COURSE 3: LAW AND POLICIES PERTAINING TO URBANISATION

Transcription

1 COURSE 3: LAW AND POLICIES PERTAINING TO URBANISATION Block 3 : Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks Unit 7 : Urban Population Management... 3 Unit 8 : Urban Health and Sanitation Unit 9 : Urban Poverty Management Centre for Environmental Law, WWF-India 172-B, Lodi Estate New Delhi National Law University, Delhi Sector-14, Dwarka New Delhi

2 January, 2012 CEL, WWF-India & National Law University Delhi 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, mimeography or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the copyrighters, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. Course Coordinator Ms. Ramya Iyer, Centre for Environmental Law, WWF-India Block Writers Unit Preparation CEL, WWF-India Course Advisor & Editor Ms. Moulika Arabhi Director, CEL, WWF- India Format Editor Ms. Ramya Iyer Programme Officer, CEL, WWF-India Proofreading Ms. Neeru, Independent Consultant Laser Composition Tessa Media & Computers C-206, A.F.E-II, Jamia Nagar New Delhi

3 UNIT 7 URBAN POPULATION MANAGEMENT Contents Page No. 1. Introduction 3 2. History of Urbanisation in India 5 3. Planning for Population Management 7 4. Challenges Posed by Increasing Urban Population A Few Case Studies: Best Practices/Projects Conclusion References and Recommended Readings Introduction India is the second most populous country in the world, with over 1.21 billion people (2011 census), more than a sixth of the world s population 1. Already containing 17.5% of the world s population, India is projected to be the world s most populous country, surpassing China, its population reaching 1.6 billion by India occupies 2.4% of the world s land area and supports over 17.5% of the world s population 2. The country has more arable land area than any country except the US 3 and more water area than any country except Russia, Canada and US. As per the 2001 census, 72.2% of the population lives in about 638,000 villages 4 and the remaining 27.8% 5 lives in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations. 6 The rapid growth of urbanisation accompanied by phenomenal increase in urban areas. Concentration of population in limited number of cities and town have accentuated the problems of urbanisation. Urbanisation involved not only movement of population from rural to suborn area, but it has at the same time recognised the economic, social and political structure of every state India s population to be biggest in the planet, BBC News Retrieved US Census Bureau, Demographic Internet Staff, US Census Bureau-International Data Base (IDB), Census.gov. Retrieved GM Crops Around the World an accurate pitchure, GM Freeze, Table 3. Rural Urban Distribution, Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance-rural-urban Distribution. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on Urban Agglomarations and Towns, Census of India: Urban Agglomerations and Towns. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. Retrieved 18 December 2008.

4 4 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks Table 1: Largest cities of india 7 Sl. Name Census 1991 Census 2001 Calculation 2012 State/UT 1 Bombay Maharashtra 2 Delhi Delhi 3 Bangalore Karnataka 4 Madras Tamil Nadu 5 Calcutta Bangla 6 Ahmadabad Gujarat 7 Surat Gujarat 8 Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh 9 Pune Maharashtra 10 Jaipur Rajasthan 11 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh 12 Lakhnau Uttar Pradesh 13 Nagpur Maharashtra 14 Patna Bihar 15 Indore Madhya Pradesh 16 Thana Maharashtra 17 Pimpri Maharashtra 18 Bhopal Madhya Pradesh 19 Ludhiana Punjab 20 Agra Uttar Pradesh 21 Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh 22 Nashik Maharashtra 23 Rajkot Gujarat 24 Vadodara Gujarat 25 Faridabad Haryana 26 Navi Mumbai Maharashtra 27 Marat Uttar Pradesh 28 Mira Bhayandar Maharashtra 29 Kalyan Maharashtra 7 India: largest cities and towns and statistics of their population, World Gazetter.

