & above) Female Illiterates Female literates Females with primary education Female with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data 147

11 Table 6.6: Pattern of Female Illiteracy and Level of Education of Urban Poor in Slum and Non-slum Areas of Guwahati Areas Illiteracy and Education level Total Slum Non-slum Total Female (7yrs & above) Female Illiterates Female literates Females with primary education Female with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data Male Illiteracy and Level of Education Illiteracy and low level of education are serious drawbacks of their male counterparts also. Although illiteracy rate among the males is lower than that of the females, a significant per cent (43) of them are illiterate. However the percentages of males with primary and secondary education are higher than that of females (Table 6.2). Among the sampled areas, male illiteracy is lowest in Narakasur (11) and Dhirenpara (11) and highest in Bhutnath areas (83). Bhutnath is located along the railway track. The percentage of males with high school and more level of education is 25 per cent, which exhibits marked spatial variation. The highest percentage for the same is found at Narakasur (74) followed by Bimalanagar (58), Hedayetpur (52), Indrapur (52) and Santipur (52). On the other hand, there are areas like Lakhtokia, Kamakhyagate and Gandhibasti, where number of males with such education level is found to be nil. There are only 41 males with education beyond high school level spreading over 14 sampled areas. Male illiteracy rate varies significantly in different topographical areas. The rate is highest in the riverside areas (68) and lowest in the swampy areas (Table 6.7). The highest percentage of male with high school and more level of education is found in hilly areas (45), while that for primary 148

12 education is found in swampy areas (47) (Fig 6.3). The variation in male illiteracy and level of education in areas of different land use is moderate (Fig 6.4 and Table 6.8), but the variation is low among the different distance zones from the city centre (Fig 6.5 and Table 6.9). There is alm ost no variation in male illiteracy between slum areas and non-slum areas (Fig 6.6 and Table 6.10). Both male and female illiteracy exhibits significant variation among religious groups (Table 6.11 and 6.12), whereas there is not much variation in these across the econom ic groups (Table 6.13 and 6.14). Thus it can be concluded that there is some spatial variation in illiteracy and level of education of the urban poor. However econom y is not a factor for differences in literacy and level of education for this group o f population. Rather, it is social background and origin of the people which affect the literacy status of this underprivileged group o f people. T a b le 6.7: Pattern o f Male Illiteracy and Level o f Education o f Urban Poor in Different Topographic Areas o f Guwahati Illiteracy and Education level Hiii slopes Swampy lands Topographic Areas Riverside Plains Total Total Male (7yrs & above) Male Illiterates Male literates Males with primary education Male with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data

13 Table 6.8: Illiteracy and Education level Pattern of Male Illiteracy and Level of Education of Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use Land Use Areas Railway tracks Residential Commercial Industrial Total Total Male (7yrs & above) Male Illiterates Male literates Males with primary education Male with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data Table 6.9: Pattern of Male Illiteracy and Level of Education of Urban Poor in Areas of Different Zones of Guwahati Zones Illite ra c y a n d E d u c a tio n a l level Inner Intermediate Outer Total T o ta l M a le (7 yrs & above) Male Illiterates Male literates Males with primary education Male with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data Table 6.10: Pattern of Male Illiteracy and Level of Education of Urban Poor in Slum and Non-slum areas of Guwahati Illiteracy and Education level Areas Total Slum Non-slum Total Male (7yrs & above) Male Illiterates Male literates Males with primary education Male with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data

14 Table 6.11: Female Illiteracy and Level of Education among Religious Groups of Urban Poor Illiteracy and Education Level Religion Hindu Muslims Total Total Female (7yrs & above) 721 (100) 644(100) 1365 Female illiterate 405 (56) 479 (74) 884 Female literate 316 (44) 165 (26) 481. Female with primary education 210(29) 115(18) 325 Female with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data 106(15) 50(8) 156 Table 6.12: Male Illiteracy and Level of Education among Religious Groups of Urban Poor Illiteracy and Education Level Religion Hindu Muslims Total Total Male (7yrs & above) 947 (100) 742 (100) 1689 Male illiterate 330 (35) 398 (54) 728 Male literate 617 (65) 344 (46) 961 Male with primary education 322 (34) 222 (30) 544 Male with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data 295 (31) 122(16) 417 Table 6.13: Female Illiteracy and Level of Education among different Economic Groups of Urban Poor Illiteracy and Education Level Economic Groups (PE in Rs.) ! above Total Female (7yrs & above) 399 (100) 418 (100) 412 (100) 136 (100) Female illiterate 248 (62) 286 (68) 270 (66) 80 (59) Female literate 151 (38) 132 (32) 142 (34) 56 (41) Female with primary education 97 (24) 101 (24) 95 (23) 32 (23) Female with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data 54 (14) 31 (8) 47(11) 24 (18) 151

15 Table 6.14: Male Illiteracy and Level of Education among different Economic Groups of Urban Poor Economic Groups (PE in Rs.) Illiteracy and Education Level & above Total Male (7yrs & above) 431 (100) 525(100) 499 (100) 234(100) Male illiterate 187(43) 239 (46) 214 (43) 88(38) Male literate 244(57) 286 (54) 285 (57) 146(62) Male with primary education 149 (35) 177(34) 163 (33) 55(24) Male with secondary and more education Source: Primary Data 95 (22) 109(20) 122 (24) 91 (38) School Attendance Rate of Children So far as the child education is concerned, in Assam 76 per cent of the children aged 5-13 years are enrolled in school. Of the 24 per cent children who are out of the school, 5 per cent are dropouts and 19 per cent are never enrolled (Sarabasiksha, 2003). But in case of the children of the urban poor in Guwahati, school attendance rate is only 59 per cent. However, there is a spatial variation in school attendance rate as it varies from 100 per cent to 0 per cent in different sampled areas (Table 6.15). in Bimalanagar, Baripara, Darundha, Jyotikuchi, Uzanbazar Jahajghat, Narakasur and Jalukbari Harijan Colony, all the children aged between 7 to 14 years are school attended children. On the other hand in sampled areas like Kamakhyagate, Lakhtokia, Pachim Boragaon and Riverbank (Machkhowa) not a single child of this age group was found to be attending- school. Among the 37 sampled areas, the school attendance rate is found to be less than 50 per cent in 14 sampled areas. Moreover, school attendance rate of the male children has been found to be higher than that of the female children, the figures being 63 per cent and 54 per cent for male and female children respectively (Table 6.15). However, all these children are not continuing their studies and many of them have already dropped out of the school. Of the total school attended children, 24 per cent have already dropped out (Table 6.15). There is almost 152

16 no difference between total male and female dropout percentages, but there is a spatial variation in male and female dropouts. The variation in school attendance rate and dropout rate is not found to have a direct link either to economic condition or to social characteristics. Rather, a complex combination of these two attributes of different areas has brought about such variations. Table 6.15: School Attendance Rate of Children and Dropout Children among Urban Poor in Sampled Areas of Guwahati Areas of children 7-14 years. of school attended children School attendance rate of school dropout children School dropouts of school attended children T M F T HI F T M F T M F T M F 1. Sijubari Bimalanagar Narengi Sitabari Gandhibasti Ambari Bharalumukh Fancybazar Afhgaon Patharquarry Baripara Darundha Paltanbazar Lafmati Pachim Boragaon Jyotikuchi Uzanbazar Jahajghat Santipur Maligaon Shuttlegate 20 Pandu Barabazar '

17 21. Maligaon Gotanagar Kamakhyagate Rupnagar Indrapur Bishnupur Bhutnath Hatigaon Bhetapara Seujnagar Kalipur Lakhtokia Rtverbank Narakasur Dhirenpara Bhaskarnagar Hedayetpur , Jatukbari H C Kailashnagar (Pandu etc) Total Source: Primary Data Adult Illiteracy Rate The adult literacy rate in Urban Assam was per cent in (GOI, 2002). On the other hand, among the urban poor in Guwahati adult illiteracy rate is very high. The average adult illiteracy for the sampled population is 57 per cent which varies from 9 per cent at Narakasur to 96 per cent at Pandu Barabazar area. Female illiteracy rate among the adults is even higher, which is 73 per cent while the same for their male counterpart is only 46 per cent (Table 6.16). Moreover, female adult illiteracy is higher than male adult illiteracy in all areas, except in Sitalabari, Bhutnath and Narakasur area. In Narakasur area, which is an Assamese dominated area, the overall 154

18 situation in literacy and education is better than other sampled areas. However, the lower female adult illiteracy rates in other two areas than that of the males can not be linked directly to any specific factor. The urban poor in Guwahati comprise mainly the first generation migrants and this may be a crucial factor leading to higher illiteracy rate among the adults. Table 6.16: Adult Illiteracy among Urban Poor in Guwahati Areas Adult Illiterates and Illiteracy Rate Total Male Female 1. Sijubari 82 (65) 38 (54) 44 (80) 2. Bimalanagar 16(18) 8(14) 8(25) 3. Narengi 55 (79) 22(65) 33 (92) 4. Sitalabari 45 (87) 24 (92) 21 (81) 5. Gandhibasti 40 (87) 22 (79) 18(100) 6. Ambari 105 (61) 45 (49) 60 (73) 7. Bharalumukh 35 (42) 9(20) 26 (67) 8. Fancybazar 102(68) 60 (63) 42 (78) 9. Athgaon 57 (48) 31 (44) 26 (53) 10. Patharquarry 14 (82) 6(67) 8(100) 11. Baripara 14 (48) 8(36) 6(86) 12. Darundha 11 (46) 6(40) 5(56) 13. Paltanbazar 14 (61) 10(56) 4(80) 14. Lalmati 24 (63) 14 (54) 10 (83) 15. Pachim Boragaon 11 (65) 4(40) 7(100) 16. Jyotikuchi 16(47) 9(36) 7(78) 17. Uzanbazar Jahajghat 9(50) 2(20) 7(88) 18. Santipur 38 (37) 16 (24) 22 (59) 19. Maligaon Shuttlegate 53 (84) 27 (84) 26 (84) 20. Pandu Barabazar 43 (96) 20(91) 23(100) 21. Maligaon Gotanagar 41 (56) 22 (54) 19(86) 22. Kamakhyagate 16 (94) 3(75) 13 (100) 23. Rupnagar 20 (80) 7(70) 13 (87) 24. Indrapur 13(18) 9(17) 4 (21) 25. Bishnupur 45 (51) 18 (35) 27 (68) 26. Bhutnath 24 (86) 15(88) 9(82) 155

19 27. Hatigaon Bhetapara 70 (56) 25 (36) 45 (79) 28. Seujnagar 21 (72) 10(59) 11 (92) 29. Kalipur 39 (56) 23 (52) 16(62) 30. Lakhtokia 10(77) 4(67) 6(86) 31, Riverbank 28 (93) 12 (86) 16(100) 32. Narakasur 3(9) 2(11) 1(7) 33. Dhirenpara 9(35) 2(13) 7(64) 34. Bhaskamagar 60 (61) 22 (45) 38 (78) 35. Hedayetpur 14 (40) 8(32) 6(60) 36. Jalukbari Harijan Colony 9(64) 3 (43) 6(86) 37. Kailashnagar (Pandu etc) 64 (47) 18(26) 46 (69) Total 1270 (57) 584(46) 686 (73) Source : Primary Data Figures in parentheses are percentages 6.2 Unemployment and Underemployment In last few decades the changed global economy has exerted tremendous pressure on rural economy of the third world countries. In a highly information based economy with new technology, tertiarization and globalization, the rural farmers and artisans have found little time to mould their activities to fit in a new economic setting and found themselves almost at a loss to keep pace with the new trend. With other burgeoning economic and social problems of the third world countries, many of them are left with only one option to migrate to urban areas in search of living. However, with a little or no education and skill, they find themselves in lower rungs of jobs, that too in the informal sector of the economy. Unemployment is a major problem faced by the State of Assam. Of the total million population in the state, 15.5 millions are working population while the rest millions are dependent (2001). The number of persons employed in organized economic activity, comprising both public and private sector was lakhs at the end of 1999, but at the same time there were lakhs job seekers in the state as registered in employment exchanges (Govt, of Assam, 2001). Of these job seekers 75 per cent are educated with minimum education up to HSLC level. 156

20 The rate of employment in urban areas of the state as expressed in percentage of labour force in is as follows - Person Male Female (Govt, of India, 2002) The economy of Assam is basically an agrarian where even today the primary sector is the main contributor to the Net State Domestic Product (NSDP). Table 6.17 shows the contribution of different sector to NSDP in Table 6.17 : Sector wise percentage share to the NSDP of Assam during at price Sector/Economic A ctivity PC to NSDP 1 Primary Sector i) Agriculture "j ii) Forestry & Logging 2.03, iii) Fishing 2.10 iv) Mining & Quarrying 5.78 J II. Secondary Sector i) Manufacturing 9.02 ' 1 n no ii) Construction > lj./o iii) Electricity, Gas, water supply J III. Tertiary Sector i) Transport, Storage, Communication 1.44 ii) Trade, Hotels & Restaurants iii) Banking & Insurance 5.88 iv) Real Estate, Ownership of > dwelling & business service 2.73 v) Public Administration 7.58 vi) Other Services 9.80, Source : Govt, of Assam,

21 Table 6.18 : Main Workers and Marginal Workers in different Categories, Guwahati city, 2001 Workers Persons () Male( of persons) Female ( of persons) Total (100) (83.7) (16.3) Main (94.7) (84.6) (15.4) a) Cultivators 1902(0.67) 1344(70.7) 558 (29.3) b) Agricultural labour 777 (0.27) 560 (72.1) 217 (27.9) c) Household industries 4459(1.57) 2595 (58.2) 1864(41.8) c) Other workers (92.1) (85.2) (14.8) Marginal (5.3) (68.4) 4778 (31.6) a) Cultivators 201 (0.07) 147 (73.1) 54 (26.9) b) Agricultural labour 530 (0.18) 321 (60.6) 209 (39.4) c) Household industries 1308 (0.45) 536(41.0) 772 (59.0) d) Other workers 13099(4.6) 9356 (71.4) 3743 (28.6) Source: Census of India, 2001 The industrial sector has very little scope (except construction) to offer jobs for the poor. The study area Guwahati is not an industrial city and the percentage of main workers engaged in household industries is only 1.65 (Table 6.18). It is not like some other cities of the country where industrial workers comprise a major section of urban poor. For example in Baroda, a significant proportion of urban poor is comprised of industrial workers (Ghosh, Ahmad and Maitra, 1995). In Surat, 31 per cent slum dwellers are engaged in textile industry (Lobo and Das, 2001), while in Mumbai, many of the urban poor are engaged in the formal sector (Desai, 1995). On the other hand, in many cities of the third world countries, like Nairobi, Guatemala (Waugh, 2002), the urban poor usually earn their livelihood through the informal sector. The poor in Guwahati are no exception to it. They do a variety of works; they are traders, labourers, mechanics, electricians, painters, shoe-makers, plumbers, vegetable, fruit and fish vendors, and so on (Table 6.19). They 158

22 generally find works for themselves in informal activities within the tertiary sector like transport, trade and other services. Table 6.19 : Occupations of Urban Poor in Guwahati City 1. Coolie (Head loading) 36. Lottery ticket seller 2. Washer man 37. Cloth shop (Roadside) 3. Barber 38. Chat house 4. Daily labourer 39. Ferrywalla 5. Carpenter 40. Cobbler 6. Hand-cart puller 41. Tea-stall (Footpath) 7. Rickshaw puller 42. Spice seller 8. Auto-rickshaw driver 43. Butcher 9. Driver 44 Egg (Seller) Vendor 10. Small furniture business(roadside) 45. Foodstall (Roadside & Rly. Station) 11. Well mistry 46. Chanawala 12. Factory worker 47. Grill maker 13. Tailor 48. Scrap collector 14. Bus handyman 49. Sweeper 15. Fourth grade employee 50. Worker in dairy farm 16. Mason 51. Water supplier 17. Construction workers 52. Labour sardar 18. Cane workers 53. Truck handyman 1.9. Agents of private company 54. Juice vendor 20. Fish vendor 55 Medicine seller at footpath 21. Mechanic 56. Plumber 22. Painter (House) 57. Ticket blacker 23. Milkman 58. Newspaper hawker 24. Gas Cylinder delivery man 59. Book seller (footpath) 159

23 25. Vegetable vendor 60. Door to door selling of household goods 26. Fruit Vendor 61. Welder 27. Pan shop 62. Courier service 28. Shop keeper 63. Cycle mechanic 29. Household workers 64. Ticket Collector in Cinema halls 30. Hotel boy 65. Balloon & flute sellers 32. Sales man 66. Kerosene hawker 32. Blacksmith 67. Dhai 33. Rag picking 68 Tube well mistry 34. Cook in hotels 79. Tutor 35. Painter in Garage 70. Fortune Teller Source: Primary Survey, Employment means one s regular work or occupation (Hornby, 1974). The Census of India has classified workers into two categories - (1) Main workers i.e., those who work for 183 or more days of the year and ii) Marginal workers i.e. those who work for less than 183 days a.year. Of the total (2001) workers in the city of Guwahati, are males while are females. Of these total workers, 94.6 per cent are main workers and 5.4 per cent are marginal workers. On the other hand, 64.9 per cent of the total population is non-workers. Among the urban poor, the economically active population or the labour force comprise 58 per cent of the total sampled population with a dependency ratio more than 72.The work participation rate (WPR) among the sampled population is 34 per cent, which is 50.8 per cent for males and only 14.2 per cent for females (Tab!e6.20). The variation in female WPR in sampled areas is more than in male WPR, which may be attributed to social factors. However, of the total labour force, 58.6 per cent are having some kind of occupational engagements. A very low per cent of the total earning population (4.7) have jobs in the formal sectors (Table 6.21), while rest find or create jobs in the informal sector. With the exception of the self-employed, 160

24 1 1 a S E9 a o> T o cvi xt P" in cd oo GO ,0 VIZ 26.7 i O OO od x}- K cd o cd \ 32.1 cd i l i l 25 oo o 32 in 05 GO CD P XT** m X t"- 'T 28 O T~* S3 XT'* i! m rl l V* 05 oo c~ co 15.6 o> XP 50 : 4 91< xr* i n XF * in o 138 csi 05 T 2.0 i N in 29 GO I i O S? XT" 05 flb i 12.9 O <d in Table 6.20 : Workforce Structure among Urban Poor In Guwahati *3 a 1 a S O to T X XT- in O Workers i s 1 1 i 1 i s m is s s S g B ES flb i i i f» s s x 55 23, o a> xr- o OO o in CD 05 O Xj- 7.7! 10.7 Mf o to t o 47 3 Sijubari Bimalanagar 30 Narengi 24 'SZ J 00 s to S3 cd N h- I 99 O 0 5 Gandhibasti Ambari Bharalumukh 53 9SZ 05 cd in o 05 oo Fancy Bazar o ! i cd x O r O -st- o 05 in x o cd M" 'r ~ Csl OO o in o o T o o x op*. 05 Athgaon 05 in xr~ Patfiarquarry 22 2 a *cr CD CD "M* Damndha Pantalbazar 24 Lalmatl <o Pachim Boragaon Jyotikuchi 52 oo CD Uzan Bazar I Santipur 1^ Maligaort Suttlegate i l l CD CD CL 0 3 S5* x -: "M" i n CD od 05 O z cd XT * in cd f-^ GO

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26 lower rung jobs in the informal sector are highly irregular and sometimes seasonal in nature, with uncertain wages. Among the sampled population, self-employed comprise 35 per cent of the total working population. However, many of the workers, including some self-employed also may be considered as marginal workers as they find works only for 15 to 20 days a month. In other words, these are the underemployed and it is a major cause of low income of this group of population. A semi-skilled or unskilled worker undertakes different jobs in different seasons of the year. It has been found that a juice vendor or a rickshaw puller in summer works as a construction labourer in winter. Most of the vendors and scrap collectors generally live temporarily in the city. They generally stay in the city for 20 to 22 days a month and then left for.home with their earnings. Besides these, as most of the urban poor work in unfavourable and polluted environment, they usually suffer from ill health, chronic diseases, and thus earnings become irregular. Table 6.21 : Occupational Structure of Urban Poor in Guwahati Sector Formal Informal Total Workere'v S.Skilled Unskilled Total S.Skilled Unskilled Total Total* (4.6) (95 4) 1327(100) Male (4 7) (95.3) 1077(100) Female 10 10(4 0) (96) 250(100) Source: Primary data. * including child labourers. The sector wise distribution pattern of occupation in different topographic areas of the study region is some what homogenous as most of the workers are engaged in informal sector (Table 6.22). The only significant point is that no worker is found to be employed in formal sector in riverside areas, while highest percentage of workers in formal sector (10.2) is found in the hilly areas. It has been observed that a large number of lower grade employees in formal sector prefer to encroach a hill slope rather than living in a riverbank, by the side of a railway track, or a swampy land. However, some of these belong to poor group. Hill slopes are relatively safe for permanent 163

27 settlement and therefore the Assamese migrants prefer these areas. Moreover, with a better social background like higher literacy rate and educational level, the poor in hilly areas find better jobs and look for permanent settlement. These may be the reasons of higher percentage of workers in formal sector among the poor in hill slope areas. On the other hand, if we see the sector wise pattern of employment in the areas of different land use, the highest percentage of employment in formal sector is found in industrial areas followed by residential areas (Table 6.23). However, these are very low in comparison to the employment in informal sector. In all the three zones of the city, people are mainly engaged in informal sector, although the percentage in formal sector is highest in the outer zone (Table 6.24). Thus, significant spatial variation has been observed in workers engaged in formal sector. But the variation seen in informal sector is not very significant across all topographical, land use areas and distance zones as about 90 per cent workers in all of these areas are engaged in informal sector. Such a high percentage of low paid workers in informal sector indicates that underemployment is all pervasive in different topographic areas, land use areas or distance zones, as occupations in informal sector, to a large extent, can interchangeably used for underemployment. A significant rise in marginal workers during the period , from 0.83 per cent to 5.32 per cent also indicates the existence of large number underemployed persons in the city. The distribution of types of workers does not vary much across different zones of the city (Table 6.25). However semi-skilled workers are significantly high in swampy area among different topographic areas (Table 6.26) and in industrial areas among land-use areas (Table 6.27). Concentration of semi-skilled workers in these areas may be explained by prevalence of repairing services in those areas. 164

28 Table 6.22 : Sector wise Pattern of Occupation in Different Topographic Areas ''"^Topographic areas Plains Hills Swampy Riverside Total* Sector lands Formal 44(4.3) 10(10.2) 7(5.1) 0(0) 61 Informal 986 (95 7) 88 Total 1030 Source: Primary data. (100) (89.8) 130(94.9) 62(100) (100) 137(100) 62(100) 1327 * including child labourers. Table 6.23 : Sector wise Pattern of Occupation in Areas of Different Land Use Areas Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total* S e c to r '\^ lines areas areas areas Formal 7(2 6) 27(5.5) 16(3.9) 11(7 1) 61 Informal 264(97.4) 463(94.5) 395(96.1) 144(92.9) 1266 Total 271(100) 490(100) 411(100) 155(100) 1327 Source : Primary data. * including child labourers. Table 6.24: Sector wise Pattern of Occupation in Areas of Different Distance Zones "~~\^ Z o n es Inner Intermediate Outer Total* S e c t o r '" \^ Formal 19(3.6) 9(2.6) 33(7.2) 61 Informal 506(96.4) 337(97.4) 423(92.8) 1266 Total 525(100) 346(100) 456(100) 1327 Source: Primary data. * including ch Id labourers. Table 6.25 : Distribution of Skilled and Unskilled Workers in Different Zones Zones Inner Intermediate Outer Total* Workers '"^- Semi-skilled 130 (24.8) 96 (27.8) 126(27.6) 352 Unskilled 395(75.2) 250(72.2) 330 (72.4) 975 Total 525(100) 346(100) 456(100) 1327 Source : Primary data. * including child labourers. 165

29 Table 6.26 : Distribution of Skilled and Unskilled Workers among Urban Poor in Different Topographic Areas '''^Topography Hill slopes Swampylands Riverside Plains Total* Wo r k e r s ^ \^ Skilled 27(27.6) 67(48.9) 10(16.1) 248(24 1) 352 Unskilled 71(72.4) 70(51.1) 52(83.9) 782(75.9) 975 Total 98(100) 137(100) 62(100) 1030(100) 1327 Source: Primary data. * including child labourers. Table 6.27 : Distribution of Skilled and Unskilled Workers in Areas of Different Land Use Area Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total* W orkers''~\^ lines Skilled 64(23.6) 133(27.1) 91(22.1) 64(41.3) 352 Unskilled 207(76.4) 357(72.9) 320(77.9) 91(58.7) 975 Total 271(100) 490(100) 411(100) 155(100) 1327 Source: Primary data. * including child labourers. There has been found a fall in urban unemployment rate in India from 9.64 per cent in 1983 to 7.65 per cent in (CDS basis). However, some of the states of India along with Assam have registered high level of unemployment rate in (Radhakrishna and Rao, 2006). Some important features of unemployment in India are-i) unemployment rate is more in urban areas than in rural areas ii) females are at more disadvantageous position iii) unemployment rate is low among illiterates and increases with education level (Radhakrishna and Rao, 2006). In Guwahati city the unemployment rate is per cent, for males and 26.1 for females (2001). In Guwahati City, the unemployment rate among the urban poor is 19.2 per cent (Table 6.28) with substantial gender difference, for male it being only 15.6 per cent while for female it is 24.2 per cent (Table 6.20). It is because the males with or without family are bound to find a job to meet their economic 166

30 responsibility. They cannot afford the luxury of doing nothing. In different sampled areas unemployment rate varies from 7.1 per cent in Kamakhyagate to 45.8 per cent in Dhirenpara. Male unemployment rate of different sampled areas varies from 0 per cent (in 8 sampled areas) to a maximum of 53.3 per cent (in Dhirenpara). It is interesting to note that the poorer the region, lesser is the percentage of male unemployed. Table 6.28: Employment and Unemployment of Urban Poor in Guwahati Total Population 3679 Total Labour force 2133 Total Workers 1251 Total Unemployed 410 Work Participation Rate 34.0 Unemployment 19.2 Source: Primary Data In the four topographic areas, the male unemployment rate is lowest (5.4) in riverside areas, while it is highest (23.5) in hill slopes (Table 6.29). Male unemployment rate does not vary much in different land use areas (Table 6.30) and it gradually decreases outward from the inner zone to the outer zone (Table 6.31). Thus a clear spatial variation is observed in the distribution of male unemployment rate among urban poor of the city. The poor in the inner zone migrated earlier and their children have grown up now. Many of them are now found to be unemployed. This is one reason of more unemployed in the inner zone of the city. Women constitute a significant part of the total working population in India, but the Census of India registers only per cent of them as workers. In urban areas, 80 per cent of the women workers are employed in unorganised sector. Women workers constituted only 15.8 per cent of organized sector employment as on 31st March 1996 (GOI, 2000). In Guwahati, female workforce participation is only 12.5 per cent (2001). In the 167

31 study region women constitute 42.5 per cent of labour force of the total sampled population. However, their employment rate is only 26.5 per cent. The female unemployment rate in different sampled areas varies greatly from 2 per cent in Athgaon to 66.7 per cent in Darundha. However, this high unemployment rate is mainly because of women being selective in their jobs and social factors. The female unemployment rate of urban poor in the city does not exhibit much variation across different topographic areas, land use areas or distance zones of the city, with only exception being the riverside area where the rate is considerably low in comparison to other topographic areas (Table 6.29 to 6.31). Table 6.29: Pattern of Unemployment of Urban Poor in different Topographical Areas Topographic Areas Hills Swampy Areas Riversides Plains Total Female Unemployed Female Labourforce Female Unemployment Rate () Male Unemployed Male Labourforce Male Unemployment Rate () Total Unemployed Total Labourforce Total Unemployment Rate () Source: Primary Data