5 Urban Population Management 5 30 Aurangabad Maharashtra 31 Amritsar Punjab 32 Varanasi Uttar Pradesh 33 Sholapur Maharashtra 34 Srinagar Jammu & Kashmir 35 Allahabad Uttar Pradesh 36 Ranchi Jharkhand 37 Mysore Karnataka 38 Koyampattur Tamil Nadu 39 Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh 40 Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh 41 Guwahati Assam 42 Jodhpur Rajasthan 43 Haora Bangla 44 Salem Tamil Nadu 45 Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh 46 Bhubaneswar Orissa 47 Chandigarh Chandigarh 48 Gwalior Madhya Pradesh 49 Madurai Tamil Nadu 50 Hubli Karnataka 2. History of Urbanisation in India When India gained independence the country s population was a mere 350 million. Since 1947, the population of India has more than tripled. In 1950, India s total fertility rate was approximately 6 (children per woman). Nonetheless, since 1952 India has worked to control its population growth. In 1983, the goal of the country s National Health Policy was to have a replacement value total fertility rate of 2.1 by the year That did not occur. In 2000, the country established a new National Population Policy to stem the growth of the country s population. One of the primary goals of the policy was to reduce the total fertility rate to 2.1 by One of the steps along the path toward the goal in 2010 was a total fertility rate of 2.6 by As the total fertility rate in India remains at the high number of 2.8, that goal was not achieved so it is highly unlikely that the total fertility rate will be 2.1 by Thus,

6 6 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks India s population will continue to grow at a rapid rate. The U.S. Census Bureau does predict a near-replacement total fertility rate of 2.2 to be achieved in India in the year India s high population growth results in increasingly impoverished and sub-standard conditions for growing segments of the Indian population. As of 2007, India ranked 126 th on the United Nations Human Development Index, which takes into account social, health, and educational conditions in a country. Population projections for India anticipate that the country s population will reach 1.5 to 1.8 billion by While only the Population Reference Bureau has published projections out to 2100, they expect India s population at the close of the twenty-first century to reach to billion. Thus, India is expected to become the first and only county on the planet that will ever reach a population of more than 2 billion (recall that China s population is likely to drop after reaching a peak of about 1.46 billion in 2030 and the U.S. isn t ever likely to see a billion). Although India has created several impressive goals to reduce its population growth rates, the India and the rest of the world has a long way to go to achieve meaningful population controls in this country with a growth rate of 1.6%, representing a doubling time of under 44 years. Now the biggest challenge for urban managers lies in managing the urban population. The growth of urban population in India is attributed to a large extent to migration factor, which is generally experienced in the initial stage of urbanisation. The growth of urbanisation during pre-independence period was slow. In the earlier part of 20 th centuary in 1901 the level of urbanisation was only 10:84% with only 25:85 million people in 1827 cities. During post-independence period the growth of urbanisation was fact. In 1951,at the starting point of planned economic development, the level was 17:29% with million. Traditional rural-urban migration exists in India as villagers seek to improve opportunities and lifestyles. In 1991, 39 million people migrated in rural-urban patterns of which 54% were female. Caste and tribe systems complicate these population movements. According to estimates 25% of the country s poor live in urban areas and about 31% of the urban population is poor. 8 Seasonal urban migration is also evident throughout India in cities like Surat where many migrants move into the city during periods of hardship and return to their native villages for events such as the harvest. Ratio of rural urban population of a country is an index of the level of industrialisation of that country. As the industries get momentum, ratio of urban population go on increasing. As India is predominantly agricultural country, ratio of urban population is less as compared to rural population. Census of 2001 reveals that about 27 per cent population i.e. about 28 crore people were living in urban areas. As against it, 74 per cent of the population i.e. 63 crore people were living in rural areas. 8 India s national census of 2001.

7 Urban Population Management 7 It implies that in the economic life of India, role of industries is relatively less. In 1901, rural population was 89.0 per cent while the urban population was 11.0 per cent. In 1921 rural population reduced to 88.8% and urban population increased to 11.2 per cent. Further in 1951 rural population was 82.8 per cent and urban population was 17.2 per cent. Moreover, in 1981 rural and urban population was recorded to be 76.7% and 23.3 per cent respectively against 74.0 per cent and 26.0 per cent in The population in rural area was 72.6 per cent while 27.4 per cent in urban areas. The population explosion table shows that in the last 100 years, percentage of urban population in the country has increased from 11 per cent to 26 per cent. It proves that in the economic life of India, role of cities has been increasing, but progress in this direction is very slow. Compared to developed countries, number of cities and the ratio of population living in urban areas are very low. Just 26 per cent of population lives in urban areas, as against 80 per cent in England, 74 per cent in USA, 72 per cent in Japan, 60 per cent in Russia and 52 per cent in France. 3. Planning for Population Management Rapid population growth in cities after exerts pressure on the existing infrastructure, housing and other basic amenities. The services required to support large concentration of population are lagging behind the pace urbanisation. Even the infrastructure facilities are not proper. The growth of urban agloration created several population of our concentration of population, problems of planning, co-ordination and development of civic amenities. Urbanisation requires a healthy local government but it is made difficult by the explosive problems of urban areas. The unplanned and unbalanced urban growth is leading to inter-regional imbalances, rural urban divisions, springing up of large slums and environmental pollution. It is also leading to social tension, depletion of resources, etc. The process of urban development has been a big challenge to planners and administration in India. Historical measures to manage population in India Historically, human population control has been implemented by limiting the population s birth rate, usually by government mandate, and has been undertaken as a response to factors including high or increasing levels of poverty, environmental concerns, religious reasons and over population. While population control can involve measures that improve people s lives by giving them greater control of their reproduction, some programmes have exposed them to exploitation. Worldwide, the population control movement was active throughout the 1960s and 1970s, driving many reproductive health and family planning programmes. In the 1980s, tension grew between population control advocates and women s health activists who advanced women s reproductive rights as part of a human rights based approach. Growing opposition to the narrow population control focus led to a significant change in population control policies in the early 1990s. In 1952, India was the first country in the world to launch a national programme, emphasizing family planning to the extent necessary for reducing birth rates to