32 Table 6.30: Pattern of Unemployment of Urban Poor in Areas of different Land Use Land Use Areas Railway Residential Commercial industrial Total Tracks Areas Areas Areas Female Unemployed Female Labourforce Female Unemployment Rate () Male Unemployed Male Labourforce Male Unemployment Rate () Total Unemployed Total Labourforce Total Unemployment Rate () Source: Primary Data Table 6.31: Pattern of Unemployment of Urban Poor in different Zones of the City Zones inner Intermediate Outer Total Female Unemployed Female Labour force Female Unemployment Rate () Male Unemployed Male Labour force Male Unemployment Rate () Total Unemployed Total Labour force Total Unemployment Rate () Source: Primary Data

33 6.3 C hild labour Child labour has been defined in different ways by different social scientists, A child worker is a person in the age group of 5-14, employed for hire or reward on a full time or part time basis or self-employed, or assisting his/her parents in their occupations for two or more hours a day (Lakshapati, 19 93)1... the child labour in a restricted sense means the employment of children in gainful occupations which are dangerous to their health and deny them the opportunities of development (Sing, 1992). Thus a child labour is a child aged 5-14 years taking up a job or assisting parents in works for more than two hours a day, which hinder their mental and physical development of childhood. The Indian Constitution prohibits employment of children below the age of 14 years in factories, mines and hazardous occupations. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act of 1986 also prohibits employment of child in hazardous sector and regulates working condition for children in nonhazardous sector. However our country does not have a uniform and comprehensive policy on child labour applicable to all child workers (John and Narayanan, 2006). According to NSSO, there are million child labourers in India in India is having the largest concentration of child labourers in the world (Human Rights Watch, 1996). It has been observed that although 90 per cent of the child workers are related to agriculture, exploitation occur among only the 10 per cent, that work in urban areas (Lakshapati, 1993). The total number of child workers in Assam is more than 3 lakhs (Barkakoty and Baruah, 1998). In Guwahati city, child workers are common in most of the small business establishments and household works. However, among the surveyed households child workers are found in 7.9 per cent households only (Table 6.32). As such 8 more child workers were interviewed separately whose families do not live in the city. During field survey it was understood that although child workers form a significant part of urban poor in the city, they remain disguised, as most of them stay with the owners rather than in areas where poor generally live. 170

34 The child workers in the city are found to be engaged mainly in the following jobs - a) Domestic helps b) Restaurants and tea-stall c) Garages d> Buses e) Railway compartment cleanings f) Rag picking g) Begging it has been found that the child workers engaged in first four types of jobs are generally brought along from the rural areas, sent by their families living in the hinterland of the city. They earn and remit it to their homes, and thus provide additional income to their families. On the other hand, the child workers who belong to the poor families of the city do different kinds of jobs. The children of very poor family are generally engaged with rag picking and begging. Child workers are found in 29 per cent households of the riverside areas which are the poorest among all types of topographical areas (Table 6.33). Similarly in 15.9 per cent of the households living along the railway tracks have child workers which are also the poorest among different land use areas (Table 6.34). Moreover, they are mostly found in the inner and intermediate zones of the city than in the outer zone (Table 6.35). Economic condition of the household or poverty is the most important correlates of child labourers in the city. Whether the children of the family work or not is strongly determined by the family income and that is why 14.8 per cent households of the very low income group with an income less than 2/3rd of the income poverty line have child workers (Table 6.37). Distribution of child workers across different per capita monthly expenditure class also reveals the same pattern. In fact, 76.4 per cent of the total child workers 171

35 belong to the families living below the per capita expenditure poverty line (Table 6,36). In several types of jobs child workers are completely under the employers and the real situation of their work is never clear. The living condition of most of the household aids is better than others, but they usually have to work for long hours and sometimes become victims of mental and physical abuse. The other side of the issue of the child labour is that these children get easily drifted towards evil works due to their economic freedom. Most of them get addicted to tobacco and other such harmful items. In Guwahati city, the use of dendrite, a kind of adhesive, as a drug is very popular among child workers and the habit of gambling, pick pocketing, etc. is also common among them to meet the increasing need of money. Table 6.32: Distribution of Child Workers in Different Sampled Areas/Group SI. Areas/Group of child workers Total children 6-14yrs Per cent of child workers to total children Per cent of households with child workers 1. Sijubari Bimalanagar Narengi Sitalabari Gandhibasti Ambari Bharalumukh Fancy Bazar Athgaon Patharquarry Baripara Darundha Pantalbazar Lalmati Pachim Boragaon Jyotikuchi Uzan Bazar

36 18. Santipur Maligaon Suttlegate 20. Pandu Borabazar Maligaon Gotanagar 22 Kamakhyagate Rupnagar Indrapur Bishnupur Bhutnath Seujnagar Kali pur Lakhtokia Riverbank Narakasur Dhirenpara Bhaskarnagar Hedayetpur Bhutnath Jalukbari H.C Pandu Total Child workers All Source: Primary data. Table 6.33: Distribution of Households with Child Workers in Different Topographic Areas Topographic Areas Hills Swampy Riverside Plains Total Households with child workers Source: Primary data. No

37 Table 6.34: Distribution of Households with Child Workers in Areas of Different Land Use Land use Areas Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total Households with No child workers Source: Primary data. Table 6.35: Distribution of Households with Child Workers in Different Zones of the City Households with child workers Zones Inner Intermediate Outer Total Source: Primary data. No Table 6.36: Distribution of Child Workers in Different Economic Group$(Per Capita Monthly Expenditure) Economic Group (PE of Child Workers of Total in Rs.) and above Total 68 ' Source: Primary data. Table 6.37: Distribution of Household with Child Workers in Different income Groups Income group (per < > >31268 >31268 annum) Households with No child workers Source: Primary data. 174

38 6.4: Low Status of Women Social scientists are becoming increasingly concerned with the problems of women. These problems arise basically due to the roles assigned to them on the basis of gender at the backdrop of existing customs and traditions of the society, and acceptance and rejection of those by women themselves. Mahatma Gandhi pointed to the condition of women as a social problem in India even before the Independence (Madan, 1990). Women in our country have been discriminated in many aspects on the basis of gender. The extent of inequality and discriminations suffered by women of a society determines their status in that particular society. Generally speaking, the status of women means the hierarchical position of the women achieved through the enactment of the roles allotted to them by the society in which they live (NEN, 2003). There are different methods to study the status of women in a society (Ahuja, 1993). In this study certain indicators related to economic, education and social dimension have been considered to evaluate the condition of women among the poor in Guwahati. Women of the poor section of the city enjoy freedom of movement and expression but at the same time they are burdened with problems like early marriage, low literacy rate, lack of skill, high rate of child birth, ill health etc. Women literacy rate is a very clear indicator of the status of women in a society. In this study it has been found that the female literacy rate varies from as low as 0 at Pachim Boragaon, Riverbank and Kamakhyagate area to 95 per cent at Narakasur. In 30 sampled areas the female literacy rate is less than 50 per cent (Table 6.38). Female literacy is found to be less than general literacy rate in all the sampled areas except in Narakasur area. The average literacy rate for female is only 35 per cent while for their male counterpart it is 57 per cent. The school attendance rate of female children expressed as percentage of school-attended females to total females aged 7 to 14 years, has been found to be not satisfactory. The school attendance rate has been found to be 0 in areas like Riverbank, Bhutnath, Rupnagar etc., while it is 100 per cent in areas like Jyotikuchi, Narakasur, Hedayetpur etc. The average rate for this in all areas is 54.5 per cent while for male children the value is much 175

39 higher i.e per cent. However, no difference is observed in male and female school dropouts. While the rate of school dropout for female is 23.8 per cent, it is 24.8 per cent for males. However, the school dropout rate for female children is found to be very high in some areas like Athgaon (100), Baripara (100), Hedayetpur (100) and Seujnagar (66.6). Besides, the level of education among female is also very low, as only 24 per cent females are educated up to the primary level and 11 per cent females up to the secondary level or more. The corresponding figures for males are 32 per cent and 25 per cent respectively. The female participation rate in urban areas is generally lower than in rural areas. In India the female workforce participation rate is 30.8 per cent in rural areas and 11.9 per cent in urban areas (Census of India 2001). However, female workers are mainly concentrated in the unorganized sector, which account for 95.8 per cent of the total female workforce (Raju, 2006). Workforce participation rate of females among the urban poor in Guwahati has been found to be 14.2 per cent. But higher number of working women does not necessarily indicate a higher status for them, as some of them have to take up a job for following reasons - For becoming widows. Abandoned by husband; separated or the husband has another wife and family. Sick husband Lazy husband A large family. However, the most common cause for taking up a job by the women is to supplement the family income. Therefore, most of the working women of the poor households do not have economic independence; rather they are under economic slavery. 176

40 1. Sijubari During field study, among all female workers only five skilled workers are found. There is also found discrimination against women in terms of wage rates. For the same kind and duration of work, while males are given Rs.90 per day, it is only Rs.60 for females. Moreover, the working environment for females is not always congenial. For example, those mothers working in construction sites from morning to evening have to carry their children along with them to the work sites. Age at marriage is another indicator of the status of women in society. The average age at marriage for females among the urban poor of the study region is slightly above the legal age for marriage. However, there are girls who are married off at an early age of 14 and 15 years. This leads to malnutrition and poor health after child birth. Domestic quarrels and wife beating are common phenomena in the poor households, particularly in case of drunken husbands. However women of this section of society do not seem to consider them as serious domestic violence. Juvenile sex ratio is another indicator for determining the position of women in society. It is significant to note that the states in India which fare well in development indicators are the ones hostile to their female population. The juvenile sex ratio in India is 945, while it is 975 in Assam (2001). Among the poor in Guwahati, the juvenile sex ratio is quite high i.e. 1083, which indicate that girls and boys are given equal importance in this section of the society. Table 6.38: Socio-Economic Indicators of the Status of Women among Urban Poor in Guwahati Areas Education Economic Social School attendance rate of Female children Female children Dropout Female literacy rate Female educated up to primary level Female educated beyond primary level Work participate n rate Juvenile sex ratio Average age at marriage Bimalanagar Narengi

41 4. Sitalabari Gandhibasti Ambari Bharalumukh Fancybazar Athgaon Patharquarry Baripara Darundha Paltanbazar Lalmati Pachim Boragaon Jyotikuchi Uzanbazar Jahajghat Santipur Maligaon Shuttlegate Pandu Barabazar Maligaon Gotanagar Kamakhyagate Rupnagar Indrapur Bishnupur Bhutnath Hatigaon Bhetapara Seujnagar Kalipur Lakhtokia Riverbank Narakasur Dhirenpara Bhaskamagar Hedayetpur ,3 36. Jalukbari H C Pandu Total Source: Primary data

42 6.5 Housing A house is one of the three basic human needs. It not only protects man from heat, rain and cold, but also provides a living space, a home with mental security and self respect. Proper and adequate shelter is a must for a healthy life. The performance of a person in economic as well as social activities largely depends on the housing condition and household environment. Inadequate housing seriously affects the behaviour of children in slum areas. They become uncontrolled, indisciplined, violent and do not pursue their studies due to housing stress (Yadav, 1987). Although there are many factors which determine the size and type of a house, economic capacity is the major determinant of all, particularly in urban areas. Thus it reflects mainly the economic and partly the social characteristics of the people. Housing has always been a problem in all urbanized regions. Even the European and American countries experienced the scarcity of houses and deteriorating housing conditions in the urban areas in 19th and early 20th century. But, these countries have largely overcome these problems during the post world war economic recovery through massive public investment in housing (Mishra, 1992). At present the third world countries are facing acute shortage of housing due to industrialization and growth of cities (Aldrich and Sandhu, 1995). In India, the estimated housing shortage in 1991 was million units (GOI, 1998). For the period 2001 to 2011, the housing demand has been estimated at 21.8 million (Sharma, 2004). The housing shortage in Assam is units (2001), in terms of the difference between the number of households and number of census houses used as residence only. Moreover, there is the problem of housing congestion as households with more than one married couples are occupying single room houses. The housing shortage in the urban areas of Kamrup District is 9296 units and 8263 units in Guwahati Municipal Corporation, (2001). Squatting in urban areas indicates the inability of the people to obtain a house through legal housing market. In Guwahati, the housing is a problem not only of the very poor, but also of the salaried people of low economic 179

43 strata who find it difficult to own a house through legal processes. Many lower middle class people have occupied the hillsides and forest areas of the city for residential purposes, where characteristics of the squatter slum are not seen. But wherever the poor have squatted, the slum characteristics develop with the poor quality housing and sanitation conditions. The need of healthful housing has been recognized by WHO not only to provide physical protection against hazard, diseases and pollution, but also to promote mental health (Park and Park 1983). For the urban poor in Guwahati, the housing is scarce and at the same time it is far below the norms for healthy living. So, housing has become a major problem for the poor in the city. To evaluate the housing problem in terms of durability, size and space dimensions, different indicators have been taken into consideration in this study Building Materials Building materials determine the durability of a house. The percentage distribution of total 187,001 households living in census houses by predominant materials for floor, wall and roof, according to 2001 census, reveals that most houses in Guwahati have cement floors, brick walls and metal and asbestos roofs (Table 6.39, 6.40, 6.41). good indicators of Building materials are Table 6.3 9: Distribution Pattern of Households living in Houses by Predominant Material of Floor, Guwahati city, 2001 Material of floor Mud W ood bamboo Brick Stone Cement Mosaic floor Any other material Guwahati City1 of households Urban poor-* Guwahati (93.2) 23(2.8) 7(0 8) 2(0.2) 24 (3.0) Source: 1. Census of India, Series H, Primary survey. 180

44 Table 6.4 0: Distribution Pattern of Households living in Houses by Predominant Material of Wall, Guwahati city, 2001 Material of wall Guwahati City1 of households Urban poor2 Guwahati Grass thatch bamboo etc. Plastic poly thene Mud un burnt brick Wood Gl metal Asbestos Burnt brick Stone Any other material (90.7) 41(5.0) * 1(0.1) 16(1.9) 19(2,3 ) ' ' ' Source 1. Census o f India, Series H, Primary survey. Table 6.41 : Distribution Pattern of Households living in Houses by Predominant Material of Roof, Guwahati city, 2001 Material of roof Grass thatch bamboo etc. Plastic poly thene Mud un burnt brick Wood G! metal Asbestos Burnt brick Stone Concrete Concrete Any other material Guwahati City1 of households Urban poor2 Guwahati (34 8) 66(80) 471(57.2) Source : 1. Census of India, Series H, Primary survey. economic condition. Therefore, from these tables it may be inferred that, the 35 per cent households in Guwahati, using mud as floor material and grass, thatch, bamboo, etc., as materials of wall belong to the lower economic strata. It may also be concluded that those 0.28 per cent of the total households in the city, using plastic and polythene as materials of roof and 1.0 per cent households using these materials in walls are living in a very poor condition. On the basis of the predominant building materials, houses of the surveyed households have been grouped into different types such as: (i) Brick-tin, where walls are mainly of brick while roofs are made of tin. (ii) Bamboo-tin, bamboo and wood are used for walls and tin for roofs, (iii) Bamboo-thatch, 181

45 with bamboo walls and thatch roofs; tarpaulin wall with thatch roofs are also included in this category, (iv) Tarpaulin, where both walls and roofs are made of tarpaulin. The distribution of households according to house types in different surveyed areas is presented in Table Brick-tin together are the least used building materials in the houses of the poor as only 2.7 per cent of the surveyed households account for this type. On the other hand houses of 7.3 per cent of the surveyed households are made up of tarpaulin, as against the 1 per cent o f the city s household using this material in walls. There is not much variation is house types of the urban poor living in slum and non-slum areas (Fig 6.7). A subtle variation is seen in brick tin houses only. The variation in tarpaulin houses in these two types of areas is not found to be as expected, because of the road side dwellers which can not be considered as slums (Table 6.43). Pattern of house type in areas of different topography exhibits a marked variation (Table 6.44). The brick-tin houses are not found in the hill areas and the riversides inhabited by poor. On the other hand, in swampy areas the bamboo thatch and tarpaulin houses are absent. The bamboo-tin houses are found conspicuously in areas o f all topographic characteristics while most of the tarpaulin houses are found in the riverside areas (Fig 6.8). The land use characteristics of different sampled areas are also related to the building materials used by the poor living in these areas (Table 6.45). Most of the tarpaulin houses are found near the railway lines; the other areas having substantial number of tarpaulin houses are the commercial centres. In residential and industrial areas, most of the houses are bamboo-tin, while in commercial areas bamboo-thatch houses are prevalent. (Fig 6.9) Variation in house types has been observed in different zones around the city centre (Fig 6.10). A t the inner zone more than 13 per cent households are living in tarpaulin houses. The percentage of this type of house decreases to 3.1 and 3.5 in intermediate and outer zones o f the city. There is a gradual increase in the percentages of brick-tin and bamboo-tin houses from the inner to the outer zones while there is a decrease in the percentage of bamboo-thatch houses (Table 6.46). 182

46 60 Brick-tin Bamboo-tin Bamboo-thatch Tarpaulin -Slum Areas Households () o> o O o ID O O' O ro Brick-tin Bamboo-tin Bamboo-thatch Tarpaulin Hillside Swampy Areas Riversides Areas Plain Areas Areas. Figure 6.8. House Types of Urban Poor in Different Topographic 1S3

47 () spiogasnoh o o o o o o o h - CD ID r r CNI T - Brick-tin Bamboo-tin Bamboo-thatch Tarpaulin Railway Tracks Residential Commercial Areas Industrial Figure 6.9: House Types of Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use. 10 Bamboo-tin Bamboo-thatch Tarpaulin Inner Intermediate Zones Outer Figure 6.10: House Types of Urban Poor in Different Zones. 184

48 Table 6.42 : Distribution of Types of Houses in Sampled Areas in Guwahati Areas 1 Sijubari 2 Bimalanagar 3 Narengi 4 Sitalabari 5 Gandhibasti 6 Ambari 7 Bharalumukh 8 Fancybazar 9 Athgaon 10 Patharquarry 11 Baripara 12 Darundha 13 Paltanbazar 14 Lalmati 15 Pachim Boragaon 16 Jyotikuchi 17 Ujanbazar 18 Santipur 19 Maligaon Shuttlegate 20 Pandu Barabazar 21 Maligaon Gotanagar 22 Kamakhyagate 23 Rupnagar 24 Indrapur Bricktin Type of the house Bambootithatch Bamboo Tarpaulin Total

49 25 Bishnupur 26 Bhutnath 27 Hatigaon 28 Seujnagar 29 Kalipur 30 Lakhtokia 31 Riverbank 32 Narakasur 33 Dhirenpara 34 Bhaskamagar 35 Hedayetpur 36 Jalukbari Harijan Colony 37 Pandu (Kailashnagar etc) Total Source: Primary data Table 6.43 : Types of House in Slum and Non-Slum areas of Guwahati Slum Areas Non-slum Total Source: Primary data. Brick-tin Types of the House Bamboo-tin Bamboo-thatch Tarpaulin Total Table 6.4 4: Types of House in Areas of different Topography in Guwahati Hillside Swampy Areas Brick-tin Types of the House Bamboo-tin Bamboo-thatch Tarpaulin Total

50 Riverside Plains Total Source: Primary Data. Table 6.45 : Types of House in Areas of different Land Use in Guwahati Table 6.46 : Types of House in Distance Zones in Guwahati Types of the House Areas Bambootithatch Bamboo- Total Brick-tin Tarpaulin Railway Tracks Residential Commercial Industrial Total Source;Primary Data. Types of the House Areas Bambootithatch Bamboo- Total Brick-tin Tarpaulin Inner Intermediate Outer Total Source: Primary Data Size of the House The houses of the poor are usually small and some of them are as small as 15 sq.ft, in floor area and only 4 to 5 ft. high. The recommended standard for floor area is at least sq.ft, per person to maintain the community health (Park and Park, 1983). The sampled houses have been 187

51 grouped into three sizes on the basis of the floor space - (i) Very small - <35 sq.ft per person, which is smaller than the half of the minimum standard size ; (ii) Small - 35 to 70 sq.ft per person and (iii) Medium - more than 70 sq.ft per person. The number of very small house is found to be the highest in sampled areas and nearly 84 per cent of the total households live in these houses. There are 15.0 per cent households living in small houses and barely 1 per cent living in medium sized houses. Medium sized houses are found only in 7 areas, which are Sijubari, Bimalanagar, Kamakhyagate, Indrapur, Narakasur, Bhaskarnagar and Pandu (Table 6.47). There is not much difference in house size in the slum and non-slum areas (Table 6.48). The distribution of different sized houses in these two types of areas exhibits that, the percentage of small size houses is higher in both slum and non-slum areas and the percentage of medium sized houses is lower in these areas. The distribution of different sized houses in areas of different topographic characteristics reveals that, the very small houses are most prevalent in all the areas (Table 6.49). The percentage of medium sized houses is highest in the hillsides, (5.1) followed by swampy areas (2.2) and the plain areas (0.5), while such houses are not found in riverside areas. The percentage of small house is highest in the swampy areas and lowest in the riverside areas (Fig 6.11). The distribution of different sized houses in areas of different land use does not exhibit significant variation (Fig 6.12). The very small houses account for the highest percentage in all land use areas, and the highest percentage among different land use areas is found in commercial areas. The medium sized houses are very less in all types of land use areas. These are mostly found in residential areas and absent along the railway track (Table 6.50). The size of the house exhibits a significant pattern in different zones of the city, (Fig 6.13). The percentage of very small houses decreases gradually outward from the inner zone, while that of the small houses increases gradually. However no definite trend is seen in case of medium sized houses, the highest percentage of which is found at the intermediate zone (Table 6.51). 188

52 </> 60 O 50 a> Very Small l Small i Medium Hillside Swampy Areas Riversides Plain Areas Areas Figure 6.11: Size of the Houses of Urban Poor in Different Topographic Areas w <D in Very Small l Small i Medium Railway Tracks Residential Commercial Areas Industrial Figure 6.12: Size of the Houses of Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use 189

53 100 o o o o o o o <j> co h- (D id co () spiogasnoh Inner Intermediate Outer Zones Figure 6.13: Size of the Houses of Urban Poor in Different Zones. Very Small Small Medium Table 6.47 : Size of the House in Sampled Areas of Guwahati SI Size Areas No Very small Small Medium 1 Sijubari 37 (84.1) 6(13.6) 1 (2.3) 44 2 Bimalanagar 23 (82.1) 4(14.3) 1 (3.6) 28 3 Narengi 18 (60.0) 12 (40.0) 30 4 Sitalabari 24 (96.0) 1 (4.0) Gandhibasti 16 (80.0) 4 (20.0) Ambari 46 (90.2) 5 (9.8) Bharalumukh 27 (81.8) 6 (18.2) Fancybazar 51 (98.1) 1 (1.9) Athgaon 38 (92.7) 3 (7.3) Patharquarry 7 (87.5) 1 (12.5) Baripara 9 (90.0) 1 (10.0) Darundha 9 (90.0) 1 (10.0) Paltanbazar 6 (85.7) 1 (14.3) - 7 Total 14 Lalmati 11 (91.7) 1 (8.3) - 12 I 15 Pachim Boragaon 5(71.4) 2 (28.6) Jyotikuchi 10 (83.3) 2 (16.7)

54 17 Uzanbazar Jahajghat 4 (57.1) 3 (42.9) Santipur 35 (89.7) - 4(10.3) Maligaon Shuttiegate 20 (80.0) 5 (20.0) Pandu Barabazar 18(90.0) 2(10.0) Maligaon Gotanagar 18 (78.3) 5(21 7) Kamakhyagate 3 (25.0) 8 (66.7) 1 (8.3) Rupnagar 11 (91.7) 1(8.3) Indrapur 10(52.6) 8 (42.1) 1(5.3) Bishnupur 40 (100) Bhutnath 11 (100) Hatigaon Bhetapara 39 (79.6) 10(20.4) Seujnagar 12 (100) Kalipur 20 (100) Lakhtokia 5 (100) Riverbank 12 (100) Narakasur 8 (66.6) 2 (16.7) 2 (16.7) Dhirenpara 9 (100) Bhaskarnagar 31 (79.5) 7(17.9) 1 (2.6) Hedayetpur 7 (70.0) 3 (30.0) Jalukbari H C. 5 (100) Pandu 37 (69.8) 15(28.3) 1(1.9) 53 Source: Primary Data. Total 324 (39.3) 483 (58.6) 17(2.1) 824 Table 6.48: Size of the House of the Urban Poor in Slum and Non-sium Areas of Guwahati Slum Non-slum Total A reas Source: Primary Data. Size Total Very sm all Sm all M edium No No; Table 6.49 : Size of the House of the Urban Poor in Areas of Different Topography in Guwahati Hillside Areas Size Very sm all Sm all M edium Total ,0 191

55 Swampy Riverside Plains Total Source: Primary Data Table 6.50 : Size of the House of the Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use in Guwahati. Areas Railway Track Residential Commercial Industrial Total Source: Primary Data. Size Very small Sm all Medium Total , Table 6.51 : Size of the House in Distance Zones in Guwahati Zones Size Very small Small Medium Inner Intermediate Outer Total Source: Primary Dai a Total

56 6.5.3 Cro w din g Status The number of rooms in proportion to the number of family members indicates privacy and availability of required floor space per person. The recommended ((GOI, 1949) standards for person per room are as follows : 1 room 2 room 3 room 2 persons 3 persons 5 persons 4 room 71/4 persons 5 or more 10 persons Additional 2 persons for each further room (Park and Park, 1983). Overcrowding can be measured by the number of persons per room. The distribution of households by size and number of dwelling rooms in Guwahati is given intable 6.52 from which it can be concluded that 35 per cent households of the city are living in overcrowded houses. T a b le 6.52 : Distribution of Households by Size and Number of Dwelling Rooms in Guwahati, 2001 T o ta l N o s. H o u s e h o ld o f s ize h o u s e h o ld All Household (10 0 ) N o e x c lu s iv e ro o m 1932 (1) H o u s e h o ld s h a v in g n u m b e r o f d w e llin g ro o m s ro o m ro o m s ro o m s ro o m s ro o m s (3 0 7 ) (26.3) (18.4 ) ( 11.2 ) (6.2) 6 ro o m s (6 2) (100) 904 (5.5) (100) (1) (100) (0.6) (100) (0.4) (100) (0.4) (100) (0.4) (100) (1.6 ) Source: Census of India, (6 9.7) (53.8) (34.6) (22.8 ) 6579 (19.9 ) 5002 (16.0 ) (2 0.7 ) 2546 (15.5 ) 5481 (25.4) 9385 (30.5) (29.6) 9289 (28.0) (25.5) I (1 5.4 ) 832 (5) 2248 (10.4 ) 5522 (17.9 ) (2 1.6 ) (22.6) (23.2) (16.6 ) 368 (2.2) (5.2) (9.0) 5666 (13.0 ) 4581 (13.8 ) (15.5 ) (1 4.2 ) 14 0 (0.9) (2.2) (4.2 ) (7.2 ) (8.2) (9.1) (10.6 ) 189 (1.2 ) 428 (2) 980 (3.2) 2330 (5.4) 2338 ( 7.1 ) 3252 (1 0.4 ) (20.9) Figures in parentheses are percentages. 193