8 8 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks stabilise the population at a level consistent with the requirement of national economy. After 1952, sharp declines in death rates were, however, not accompanied by a similar drop in birth rates. In the early 1970s, then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi had implemented a forced sterelisation programme, but failed. Officially, men with two children or more had to submit to sterilisation, but many unmarried young men, political opponents and ignorant, poor men were also believed to have been sterilised. This programme is still remembered and criticised in India, and is blamed for creating a public aversion to family planning which hampered Government programmes for decades. Contraceptive usage has been rising gradually in India. In 1970, 13% of married women used modern contraceptive methods, which rose to 35% by 1997 and 48% by The national family planning programme was launched in 1951, and was the world s first governmental population stabilisation programme. By 1996, the programme had been estimated to have averted 168 million births. The National Health Policy, 1983 stated that replacement levels of total fertility rate (TFR) should be achieved by the year In 2000, a fresh policy was formulated. National Population Policy, 2000 was formulated with the aim of stabalising population in India. It states that stabilising population is an essential requirement for promoting sustainable development with more equitable distribution. However, it is as much a function of making reproductive health care accessible and affordable for all, as of increasing the provision and outreach of primary and secondary education, extending basic amenities including sanitation, safe drinking water and housing, besides empowering women and enhancing their employment opportunities, and providing transport and communications. The National Population Policy, 2000 (NPP 2000) affirms the commitment of government towards voluntary and informed choice and consent of citizens while availing of reproductive health care services, and continuation of the target free approach in administering family planning services. The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for advancing goals and prioritising strategies during the next decade, to meet the reproductive and child health needs of the people of India, and to achieve net replacement levels (TFR) by It is based upon the need to simultaneously address issues of child survival, maternal health, and contraception, while increasing outreach and coverage of a comprehensive package of reproductive and child heath services by government, industry and the voluntary non-government sector, working in partnership. National Population Policy 2000 Objectives The immediate objective of the NPP 2000 is to address the unmet needs for contraception, health care infrastructure, and health personnel, and to provide integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health care. The medium-term objective is to bring the TFR to replacement levels by 2010, through vigorous implementation of inter-sectoral operational strategies. The longterm objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environmental protection.

9 Urban Population Management 9 The long and short term objectives of National Population Policy, 2000, are to address the unmet need for contraception, development of health care infrastructure including human resources, ensure the implementation of inter-sectoral operational strategies and achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development and environmental protection. For achieving population stabilisation as envisaged by National Population Policy (NPP), comprehensive strategies aimed at convergence of service delivery at the village level for basic health care, family planning and maternal and child health related services; and empowerment of women for accessing health and nutrition services and promotion of male participation in Family Planning are being implemented as components of the State Programme Implementation Plan under National Rural Health Mission. The following specific initiatives have been taken in pursuance of the objectives of NPP/NRHM towards population stabilisation:- Since 2005, the National Family Planning Insurance Scheme is under implementation to compensate the sterilisation acceptors for failures, complications and deaths and indemnity insurance cover to doctors; Compensation Package for Sterilisation acceptors increased in September, 2007 i.e. in Vasectomy from Rs.800/- to Rs.1500/- and tubectomy from Rs.800/- to Rs.1000/- in public facilities and a uniform amount of Rs.1500/- in accredited private health facilities for all categories in all States for vasectomy in order to promote acceptance of No Scalpel Vasectomy; Promoting IUD 380A intensively as a spacing method because of its longevity of 10 years; Promotion of Fixed day Fixed Place Family Planning Services round the year in health facilities under NRHM. The Prerna and Santushti strategy under which delayed marriage (after the legal age) among girls, proper spacing in the birth of their children and Public Private Partnership for providing family planning services are being implemented by Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh(JSK). Total Fertility rate has come down from 6.0 in 1951 to 2.6 in major States have already reached the replacement level of fertility. 12 States have TFR between 2.1 and 3.0. In the remaining nine States/UTs viz. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar; Madhya Pradesh; Rajasthan; Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Dadra & Nagar Haveli, the TFR is above 3.0. NGOs are supported by the respective State Governments under NRHM to provide service delivery in Maternal and Child Health, Family Planning, Adolescent Reproductive Health and Prevention and Management of RTI in addition to advocacy and awareness generation, in areas which are under served or not served by Government infrastructure. India needs to work on several areas to manage its urbanisation. India also needs to start a political process where the urban issues are debated with evolution of meaningful