57 Most of the poor in Guwahati (61.3 per cent of sampled household) live in single room houses, without any exclusive dwelling room. They cook, eat and sleep in the same room. Even in some cases the joint and extended families live in single room houses. In some areas cooking is done in the small common courtyard when the weather is fair. To analyse the crowding status, the sampled households have been grouped into three categories - (i) the least crowded with less than three persons per room, (ii) crowded with 3-5 persons per room and (iii) the most crowded with more than 5 persons per room. There are only 5 areas namely Narengi, Kamakhyagate, Indrapur, Hatigaon and Narakasur, where the percentage of least crowded households is more than the crowded households. Of these areas Narengi and Hatigaon are at the outer zone of the city, Indrapur and Narakasur are hillsides, and in Kamakhyagate single person, widows and separated families are more. Moreover there are two other sampled areas, Gandhibasti and Uzanbazar Jahajghat, where the percentages of households living in least crowded and crowded houses are same (Table 6.53). Of the total sampled households 60 per cent live in crowded houses, 28 per cent in the least crowded and 12 per cent in the most crowded houses. There is a remarkable variation in crowding status between the slum and non-slum areas (Fig 6.14). The percentage of the least crowded households is more in non-slum areas than in slum areas, whereas the percentages for crowded and most crowded categories are higher in slum areas. However in both areas the maximum number of households lives in crowded houses (Table 6 54). The crowding status in topographic areas exhibits a marked variation (Fig 6.15). The highest percentage of the least crowded houses is found in hillside areas, but the same for crowded house is in plain areas and for most crowded house is in riverside areas (Table 6.55). However, the maximum numbers of houses within each category of topographic areas are crowded houses. 194

58 There is a marked similarity in distribution of crowded houses in areas of different land use (Fig 6.16). However, there are differences in the least crowded and the most crowded houses across different land use areas. The percentage of the least crowded houses is highest in industrial areas and lowest in railway tracks. Similarly the percentage for the most crowded houses is highest in railway tracks and lowest in industrial areas (Table 6.56). It shows that the industrial areas being located at the outer zone of the city are less congested. Although there is variation in crowding status in different zones of the city, the crowded and the most crowded houses do not exhibit any definite trend. However, the percentage of the least crowded houses increases outward from the city centre as expected (Fig 6.17). On the other hand, the percentage of the most crowded houses is highest in the inner zone (Table 6.57). It is expected that a large household lives in a more crowded house. But it is interesting to find that 63 per cent households with family size 1 to 4 persons live in crowded houses while 57 per cent of large families (5 to 8 persons) and 60 per cent of very large families (9 to 12 persons) have the same crowding status. It indicates that a large family does not necessarily live in a very crowded house. It is because of the additional earning members who make an extra room affordable for the family. However, there is only 1 per cent small households living in most crowded houses while there is no large household living in least crowded houses. 195

59 70 Slum Areas Lb Least Crowded B Crowded B Most Crowded Non-slum Figure 6.14: Crowding Status of Urban Poor in Slum and Non-Slum Areas W /in ~0 40 O C 30 o X Hillside Swampy Areas Riversides Plain Areas Areas Figure 6.15: Crowding Status of Urban Poor in Topographic Areas. 196

60 70 O CD O LO o sr Households co o o c \ i C Zl C/J ( Q c CD Railway Tracks Residential Commercial Industrial Areas 6.16: Crowding Status of Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land O r «40 o> w 30 3 O X Least Crowded Crowded Most Crowded Inner Intermediate Zones Outer Figure 6.11: Crowding Status of Urban Poor in Different Zones 197

61 Table 6.53 : Crowding Status of House in Sampled Areas of Guwahati SI Crowding Status Areas Total No Least crowded Crowded Most crowded 1 Sijubari 7(15.9) 33 (75.0) 4(9.1) 44 2 Bimalanagar 10(35.7) 18(64.3) Narengi 18 (60.0) 11 (36.7) 1 (3.3) 30 4 Sitalabari 8 (32.0) 17 (68.0) Gandhibasti 10(50.0) 10 (50.0) Ambari 13(25.5) 35 (68.6) 3 (5.9) 51 7 Bharalumukh 11 (33.3) 13(39 4) 9 (27.3) 33 8 Fancybazar 4 (7.7) 42 (80.8) 6(11.5) 52 9 Athgaon 3 (7.3) 27 (65.9) 11 (26.8) Patharquarry - 8 (100) Baripara 1 (10.0) 7 (70.0) 2 (20.0) Darundha 2 (20.0) 8 (80.0) Paltanbazar 2 (28.6) 4(57.1) 1 (14.3) 7 14 Lalmati 2 (16.7) 7 (58.3) 3 (25.0) Pachim Boragaon 3 (42.9) 4(57.1) 7 16 Jyotikuchi 3 (25.0) 8 (66.7) 1 (8.3) Uzanbazar Jahajghat 3 (42.9) 3 (42.9) 1 (14.3) 7 18 Santipur 7(17.9) 22 (56.4) 10 (25.6) Maligaon Shuttlegate 20 Pandu Barabazar 21 Maligaon Gotanagar 7 (28.0) 16 (64.0) 2 (8.0) 25 2 (10.0) 13(65.0) 5 (25.0) 20 9(39 1) 11 (47.9) 3(13.0) Kamakhyagate 10(83.3) 2 (16.7) Rupnagar 1 (8.3) 8 (66.7) 3 (25.0) Indrapur 13(68 4) 5 (26 3) 1 (5.3) Bishnupur 9 (22.5) 26 (65.0) 5(12.5) Bhutnath - 9(81.8) 2(18.2) Hatigaon Bhetapara 35 (71 4) 14 (28.6)

62 «28 Seujnagar 3 (25.0) 9 (75.0) Kalipur 4 (20.0) 14 (70,0) 2 (10.0) Lakhtokia 1 (20.0) 2 (40.0) 2 (40.0) 5 31 Riverbank 1 (8.3) 5(41.7) 6 (50.0) Narakasur 6 (50.0) 5(41.7) 1 (8.3) Dhirenpara - 9(100) Bhaskarnagar 6(15.4) 32(82 1) 1 (2.6) Hedayetpur 3 (30.0) 6 (60.0) 1 (10.0) Jalukbari H.C. 1 (20.0) 3 (60.0) 1 (20.0) 5 37 Pandu 14 (26.4) 29 (54.7) 10(18.9) 53 Total 232 (28.1) 495 (60.1) 97(11.8) 824 Source: Primary Data Table 6.54 : Crowding Status in Slum and Non-Slum Areas in Guwahati Crowding Status Areas Least crowded Crowded Most Total crowded Slum Non-slum Total No No Source: Primary Data Table 6.55 ; Crowding Status of House in Areas of Different Topography Hillside Swampy Riverside Plains Total Areas Source: Primary Data Least crowded Crowding Status Crowded Most crowded Total No No No

63 Table 6.56 : Crowding Status in Areas of Different Land Use in Guwahati Areas Least crowded Crowding Status Crowded Most crowded Total Railway Tracks Residential Commercial Industrial Total S ource: Primary Data Table 6.57 : Crowding Status in Distance Zones in Guwahati Zones Inner Intermediate Outer Total S ource: Primary Dalla Least crowded Crowding Status Crowded Most crowded Total JI Ownership Status of the House Ownership status of houses is important for the poor, because they have to spend a fair amount on rent from their meagre income. Thus, those living in their own houses are economically in an advantageous position. However, people living in their own houses are not necessarily in a better economic condition than those living in rented houses; rather it is sometimes 200

64 related to economically adverse conditions. For instance generally the very poor people encroach on riverside areas and the railway tracks, because they cannot afford a rented house in a better locality. On the other hand, people living in own houses in some squatter slums are economically better off. Sometimes they have a two way benefit: one, they do not have to incur expenditure on house rent and the other; they get some extra income from letting out rooms on rent. In general, 46.4 per cent households in the city live in rented house (2001), the value for the poor in the surveyed areas being 58.6 per cent (Table 6.58). This percentage for the poor households is found to be higher than in many other cities and towns in India. For example, in Baroda 96 per cent households live in own houses and only 3 per cent live as tenants; in Sambalpur 82 per cent households live in own houses and only 13 per cent live as tenants. In Siliguri also 96 per cent households own their dwelling units (Ghosh, Ahmed and Maitra, 1995). In seven sampled areas in Guwahati, no household has been found to be living in their own houses. These areas are Patharquarry, Baripara, Darundha, Paltanbazar, Pachim Boragaon, Uzanbazar and Santipur. Of these, four areas are newly developed areas. It is obvious that a high percentage of the poor households live in rented houses in non slum areas and it is as high as 82.1 per cent in the sampled areas of the study (Table 6.59). The pattern of ownership status in areas of different topographic characteristics shows that 77.4 per cent households in riverside areas live in their own houses, and in hillside areas 44.1 per cent own their houses (Table 6.60). While the people in the former area live in their own houses because of very poor economic condition, in hillside it is because of their better economic condition. Similarly the percentage of households living in own houses is higher in areas along the railway lines than any other areas (Table 6.61). However in all areas of different land uses, the poor mostly live in rented houses. In the outer zone of the city the percentage of surveyed households living in rented houses is the highest while the corresponding value is the 201

65 least in the intermediate zone (Table 6.62). This may be attributed to encroachment of open lands, low lying areas and hill slopes in this zone and the location of many of the large squatter settlements. The analysis of these indicators reveals that the housing condition of the poor in Guwahati improves outward from the city centre. At the inner zone of the city housing congestion is more due to lack of space. The settlements along the railway track are at constant threat of eviction. Therefore the houses are generally built of cheap easily available materials. The houses at riversides are also at the risk of flood and eviction. So, the size and quality of the houses in these areas are also low. On the otherhand, at the outer zone and on hillsides more space is available, settlements are more or less permanent, and therefore housing condition improves. These are the areas settled by those who can afford transportation cost and time. Table 6.58 : Ownership Status of House in Sampled Areas of Guwahati city SI Ownership Status of the house Areas No Own Rented Others Total 1 Sijubari 12(27.3) 32 (72.7) Bimalanagar 10(35.7) 18 (64.3) Narengi 23 (76.7) 7 (23.3) Sitalabari 22 (88.0) 3 (12.0) Gandhibasti 14 (70.0) 6 (30 0) Ambari 12(23.5) 39 (76.5) Bharalumukh 16(48.5) 17(51.5) Fancybazar 18(34.6) 32 (61.6) 2 (3.8) 52 9 Athgaon 13(31.7) 24 (58.5) 4 (9.8) Patharquarry - 8(100) Baripara * 9(90) 1 (10.0) Darundha - 10(100) Paltanbazar - 6 (85.7) 1 (14.3) 7 14 Lalmati 6 (50.0) 5(41.6) 1 (8.3) Pachim Boragaon - 7 (100) Jyotikuchi 1 (8.3) 10 (83.3) 1(8 3) Uzanbazar Jahaighat - 7 (100) 7 18 Santipur 22 (56.4) 17 (43.6) Maligaon Shuttlegate 10(40.0) 12 (48.0) 3(12.0) Pandu Barabazar 16 (80.0) 4 (20.0) Maligaon Gotanagar 16 (69.6) 7 (30.4) Kamakhyagate 9 (75.0) 3 (25.0) * Rupnagar 12 (100)

66 24 Indrapur 13(68.4) 6(31.6) Bishnupur 10(25.0) 29 (72.5) 1 (2.5) Bhutnath - 11 (100) Hatigaon Bhetapara 3(6.1) 46 (93.9) Seujnagar 1 (8.3) 11 (91.7) Kalipur 5 (25.0) 14 (70.0) 1 (5.0) Lakhtokia 3 (60.0) 2 (40.0) Riverbank 12 (100) Narakasur 8 (66.6) 4 (33.3) Dhirenpara 1 (11.1) 8 (88.9) Bhaskarnagar 14 (35.9) 25 (64.1) Hedayetpur 1 (10.0) 9 (90.0) Jalukbari H.C. 3 (60.0) - 2 (40.0) 5 37 Pandu 18(34 0) 35 (66.0) - 53 Total 324 (39.3) 483 (58.6) 17(2.1) 824 Source: Primary Data. Table 6.59 : Ownership Status of House in Slum and Non-Slum Areas Areas Slum Non-slum Total Source;Primary Data. Owners hip Status of the house Own Rented Others Total Table 6.60 : Ownership Status of House in Areas of Different Topography Topography Owners hip Status of :he house Total Own Rented Others Hillside Swampy Riverside Plains Total Source: Primary Data. 203

67 Table 6.61 : Ownership Status of House in Areas of Different Land Use Areas Railway Tracks Residential Commercial Industrial Total S ource: Primary Data, Ownership Status of the house Own Rented Others M ' : , 100 O' ' ic T Table 6.62 : Ownership Status of House in Distance Zones Zones Inner Intermediate Outer Total S ource: Primary Data. Ownersh p Status of the house T_t_, Own Rented Others ' ' : 100C Jo« : ; 100 C 6.6 Sanitation Proper sanitation is essential to break the disease cycle and to protect public health. The WHO defines sanitation as the control of all those factors in man s physical environment which exercise or may exercise a deleterious effect on his physical development, health and survival" (Park and Park 1983). Sanitation is therefore arrangements to maintain cleanliness in the surrounding. To maintain sanitation four basic facilities are required and these are toilet, bathroom, drainage, and garbage disposal. In Indian slums 90 per cent households live without access to sanitation (GOI, 2002) 204

68 6.6.1 Availability of Toilet In general 2.8 per cent households in Guwahati City have no provision for toilet facilities (Table 6.63). But among the poor the figure is found to be as high as 35.7 per cent. In Siliguri 75 per cent slum households have independent toilets, mostly built by the municipality against a deposit of some amount by the beneficiary (Ghosh, Ahmed, Maitra, 1995). Table 6.63 : Distribution of Households according to the Type of Latrine in Guwahati, 2001 Type of latrine Water closet Other latrine Pit latrine No latrine Per cent Households Source: Census o f India, There are 6 sampled areas, where toilet facility is absent in all the households. These areas are Narengi, Uzanbazar, Kamakhyagate, Rupnagar, Lakhtokia and Machkhowa Riverbank. On the other hand in 8 areas all the households (100) enjoy toilet facility (Table 6.64). The pattern of availability of toilet in different distance zones does not vary significantly. Availability is slightly higher in the outer zone than in the inner zone, whereas it is least in the intermediate zone (Table 6.65). This pattern can be attributed to the railway track running across the city, as it has been found that more than 50 per cent households along the railway tracks do not have any kind of toilet facility, and the track itself is used for this purpose (Table 6.66). The pattern for the same is significant in different topographic areas in the city. No household in riverside areas has toilet facility, whereas 94.5 per cent households in swampy areas have some kind of toilet facility (Table 6.67) It may be because of availability of land, and economic condition of the dwellers Types of Toilet Different types of toilets are used by the poor, either built by them or provided by the house owners (land lords). During field observation three types of toilets have been found to be used by the poor. Some toilets are 205

69 connected to open drains where excreta are disposed. These toilets are the source of filth and germs and cause of air, water and soil pollution. The night soil is exposed to flies and thus increases the risk of faecal borne diseases not only in those areas but also in all areas through which the drain water passes. Many other latrines are found to be pit latrines of earthen type. In this type of latrine also there is the chance of the contamination of water and pollution of air and soil. So, the pit latrine is also not suitable to maintain sanitation. Thirdly, there are the water closet* toilets of which most are connected to pits and only limited numbers are connected to septic tanks. The most common type of toilet among the poor in the city is earthen tank type which is found in 29.8 per cent of the sampled households. During the field survey 19.8 per cent households are found with toilets connected to open drains while only 15.4per cent have water closet (WC) latrines including both pit and septic tank types. There is considerable variation in types of toilets in different localities. In hill areas no toilet connected to open drain has been found among the sampled households, while in plain and swampy areas 22.7 per cent and 18.7 per cent households respectively have toilets connected to open drains. The percentage of pit latrines (earthen lank) is the highest (76.3) in hill areas followed by swampy areas (61.5 ). There is significant variation in the distribution of water closet latrines also (Table 6.68). The type of toilet also varies greatly in areas of different land uses (Table 6.69). However, in all such areas the percentage of pit latrine (earthen tank) is highest (within the area) except in commercial areas where the percentage is highest for toilets connected to open drains. It is mainly because of lack of space and availability of municipality drains. Significantly, the variation is not striking in different zones of the city (Table 6.70). Table 6.64: Availability of Toilets and Bathrooms among the Urban Poor in Sampled Areas Areas Households with toilets Households with bathrooms 1. Sijubari Bimalanagar Narengi

70 4. Sitalabari Gandhibasti Ambari Bharalumukh Fancybazar Athgaon Pathar quarry Baripara Darundha Paltanbazar Lalmati Pachim Boragaon Jyotikuchi Uzanbazar Jahajghat Santipur ,8 19. Maligaon Shuttiegate Pandu Barabazar Maligaon Gotanagar Kamakhyagate Rupnagar indrapur Bishnupur Bhutnath Hatigaon Bhetapara Seujnagar Kalipur Lakhtokia Riverbank Narakasur Dhirenpara Bhaskarnagar Hedayetpur Jalukbari H.C Pandu Total Source: Primary data 207

71 Table 6.65: Availability of Toilets among Urban Poor in Zones of the City Areas Inner Intermediate Outer Total Households with toilets 205 (64 7) 131 (58.7) 194(68.3) 530 (64.3) Households without toilets 112(35.3) 92 (41.3) 90 (31.7) 294 (35.7) Total 317 (100) 223 (100) 284(100) 824 (100) Source: Primary data Table 6.66: Availability of Toilets among Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use Areas Households with toilets Households without toilets Railway tracks Residential Commercial Industrial Total 71 (49.3) 242 (76.3) 153 (59.3) 64(61) 530 (64.3) 73 (507) 75 (23.7) 105 (40.7) 41 (39) 294 (35.7) Total 144(100) 317(100) 258(100) 105 (100) 824(100) Source: Primary data Table 6.67: Availability of Toilets among Urban Poor in Different Topographic Areas Areas Hills Swampy Riverside Plains Total Households with toilets 46 (78.0) 86 (94.5) (61.9) 530 (64 3) Households toiiets without 13(22.0) 5 (5.5) 31 (100) 245 (38.1) 294 (35 7) Total 59(100) 91 (100) 31 (100) 643 (100) 824 (100) Source: Primary data Table 6.68: Types of Toilet of Urban Poor in Different Topographic Areas Type of Toilet Areas Hills Swampy Riverside Plains Total Water body / Open 17(18.7) 146 (22.7) 163(19.8) drain Earthen tank 45 (76.3) 56(61.5) (22.6) 246 (29.8) Ring well / septic 1(1 7) 14 (15.4) - 112(17.4) 127 (15 4) Not applicable 13(22 0) 4 (4.4) 31 (100) 240 (37.3) 288 (35 0) Total 59 (100) 91 (100) 31 (100) 643(100) 824(100) Source: Primary data 208

72 Table 6.69: Types of Toilet of Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use in Guwahati Railway Residential Commercial industrial Total Type of ToileT Water body / Open drain 7 (4.9) 72 (22 7) 70 (27 2) 14(13 3) 163(19 8) Earthen tank 52 (36.1) 120 (37 9) 38(14 7) 36 (34 3) 246 (29 8) Ring well / septic 16(11.1) 51 (16.1) 46(17 8) 14(13 3) 127(15 4) Not applicable 69 (47 9) 74 (23.3) 104(40 3) 41 (39 0) 288 (35 0) Total 144 (100) Source: Primary data 317 (100) 258 (100) 105 (100) 824 (100) Table 6.70: Types of Toilet of Urban Poor in Zones of the City A re a s Inner Interm ediate O u te r To ta l T y p e o f T o i l e t ^ _ Water body / Open dram 75 (23 7) 31 (13.9) 57(20 1) 163(19 8) Earthen tank 82 (25 9) 77 (34 5) 87 (30 6) 246 (29 8) Ring well / septic 52 (16 4) 24 (10.8) 51 (18 0) 127(15 4) Not applicable 108 (34 0) 91 (40.8) 89 (31 3) 288 (35 0) Total 317 (100) 223 (100) 284 (100) 824 (100) Source: Primary data Availability of Bathroom Facilities To maintain personal cleanliness bathrooms are essential, particularly in the areas of high density. Moreover, the availability of bathrooms indicates the upholding of privacy and dignity of women. In general, 55.7 per cent households of the city have bathroom facility within the house (2001). But among the poor only 31.9 per cent of the surveyed households have bathroom facilities (Table 6.64). There is a distinct variation in the availability of bathrooms in different topographic areas. It is only in the swampy areas where as many as 91.2 per cent households have bathroom facilities. On the other hand in riverside areas there is no household with bathroom (Table 6.71). The availability of bathroom also varies remarkably in areas of different land use. As expected, the highest percentage of households living along the railway tracks does not have bathrooms (Table 6.72). Some of these families 209

73 living on the western side of the city generally bathe and wash their clothes in the River Brahmaputra. Surprisingly, there is no variation at all between the inner and the intermediate zones of the city in respect of the availability of bathroom facilities among the sampled households, although the percentage of household with this facility is much higher in the outer zone of the city (Table 6.73). Table 6.71: Availability of Bathroom among Urban Poor in Topographic Areas Areas Hills Swampy Riverside Plain Total Households with 22 (37.3) 83 (91.2) 158 (24.6) 263 (31.9) Bathrooms Households 37 (62.7) 8 (8.8) 31 (100) 485 (75.4) 561 (68 1) without Bathrooms Total 59 (100) 91 (100) 31 (100) 643 (100) 824 (100) Source: Primary data Table 6.72: Availability of Bathroom among Urban Poor in Areas of Different Land Use Areas Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total Tracks Household with 22 (15.3) 148 (46.7) 56 (21.7) 37 (35.2) 263 (31 9) Bathrooms Households 122 (84.7) 169 (53.3) 202 (78.3) 68 (64.8) 561 (68.1) without Bathrooms Total 144(100) 317 (100) 258 (100) 105 (100) 824 (100) Source: Primary data Table 6.73: Availability of Bathroom among Urban Poor in Zones of the City Areas Inner Intermediate Outer Total Household with Bathrooms Households without Bathrooms Total Source: Primary data 84 (26.5) 59 (26.5) 120(42.3) 263 (31.9) 233 (73.5) 164 (73.5) 164 (57.7) 561 (68.1) 317(100) 223(100) 284 (100) 824(100) 210

74 6.6.4 Drainage The most common type of drainage system available at present in the city is the OSD or open surface drain. In 2001 more than 49 per cent households in the city are connected to open drains (Table 6.74). There is no drainage system for as many as 37 per cent households in the city. Drainage system in the areas inhabited by the poor is very inadequate. Within the squatter slums there is no proper drainage system. Small, open and shallow earthen drains are put up by the residents themselves which are not effective. These are not cleaned resulting in water logging for the most of the year. Only those households living by the side of OSD are connected to a better drainage system. However, most of such drains passing through slums are connected to their toilets. As there is no proper sewerage system in Guwahati as acknowledged by the authority (I, 1991), there is no proper treatment of the sewage. As a result, the sanitation condition may be aggravated because of these drains not only within the slums but also in the areas through which these drains carry the discharges. Only 20.2 per cent of the sampled households are connected to some kind of drainage system. Table : Distribution of Household by Different Types of Drainage Connectivity in Guwahati City, 2001 Type of drainage Closed drainage Open drainage No drainage of households Source : Census of India, Garbage Disposal Solid waste disposal is a major problem in Guwahati. At present the responsibility of solid waste disposal lies with the Guwahati Municipal Corporation, but the organization has failed to introduce any modern method of collecting and disposing garbage so far. With the fast growth of population, the organization has found it difficult to cope with the problem of waste disposal. The corporation has been engaging 21 trucks, 5 excavators and 12 tippers to clean the garbage collecting points and drains (Deka, 2001), but the problem has remained as menacing as ever. 211

75 The squatter slums being the illegal settlements eannot avail municipal services of garbage disposal. Of the total surveyed households, 15 per cent households use municipal garbage bins and all these households live in nonstum areas. The garbage removal system is virtually non-existent in the slum areas. The households in these areas dump garbages in the open areas, roadsides, open drains and rivers, making the environmental condition of these areas filthy and uninhabitable. The problem of air, water, and land pollution is very acute in almost all the areas as noticed during the field survey. The unscientific method of disposal of solid waste is a common problem in all slum areas of the city. 6.7 Lack of Civic Amenities The availability of two very basic amenities, water supply and electricity, to the poor have been tried to analyse in this part. Drinking water is gradually becoming scarce to the residents in many parts of the city in the recent years. The problem becomes particularly acute due to lowering of ground water table during the winter period. The residents of the city use different sources for drinking water (Table 6.75). Table 6.75 : Distribution of Households with Different Sources of Drinking Water in the City, 2001 Source Tap Hand pump Tube well Well All other of households Source: Census of India, 2001 Drinking water in the city is supplied by different agencies like the Guwahati Municipal Corporation (GMC) and the Assam Urban Water Supply and Sewerage Board (AUWS & SB) to the residents of the city. But the areas covered by these agencies are very limited. There are some individual water supply schemes provided by the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) for Guwahati Medical College, Gauhati University, Dispur Capital Complex and Agriculture University Campus. The Central Government establishments like Guwahati Refinery and North East Frontier Railway have 212

76 their own water supply scheme for their employees. There are three plants under GMC, namely Panbazar plant, Satpukhuri plant and Kamakhya plant which treat water from the surface source, and serve mainly the core area of the city including some areas in the western side. Besides, there are also several deep tube wells installed by GMC to serve the areas like New Field, Gopinath Nagar, Fatasil, Barasapara, Kalapahar, Santipur, Sarusajai, Betkuchi, Satgaon, T. Phukan Park, Rangpathar, Phyllingkata, Azara and Dharapur. In addition, about 450 tube wells have been installed by GMC to meet the crisis of the drinking water. The present demand of water in Greater Guwahati is approximately million litres per day, but the present availability in GMC Area is only 79.0 mid. Thus the present short fall is 86 million litres per day. The total estimated demand for water will be Mid. by 2033 (Nath, Bhattacharjee and Bezbaruah, 2001). Therefore, three new water treatment plants have been proposed by GMC at Ramsa Hill, Kalapahar and Nilachal Hill. Some private agencies are also coming up in the city (e.g. Brahmajal) to supply drinking water. However, these sources of drinking water are generally inaccessible for the poor living in the city for several reasons. Firstly, the aforesaid agencies do not provide water in squatter slums which are not legal settlements. Secondly the water supplied by AUWS & SB and private agencies is not affordable for them. The hand pump is the most common source of drinking water among the poor in the city as 63.2 per cent sampled households use" this source (Table 6.76). Tap water is also used by a substantial number of households (21.4). Many of them collect water from GMC street taps as well as from the water taps of railways, Guwahati Medical College, Gauhati University etc. Many of them also collect water from the broken points of the roadside GMC water pipes. Even where GMC taps are available to the poor, they have to make long queues for collecting water. Some of those living near the riversides use river water not only for cleaning purposes, but also for drinking. In this study, the households that collect the water from different sources and those using river water are clubbed in one category as using other sources of drinking water. 213