10 10 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks solutions. The National Documentation Center (NDC) that is the an agency acting as an information resource center, which provides an access to documentation on all aspects of the subjects of health, population and family welfare etc. needs to be involved in urban population management strategies. The following areas are perhaps the most important: 1) Inclusive cities - The poor and lower income groups must be brought into the mainstream in cities. Regulations intended to manage densities and discourage migration both limit the supply of land and require many households to consume more land than they would choose. This drives urban sprawl and pushes up the price of land and the cost of service delivery for all. High standards for parking, coverage limits, setbacks, elevators, road widths, reservations for health centers, schools etc. (often not used) prevent the poor from choosing how much to consume of the costliest resource (urban land) to put a roof over their heads, and comply with legal requirements. Informality is now the only path to affordable housing for the bulk of the population in India s cities. But informality implies illegality and therefore vulnerability. While lower income groups pay dearly for shelter and services they are bereft of normal property rights protections and their investments are thus far riskier than those of the well off. They must instead depend on the good will of bureaucrats and politicians to safeguard their homes and places of business. These barriers to healthy urbanisation come not only at a high human cost, but take a toll on productivity. Chronic informality discourages the very investments in education, health and housing improvements the lower classes need to improve their own lot and contribute more to the national economy. 2) Urban governance - Meaningful reforms have to happen that enable true devolution of power and responsibilities from the states to the local and metropolitan bodies according to the 74 th Amendment. This is because by 2030, India s largest cities will be bigger than many countries today. India s urban governance of cities needs an over-haul. India s current urban governance is in sharp contrast to large cities elsewhere that have empowered mayors with long tenures and clear accountability for the city s performance. India also needs to clearly define the relative roles of its metropolitan and municipal structures for its 20 largest metropolitan areas. With cities growing beyond municipal boundaries, having fully formed metropolitan authorities with clearly defined roles will be essential for the successful management of large cities in India. 3) Funding - Devolution has to be supported by more reforms in urban financing that will reduce cities dependence on the Center and the states and unleash internal revenue sources. Consistent with most international examples, there are several sources of funding that Indian cities could tap into, to a far greater extent than today: Monetising land assets; higher collection of property taxes, user charges that reflect costs; debt and public-private partnerships (PPPs); and central/state government funding. However, internal funding alone will not be enough, even in large cities. A portion has to come from the central and state governments. Here one can use central schemes such as JNNURM and Rajiv Awas Yojana but eventually India needs to move towards a systematic formula rather than ad-hoc grants. For large cities with deep economies, this might mean allowing them to retain 20 per cent of goods and services tax (GST) revenues. This is consistent with the 13 th Central Finance Commission s assessment that GST a consumption-based tax that creates local incentives for growth and that is therefore well suited for direct allocation to the third tier of government. For smaller cities, however, a better option would be to give guaranteed annual grants.