77 It is interesting to note that the percentage of households with access to tap water is more in slum areas than the pooriiiving in non-slum areas (Table 6.77). It is because many slums are located near the city centre where municipal water supply is available. The slum dwellers directly or indirectly (from broken points or from railway campus, etc) avail the facility. Hand pump is the most common source of drinking water in swampy and plain areas, while taps and wells are the usual sources of water in the hilly areas (Table 6.78). However, the people living in the hilly areas have to cover long distances to collect the tap water. Hand pump is also the main source of water across different land use areas (Table 6.79). Again it is significant that the percentage of households using tap water is found to be quite high along the railway tracks and in residential areas, whereas tap water is totally absent in industrial areas. Although hand pump is the dominant source of water across different zones, in the inner zone the tap is also significant source of water. Tap water as a source of drinking water decreases significantly outward from the city centre (Table 6.80). It is because GMC or other supply water is not available in the outer zone. The sources of drinking water do not reveal the whole water supply scenario among the poor. The maintenance of proper cleanliness requires not only clean water but also sufficient supply of water for other purposes. As suggested by WHO, a person needs a minimum of 135 litres of protected water per day (Deka, 2001). All the 21.4 per cent sampled households of the city, who use tap water get very limited quantity of water. From a single tap, sometimes hundreds have to collect water which is an indication of acute shortage of water. The households living along the railway tracks face severe scarcities of water for cleaning proposes and they have to live in an. environment of dirt and filth. Though hand pumps provide sufficient quantity of water during summer, these also run dry in winter season in some areas of the city. Similarly wells may provide sufficient water, but the quality of the water is poor, particularly in case of the kutcha wells. The river water when used by the poor households directly, without any treatment is not potable and therefore despite its abundance it cannot be used as safe drinking water. 214

78 The access to electricity for the urban poor is limited mainly for two reasons. First, this service is not extended to the poor squatters living in unauthorized land areas. Secondly, the initial expenditure is too high to be borne by the poor. It has been found that, of the total surveyed households only 14.6 per cent households have accessibility to electricity (Table 6.81). A primary survey in Siliguri town reveals that 23 per cent of the 400 surveyed slum households have accessibility to electricity (Ghosh et al, 1995). In the slum areas of Guwahati only 12.7 per cent households have electricity whereas, 21.4 per cent houses of the poor living in the non-slum areas have electricity. In Guwahati, 80 per cent households in general have accessibility to electricity (2001). An analysis in different topographic areas reveals that the poor living in swampy areas avail this facility the most, followed by the poor in hills and plains. There is no household with electric connection in the riverside areas (Table 6.82). Among different land use areas, percentage of households with electricity is highest in the industrial areas (Table 6.83). However, there is little variation in households with electricity in different zones of the city (Table 6.84). In non-slum areas 12.7 per cent households have availed electricity, while in slum areas 21.4 per cent households have electric connection. In former case non-availability of electricity is due to unaffordability of the households, while in slum areas another important reason is physical inaccessibility to this service (Table 6.85). Table 6.76: Distribution of Households with Different Sources of Drinking Water in Sampled Areas Areas Hand pump Well Tap Other Total 1. Sijubari 42(95.5) 2(0.5) Bimalanagar 27(96.4) 1(3.6) Narengi 8(26.7) 22(73 3) Sitalabari 25(100) Gandhibasti 20(100) Amban 15(29.4) - 36(70.6) Bharalumukh 4(12.1) 3(9.2) 26(78.8) Fancybazar 44(84.6) 1(1.9) 5(9.6) 2(3.9) Athgaon 12(29.2) 5(12.2) 20(48.8) 4(9.8)

79 10. Patharquarry 1(12.5) 7(87.5) Baripara 4(40.0) 6(60.0) Darundha 9(90.0) 1(10.0) Paltanbazar 2(28.6) 1(14.3) 4(57.1) Laimati 4(33.3) 5(41.7) - 3(25.0) Pachim Boragaon - 7(100) Jyotikuchi 6(50.0) 6(50.0) Uzanbazar Jahajghat - - 7(100) Santipur 15(38.5) 2(5.1) 22(56.4) Maligaon Shuttlegate 21(84 0) 4(16.0) Pandu Barabazar 20(100) Maligaon Gotanagar 17(73.9) 3(13 0) 1(4.4) 2(8.7) Kamakhyagate 12(100) Rupnagar 12(100) Indrapur (100) Bishnupur 40(100) Bhutnath 10(90.9) - 1(9.1) Hatigaon Bhetapara 48(98.0) - - 1(2.0) Seujnagar ) Kalipur 2(10.0) 15(75 0) 3(15.0) Lakhtokia 1(20.0) - - 4(80.0) Riverbank (100) Narakasur - 1(8.3) 11(91.7) Dhirenpara 9(100) Bhaskarnagar 39(100) Hedayetpur 1(10.0) - 9(90.0) Jalukbari H.C. 2(40.0) - 3(60.0) Pandu 37(69.8) 9(17.0) 7(13.2) - 53 Total 521 (63.2) 101(12.3) 176(21.4) 26(3.1) 824 (100) Source: Primary Data 216

80 Table 6.77 : Distribution of Sampled Households using Various Sources of Nature of settlement / source of drinking water Drinking Water in Slum and Non-slum areas Hand pump Well Tap Other Total Slum 408(62 7) 69(10.6) 152(23.3) 22(3.4) 651(100) Non-slum 113(65 3) 32(18.5) 24(13 9) 4(2.3) 173(100) Total 521(63.2) 101(12.3) 176(21.4) 26(3.1) 824(100) Source: Primary Data Table 6.7 8: Distribution of Sampled Households using Various Sources of Drinking Water in Topographic Areas Source of water / Areas Hills Swampy Riverside Plain Total Hand pump 3(5.1) 68 (74.7) 12(38.7) 438(68.1) 521 Well 23 (39.0) 16(17.6) * 62 (9.6) 101 Tap 33 (55.9) 7 (7.7) 7 (22.6) 127(19 8) 176 Other 12(38 7) 16 (2.5) 26 Total 59 (100) 91 (100) 31 (100) 643(100) 824 Source: Primary Data Table 6.79: Distribution of Households using Various Sources of Drinking Water in Areas of Different Land Use Source of water / Areas Railway tracks Residential Commercial Industrial Total Hand pump 76(52.8) 186 (58.7) 184(71.3) 75 (71.4) 521 Well 14 (9.7) 22 (6.9) 35 (13.6) 30 (28.6) 101 Tap 46(31.9) 109(34.4) 21 (8.1) Other 8 (5.6) - 18(7.0) - 26 Total 144(100) 317(100) 258(100) 105(100) 824 Source: Primary Data 217

81 Table 6.80 : Distribution of Households using Various Sources of Drinking Water in Zones of the City Source / Zones Inner Intermediate Outer Total Hand pump 153 (48.3) 169 (75.8) 199(70.1) 521 Well 13(4.1) 20 (9.0) 68 (23 9) 101 Tap 129 (40.7) 34 (15.2) 11 (3.9) 176 Other 22 (6.9) - 6(2.1) 26 Total 317 (100) 223 (100) 284 (100) 824 Source: Primary Data Table 6.81 : Households with Electricity in Different Sampled Areas Areas Households wilth Electricity t Sijubari Bimalanagar Narengi _ 4 Sitalabari _ 5. Gandhibasti _ 6. Ambari - 7. Bharalumukh Fancybazar Athgaon Pathar Quarry «_ 11. Baripara Darundha Paitanbazar Lalmati Pachim Boragaon Jyotikuchi Uzanbazar Jahajghat - _ 18. Santipur Maligaon Shuttlegate Pandu Barabazar 21. Maligaon Gotanagar

82 22. Kamakhyagate Rupnagar 24. Indrapur Bishnupur Bhutnath _ 27. Hatigaon Bhetapara - _ 28. Seujnagar 29. Kalipur _ 30. Lakhtokia - _ 31. Riverbank Narakasur Dhirenpara Bhaskarnagar Hedayetpur Jalukbari Harijan Colony _ 37. Pandu Total Source: Primary Data. Table 6.8 2: Distribution of Households with Electricity in Different Topographic Areas Areas Hills Swampy Riverside Plains Total. Households with Electricity Source: Primary Data Table 6.83 : Distribution of Households with Electricity in Areas of Different Land Use Areas Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total tracks Households with Electricity, Source: Primary Data 219

83 Table 6.8 4: Distribution of Households with Electricity in Different Zones of the City Areas Inner Intermediate Outer Total Households with Electricity Source: Primary Data Table 6.85 : Distribution of Households with Electricity in Slum and Non-slum Areas Areas Slum Non-slum Total Households 83 ) 37 with Electricity Source: Primary Data 6.8 Health Condition Health condition of a society is determined by a number of factors like income, housing, water supply, sanitation, education, health awareness and accessibility to health care services. It is widely accepted that the poor health status of the low income countries is the product of inadequate nutrition, lack of a protected water supply, over crowded and insanitary housing and living conditions (Nanda and Ali, 2006). In the slums in India, diarrhoea deaths account for 28 per cent of all mortality and acute respiratory infections account for 22 per cent (GOI, 2002) General Health Condition The general health condition of the poor people is determined by two important factors- (i) quality and quantity of food determining nutritional level (ii) living and working environment. Food provides the nutrition for growth and development of body and mind. Malnutrition itself is considered a major social problem and it is closely related to fertility, family size, economic condition, etc. Foods are basically of three types: those giving energy to work, those helping physical growth and finally those keeping the body healthy. A proper and balanced diet comprising these three kinds of food, not only makes 220

84 people physically active, but also develops immunity mechanism to protect the body from diseases. To find out whether the intake of food taken by the poor in the city is sufficient to provide their required daily allowances (RDA) of energy, protein, iron and calcium, a few study areas were selected representing different social and economic groups and calculated on the basis of standards suggested by the Indian Council of Medical Research (Appendix II & III). During field survey it has been recorded that the poor spend greatest chunk of their income on food and yet they cannot afford to meet their needs, sometimes not even two square meals. Here, in almost all the families on the average, the daily food intake is far from sufficient to provide RDA and the necessary supplement for physical and mental growth. In fact, they suffer from deficiency in energy (33), protein (20) iron (15,5) and calcium (37) suggesting constant malnutrition (Fig 6.18). This also indicates that they are highly vulnerable to different diseases. Their dietary items basically include rice, wheat and other rice products like rice flakes and puffed rice. Vegetables also, although taken in small amount, form a part of their regular diet. However pulses are not very commonly consumed. Eggs and fishes are taken generally only once weekly or bi weekly, while meat is just an occasional item. In some households milk and tea are not at all consumed. Households with children generally consume milk, but the quantity is far less than the required amount. Similarly, fruit is an item, which is usually not affordable for them. With an exception to a few, males are addicted to tobacco and alchohol and in some cases the habit is also found among the females of some areas. Addiction to tobacco and alchohol increases the risk of the attack of different diseases besides leading to domestic violence, fights, quarrels and eventually to crime. 221

85 Deficiency () c o o o c \ j c n j 0 Energy Protien Iron Calcium Nutrients Fig 6.18: Deficiency of Selected Nutrients among Urban Poor in Guwahati. The living environment of this under privileged group of people is absolutely unhygienic. The poor sanitation, absence of drainage and waste disposal system and pollution are responsible for many diseases. While the waterlogged soil is ideal for the transmission of some diseases like hookworm, the standing water is the breeding ground of mosquitoes causing tropical diseases like malaria. Moreover, the inadequate disposal of human wastes increases the risk of contamination of food and water through pathogens, which may result in faecal borne diseases and intestinal worms The lack of safe drinking water is another problem responsible for many enteric diseases like typhoid, hepatitis, dysentery and diarrhea. During field survey, dysentery and diarrhea are found to be the most cited diseases among the poor in the city. Wherever water supply is insufficient, people find it difficult to maintain personal hygiene. Most of the children living along the railway tracks near the city centre suffer from eye and ear infections, skin diseases and infections of lice. 222

86 About 34 per cent of the surveyed households live in very small houses with less than 35sq.ft floor space per person. Such small sized houses with inadequate light and ventilation help in the spreading of diseases like tuberculosis, influenza and measles. Thus the living condition of the poor in Guwahati is primarily responsible for the low status of both mental and physical health conditions. The working environment of the poor is also adverse in many cases. The workers in factories, construction sites and godowns are constantly exposed to dust and noise. Similarly, the rickshaw pullers, handcart pullers, drivers are also continuously suffer from severe traffic pollution. Besides, these workers have to work in adverse weather conditions like rain, heat, flood and cold and thus the poor people often have to work in an environment which is not at all congenial to health condition, resulting in constant exposure to different kinds of diseases A cce ss to Health Services in Guwahati city the general health services to the common people is quite satisfactory. There were six hospitals, eleven nursing homes, six dispensaries, one TB hospital, and one cancer institute in 1991 in the city {Census of India, 1991). Although the number of other health care institutes has remained same, the number of nursing homes has increased significantly during the last decade. However, the services of these private nursing homes and many private medical practitioners are generally not accessible to the poor living in the slums and bastees. They generally avail the govt, and other public health care services, though most often they have to buy the medicines from the market. Guwahati Medical College, MMC hospital, the Railway Hospital at Maligaon, the Ayurvedic Hospital at Jalukbari and a few Primary Health Centres like Chandmari and Bharalumukh are the most cited health care centres visited by the poor for treatment. 223

87 6.8.3 Child Birth The place of child birth (Institutional child birth) is an important indicator of the utilization of the public health care centres by the poor. However in most of the poor families of the city, it has been found that child birth is not attended by doctors or trained dhais. In 64.7 per cent households women delivered their children at home and they were mostly attended by some untrained dhais. Women in only 14.1 per cent surveyed households preferred hospitals for child delivery, while in Siliguri slums, 88 per cent households delivered their children in Govt. Hospitals. In Baroda the relevant figure was 30 in 1988 which increased to 64 in 1992 (Ghosh et al 1995). In the study region it is found that the household with child delivery at hospital is highest (23.7) in the hilly areas and lowest (6.5) in riverside areas (Table 6.86). The distribution pattern of the same in different land use areas does not exhibit much variation (Table 6.87). However, the number of child birth at hospital decreases significantly in the outer zone from the inner zone (Table 6.88). It may be due to less accessibility in terms of distance to government hospitals in the outer zone of the city. Choosing a hospital for child birth is also influenced by social factors to some extent, as the percentage of Hindu households with child delivery at hospital is more than that of the Muslim households (Table 6.89) Incidence of Child Death Incidence of child death has been reported from many families during the field survey. In 18.5 per cent surveyed households, there has been death of children below 12 years. However, the highest per cent of households with incidence of child death has been recorded in riverside areas (29) among all the topographic areas of this study (Table 6.90). Similarly among the different land use areas, child death has been recorded highest in areas along the railway tracks (Table 6.91) and households with the incidence of child death is maximum (21.2) in the inner zone of the city (Table 6.92). Significantly in the Muslim households, the rate of child death is nearly twice than in the Hindu households (Table 6.93). 224