11 Urban Population Management 11 4) Planning - India needs to make urban planning a central, respected function, investing in skilled people, rigorous fact base and innovative urban form. This can be done through a cascaded planning structure in which large cities have 40-year and 20- year plans at the metropolitan level that are binding on municipal development plans. Central to planning in any city is the optimal allocation of space, especially land use and Floor Area Ratio (FAR) planning. Both should focus on linking public transportation with zoning for affordable houses for low-income groups. These plans need to be detailed, comprehensive and enforceable. 5) Capacity building - A real step-up in the capabilities and expertise of urban local bodies will be critical to devolution and improvement of service delivery. Reforms will have to address the development of professional managers for urban management functions, who are in short supply and will be required in large numbers. New innovative approaches will have to be explored to tap into the expertise available in the private and social sectors. India needs to build technical and managerial depth in its city administrations. In the Indian Civil Services, India has a benchmark for how to build a dedicated cadre for governance. India now needs to create an equivalent cadre for cities, as well as allow for lateral entry of private-sector executives. 6) Low-income housing - Affordable housing is a particularly critical concern for lowincome groups in the absence of a viable model that caters to their needs, India can meet the challenge through a set of policies and incentives that will bridge the gap between price and affordability. This will enable a sustainable and economically viable affordable housing model for both government housing agencies and as well as private developers. India also needs to encourage rental housing as an option particularly for the poorest of the poor, who may not be able to afford a home even with these incentives. With the 74 th amendment to India s constitution and the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), India took the first steps toward urban reforms. Going forward, the central government has to play a catalytic role accompanied by a supporting package of incentives. States should recognise that starting early on the urban transformation will give them competitive advantage, attract investment, and create jobs getting them ahead of the curve. All said and done, it should not be forgotten that urbanisation is an integral part of the process of economic growth. As in most countries, India s towns and cities make a major contribution to the country s economy. With less than 1/3 of India s people, its urban areas generate over 2/3 of the country s GDP and account for 90% of government revenues. Fast Facts : Urbanisation in India 9 Most Urbanised States : Tamil Nadu 43.9%; Maharashtra 42.4%; Gujarat 37.4% 3 out of world s 21 mega cities : Mumbai (19 mill); Delhi (15 mill); Kolkata (14 mill) Large Cities : 23 in 1991; 40 in 2001 Urban Pop. : 25% of 850 mill in 1992; 28% of 1,030 mill in 2002 Estimated Urban Pop. by 2017 : 500 mill % of Urban Residents who are Poor : About 25% Slum Population : About 41 million in 2001 Estimated Slum Pop. by 2017 : 69 mill 9 World Bank.

12 12 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks 4. Challenges Posed by Increasing Urban Population Urbanisation in India has expanded rapidly as increasing numbers of people migrate to towns and cities in search of economic opportunity. Slums now account for 1/4 of all urban housing. In Mumbai, for instance, more than half the population lives in slums, many of which are situated near employment centers in the heart of town, unlike in most other developing countries. Meeting the needs of India s soaring urban populations is and will therefore continue to be a strategic policy matter. Critical issues that need to be addressed are: Poor local governance Weak finances Inappropriate planning that leads to high costs of housing and office space; in some Indian cities these costs are among the highest in the world Critical infrastructure shortages and major service deficiencies that include erratic water and power supply, and woefully inadequate transportation systems Rapidly deteriorating environment Challenges of Urban Society The rapid rate of urbanisation today in India is posing a range of challenges that has to be tactfully met by urban managers. The are: a) Planning Many urban governments lack a modern planning framework The multiplicity of local bodies obstructs efficient planning and land use Rigid master plans and restrictive zoning regulations limit the land available for building, constricting cities abilities to grow in accordance with changing needs. b) Housing Building regulations that limit urban density such as floor space indexes reduce the number of houses available, thereby pushing up property prices Outdated rent control regulations reduce the number of houses available on rent a critical option for the poor Poor access to micro finance and mortgage finance limit the ability of low income groups to buy or improve their homes Policy, planning and regulation deficiencies lead to a proliferation of slums Weak finances of urban local bodies and service providers leave them unable to expand the trunk infrastructure that housing developers need to develop new sites.