88 6.8.5 Immunization of Children In India the immunization schemes were started in 1962 with vaccination for BCG and gradually it was increased to six vaccines to prevent diseases like Measles, DPT and Polio. Full immunization means vaccination for six diseases which include childhood TB, Polio, Whooping cough, Diptheria, Tetenus and Measles. However, the immunization programmes are still far from the reach of the poor families as, in only 42.0 per cent children aged months were fully immunized. Moreover in the same period 14 per cent children received no vaccine and there was a marked rural urban variation (Bose, 2006). In the year , 50.1 per cent children aged 12 to 23 months were fully immunized in urban Assam (GOI, 2002). In the surveyed areas, per cent of the children aged up to 6 years have been found to be immunized. However there is marked a variation in the percentage of the immunized children in different sampled areas. While in four areas the figure is less than 50 per cent in 14 sampled areas ail the children are immunized (Table 6.94). It should be noted, however, that all these children are only partially immunized. There are 11.3 per cent households among the urban poor whose children are not immunized at all. It is again the riverside areas where the percentage of immunized children is lowest among all types of topographic areas (Table 6.95). There is not much variation in the percentage of immunized children in the areas of different landuse, although the highest percentage has been found in the industrial areas (Table 6.96). The variation is not seen across the different distant zones of the city also (Table 6.97). The general indicators of health condition in Assam is satisfactory in comparison to some other states of India (Table 6.98), but the disparity between the rich and the poor for some of these indicators at national level is very disturbing (Table 6.99). 225

89 Table 6.86 : Place of child delivery Distribution of Sampled Households According to the Place of Child Delivery in Topographic Areas. Hills Swampy Riverside Plains Total Home 30 (50.8) 59 (64.8) 26 (83.9) 420 (65) 535(64.7) Hospital 14 (23.7) 18(19.8) 2 (6.5) 83(12.8) 117(14 1) Not Relevant 15(25.4) 14(15.4) 3 (9.7) 143(22.1) 175(21.2) Total 59 (100) 91(100) 31 (100) 646(100) 827(100) Source; Primary Date Percentage are column percentage. Table 6.87 : Distribution of Sampled Households According to the Place of Child Birth in Land Use Areas Child birth Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total Home 90(64.3) 213(67.2) 273(65.3) 59(56.2) 535(64.7) Hospital 20(14.3) 48(15.1) 27(10 2) 22(21 0) 117(14 1) Not Relevant 30(21 4) 56(17.7) 65(24.5) 24(22.9) 175(21.2) Total 140(100) 317(100) 265(100) 105(100) 827(100) Source: Primary data. Tab le 6.88 : Distribution of Sampled Households According to the Place of Child Delivery in Different Zones. Childbirth Inner intermediate Outer Total At home 196(61.1) 137(61.7) 202(71.1) 535(64 7) At hospital 58(18.1) 33(14.9) 26(9.2) 117(14.1) Not Relesant 67(20.9) 52(23.4) 56(19.7) 175(21.2) Total 321(100) 222(100) 284(100) 827(100) Source: Primary data. 226

90 Table 6.89 : Distribution of Sampled Households According to the Place of Child Birth in Religious Groups Childbirth Hindu Muslims Others Total At hom e 275(60.2) 259(70.8) 1 (25.0) 535(64 7) At hospital 80(17.5) 36(9.8) 1 (25.0) 117(14.1) Not Relevant 102 (22.3) 71 (19 4) 2 (50.0) 175 (21.2) Total 457(100) 366(100) 4 (100) 827(100) Source: Primary data. Table 6,9 0 : Distribution of Sampled Households with Incidence of Child Death in Different Topographic Areas Child death Hills Swampy Riverside Plains Total H H with child death 9(15.3) 1 0 (1 1.0 ) 9(29.0) 125(19.3) 153(18 5) H H without child death 34(57.6) 76(83.5) 20(64.5) 425(65.8) 555(67 1) Not Relevant 16(27.1) 5 (5 5) 2 (6.5) 96(14 9) 119(14.4) Total 59 (100) 91(100) 31 (100) 646(100) 827(100) Source: Primary data. Table 6.91 : Distribution of Sampled Households with Incidence of Child Death in Land use Areas Child death Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total H H with child 32(22.9) 63(19.9) 43(16.2) 15(14.3) 1533(18 5) death H H without child death 88(62.9) 230(72.6) 164(61.9) 73(69.5) 555(67 1) Not Relevant 20(14.3) 24(7.6) 58(21.9) 17(16.2) 119(14.4) Total 140(100) 317(100) 265(100) 105(100) 827(100) Source: Primary data. 227

91 Table 6.92 : Distribution of Sampled Households with Incidence of Child Death in Different Zones Child death Inner Intermediate Outer Total HH with child death HH without child death 68(21 2) 31(14.0) 54(19.0) 153(18.5) 218(67.9) 143(64.4) 194(68.3) 555(67.1) Not Relevant 35(10.9) 48(21.6) 36(12.7) 119(14.4) Total 321(100) 222(100) 284(100) 827(100) Source: Primary data. Table 6.93 : Distribution of Sampled Households with Incidence of Child Death in Religious Groups Child death Hindu Muslims Others Total HH with child death 61 (13.3) 92 (25.1) 153(18.5) HH without child death 320 (70) 233(63.7) 2 (50) 555(67.1) Not Relevant 76(16.6) 41 (11.2) 2 (50) 119(14 4) Total 457(100) 366(100) 4(100) 827(100) Source: Primary data. Table 6.94 : Immunization of Children in Different Sampled Areas Areas of children 0-6 yrs. of Immunized Children Immunized 1. Sijubari Bimalanagar Narengi Sitalabari Gandhibasti Ambari Bharalumukh

92 8. Fancybazar Athgaon Patharquarry Baripara Darundha Paltanbazar Lalmati Pachim Boragaon Jyotikuchi Uzanbazar Jahajghat Santipur Maligaon Shuttlegate Pandu Barabazar Maligaon Gotanagar Kamakhyagate Rupnagar Indrapur Bishnupur Bhutnath Hatigaon Bhetapara Seujnagar Kalipur Lakhtokia Riverbank Narakasur Dhirenpara Bhaskarnagar Hedayetpur Jalukbari Harijan Colony Pandu Total Source: Primary data. 229

93 Table 6.95 : Immunized Children in Topographic Areas Areas Hills Swampy Riverside Plains Total Total Im m unized Percentage Source: Primary data. Table 6.96 : Immunized Children in Areas of Different Land Use Areas Railway Residential Commercial Industrial Total Total Im m unized Percentage K Source: Primary data. Table 6.97 : Immunized Children in Different Zones Zones Inner Intermediate Outer Total Total Im m unized Percentage Source: Primary data. Table 6.98 : General Health Indicators of Assam Life expectancy at birth average for Neonatal mortality Infant morality 1998 Under 5 morality Undweight children Annual birth rate urban 1997 Assam Source; World Bank, Basic statistics Table 6.99: Health Indicators of the Poorest and Richest quintiles of the Indian Population, Infant mortality (per 1000 birth) Indicator Poorest quintile Richest Quintile U nder five mortality Underweigh children ( ) Source: Gwatkin et al (2000) as cited by Nanda and Aii, Death rate urban

94 6.9 Crime T h e legal definition of crime is that it is a behaviour or an activity in violation of the legal code (Ahuja, 1996). Crime is also defined in non-legal or social terms as a behaviour or an activity that violates social codes. Crime may be committed by persons belonging to any social group cutting across different religion, language, caste or economic level. But the poor suffering from constant hunger, poverty and unemployment are more prone to commit crime. The crime rates in Guwahati show a mixed trend during the period There has been constant increase in the total number of crime committed in the city from Though from then onward there was a decreasing trend till 2001, yet it has been again showing an upward trend (Table 6.100). There are 16 police stations in Kamrup Metropolitan District covering Guwahati and its adjoining areas. While Khetri, Pragjyotishpur (Chandrapur), Azara and North Guwahati Police Stations cover the neighbouring areas, the remaining 12 police stations cover the Guwahati city proper. Among these police stations, the numbers of registered cases are more in certain police stations over these years. These police stations are Paltanbazar, Dispur and Chandmari. Most of the squatter settlements and slums in Guwahati come under the police stations of Dispur, Paltanbazar, Chandmari, Bharalumukh, Geetanagar and Noonmati. Although no direct relationship can be established between the number of cases registered in police stations and the location of slums and squatter settlements, yet these areas are generally considered as the hiding places for many offenders and criminals. While doing primary survey for this study, policemen were seen several times, searching for persons supposed to be criminals in some squatter settlements. It is very difficult to get information on crimes and criminals through direct interviewing. Therefore a few persons residing near these settlements were interviewed to know their opinion. They all consider these slums and settlements as dens of petty criminals. They also complained about the frequent occurrence of petty crimes like theft and burglary supposedly caused by some persons living in slums and squatter 231

95 settlements. However, such complaints were not made, during primary survey, against the poor living in non-slum areas, particularly within residential areas. Four selected crimes namely dacoity, robbery, theft and cheating across the 16 police stations over 5 years (Table 6.102) reveal that they comprise significant part of the total registered cases in all these years. Moreover, their occurrence is more in number in some police stations only, viz Dispur, Paltanbazar, Chandmari, Bharalumukh, Panbazar and Jalukbari. Theft is the most common crime across the areas and over the years. Table 6.100: Cases Registered during in different Police Station of Guwahati City District Name of P.S Panbazar Paltanbazar Dispur Basistha Khetri Pragjyotishpur Noonmati Chandmari Geetanagar Latasil All Women P.S Bharalumukh Jalukbari Fatasil Ambari Azara North Guwahati Total Source : Office o f the superintend o f Police, Guwahati city

96 Oujjeeijo i - M- - i t - <0 O y s M i : 50 T- y Tf M- y * <r j 34 N- co t F". h A i a q q o y i - r* i i i - i i l i i Y* 1 A}jooea i T * i - r* 1 i - I i - Y** - 6ui}eeijo i o T- tn Y M r co Y 1 V- - x o 2 3 Table : Pattern of Selected Crimes (Registered cases) in Different Police Stations of Guwahati City, V O ! CD CD O) CD <d T r*. m o> T" I i 1 Year i Name of P.S W 9 M 1 Aiaqqoy A j i o o b q N - M- m Y o t T~ Y * CD CD 0> j M* CD 05 : 20 i 39 V* - > - Buqeeqo o in ' in y a m Aiaqqoy in o co o rt CD 05 O 00 i N- CD in Y i i y in ' in 1 Y~ Y 5 00 M* CD Mf h- O t 10 Y- rt ' Ajiooea o - t i - Buiieaqo «9M± Aiaqqoy AjjOOBQ Buqeaqo u m i Aiaqqoy Apooea 27 O) r*. 05 *,sfr 05 t oo CD m T~ T r - o 69 in T~ CD in Is* Is o o> CD Mf 'M' * m Y~ r* i 43 CD <0 tn T Y~ i T CD T~ m - - T-» t Y~ > in Y Q in CD T~ - in i in co T~ T M" I o T" N* y 05 co co CD 5 co Y to.cd M- ID co O Y * 153 I o 240 y in o Mh CD in co 00 Y t *o 1 in Y~ <0 ID CD M- t 00 Y*~ Buqeaqo Y~ CD N M ID V y a rn 275 S [ 68 1 S i co Aiaqqoy S 00 in in CD m CD o 1 Ajiooea Buqeaqo y a m Ajaqqoy A i i o o b q r-! 146 MT* T - m- co <o CD 1 co t Y~ - * t 1 co Y * 417 in CD M- co Y 00 o - * in T~! i M' 0) in r - Y f CD in t 1 1 Y r - *3 a W D Khetri Basistha Azara Jatukbari Bharalumukh Fatasil Ambari North Guwahati Panbazar Paltanbazar Latasil Ai! W omen P.S Chandmari w (0 CT CD C CC O Noonmati t 05 in P G R P S 907 CD 47 Total in Guwahati o Y Y V* 18.6!**«CD to total crimes in Guwahati Source; Office o f the Superintendent o f Police, Guwahati City.

97 The foregoing discussion reveals that illiteracy rate is very high among the poor group of population in the city. Those who are literates have a very limited level of education. School attendance rate among the children is also quite low. The main job market for the poor is informal sector and 95.4 per cent of the total employed is in this sector. As they do not find jobs regularly, many of them remain underemployed. Children of the very, poor families also have to work to supplement family income. Child labourers form a part of the urban poor in the city of which some are sent from the rural areas. Women of this section of society suffer from very low literacy rate, low level of education, low school attendance rate of female children, high economic burden, etc., which suggest a low status of them in the society. The preceeding discussion further reveals that, one of the very important problems poor usually face is the poor housing condition. Houses are not only built of cheap and low quality materials, these are also very small and overcrowded. Sanitation condition is also very deplorable in the areas settled by poor. For many there is no toilet facility and even where toilets are present, these are not properly built to maintain the hygiene. In most areas settled by the poor, there is no proper drainage and garbage disposal system. Thus the environment is very filthy, and the water logged earthen drains and heaps of garbage provide the breeding grounds for mosquitoes and pathogens. This underprivileged group of people also finds it difficult to have access to civic amenities like drinking water and electricity. The overall health condition of the poor is not good due to insanitary living condition, unfavourable working environment and an insufficient diet. Regarding the crime rate, although data are insufficient to establish a direct link between crime and poor settlements, from primary observation it was understood that petty criminals usually live in these areas. In the present study, the above mentioned problems have been identified as the significant problems affecting the poor group in the city. However, in their viewpoint the most important problem is the low wage rate. In return of hard physical labour, they earn only a meager income, and they think that is the reason of their perpetual poverty. 234