13 Urban Population Management 13 Service delivery: Most services are delivered by city governments with unclear lines of accountability There is a strong bias towards adding physical infrastructure rather than providing financially and environmentally sustainable services Service providers are unable to recover operations and maintenance costs and depend on the government for finance Independent regulatory authorities that set tariffs, decide on subsidies, and enforce service quality are generally absent. Infrastructure: Most urban bodies do not generate the revenues needed to renew infrastructure, nor do they have the creditworthiness to access capital markets for funds Urban transport planning needs to be more holistic there is a focus on moving vehicles rather than meeting the needs of the large numbers of people who walk or ride bicycles in India s towns and cities. Environment: The deteriorating urban environment is taking a toll on people s health and productivity and diminishing their quality of life. 5. A Few Case Studies: Best Practices/Projects In our previous units we have already read about the policies existing at national level to tackle urban challenges. Let us now examine some good policies/projects designed at a local level by different States in India. There are many States in India that have come up with models or projects that aim at supporting policy reforms in critical areas such as land use planning and municipal finance, as well as institutional reforms. Some such projects are as follows: 1) Karnataka Municipal Reform Project: Karnataka is one of India s most rapidly urbanising states; its capital city of Bangalore is known as the Silicon Valley of India. Enormous growth in business opportunities, as well as rising urban populations and incomes has led to strong demand for better infrastructure and services. The objective of the Karnataka Municipal Reform Project for India is to help improve the delivery of urban services through enhancing the quality of urban infrastructure, and strengthening the institutional and financial frameworks for urban services at the Urban Local Bodies (ULB) and state levels. There are four components to the project, the first component being institutional development; the second component is the municipal investment support; the third component is the Bangalore development; finally, the fourth component is the project management.

14 14 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks The changes aimed at include: i) a reduction in the scope of activities (Institutional Development for land management and planning) and (municipal investment support); including modification to three of the related indicators within the results framework; ii) re-definition of the scope of activities related to greater Bangalore sewerage related interventions under Bangalore development component; iii) minor re-allocation of expected loan savings across components aggregating US$ 3.97 million, and changes to disbursement percentages and broadened definitions across some of the disbursement categories; and iv) revised disbursement projections. 2) The Third Tamil Nadu Urban Development Project (TNUDP III) The TNUDP III aims to help to improve civic services in the state. It aims at improving the delivery of urban services through enhancing the quality of urban infrastructure and strengthening the institutional and financial framework. The Project consists of two complementary components: Component 1)- Provide support for management improvements and institutional changes, including provision of goods, technical assistance, workshops and staff training to support the implementation and sustainability of urban policy reforms, organisational performance and urban services delivery. Component 2)- Aim at developing sustainable urban investments such as water supply, waste water collection, solid waste management, storm water drains, roads and common facilities such as transportation networks, and sanitation facilities, based on demand driven investment plans developed by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). 3) Andhra Pardesh Urban Reform and Municipal Services Project - The objective of the Andhra Pradesh (AP) Municipal Development Project for India is to help improve urban services in AP, and the capacity of urban local bodies (ULBs) of AP to sustain and expand urban services. The project consists of three technical assistance and one investment components: 1) state level policy and institutional development support aims at improving the state s policy and institutional framework to support service delivery and capacity building by ULBs; 2) municipal capacity enhancement aims at enhancing the financial and technical capacity and operating systems of all ULBs (currently 126); 3) urban infrastructure investment to finance sustainable, high-priority investments identified by ULBs to improve urban services or operational efficiency. To be eligible, ULBs need adequate financial capacity to sustainably finance and operate the facilities and an adequate and feasible plan to improve their financial and management capacity; and 4) project management technical assistance aims at ensuring the quality of subproject preparation, implementation and monitoring.

15 Urban Population Management Conclusion Urbanisation is not a side effect of economic growth; it is an integral part of the process. As in most countries, India s urban areas make a major contribution to the country s economy. Indian cities contribute to about 2/3 of the economic output, host a growing share of the population and are the main recipients of FDI and the originators of innovation and technology and over the next two decades are projected to have an increase of population from 282 million to 590 million people. India s towns and cities have expanded rapidly as increasing numbers migrate to towns and cities in search of economic opportunity. Hence accompanying India s rapid economic growth will be a fundamental shift in terms of a massive urban transformation, possibly the largest national urban transformation of the 21 st century. This would pose unprecedented challenges to India s growing cities and towns in providing housing and infrastructure (water, sewerage, transportation, etc.), and addressing slums. Already, slums now account for about 26% of all urban population in cities. In Mumbai, more than half the population lives in slums, many of which are situated near employment centers in the heart of town, unlike in most other cities in developing countries. This would also entail massive capital investment needs in urban infrastructure India, as highlighted by various Finance Commissions and expert bodies. For instance, the Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services by the High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC) on urban projects an investment requirement of over US$ 870 billion over the next 20 year period. Similarly a Mckinsey study on Indian urbanisation projects an investment need of US$ 1.2 trillion over a similar period. Meeting the needs of India s soaring urban populations is and will continue to be a strategic policy matter for various national, state and city governments. Promoting an efficient urbanisation process in India will require a set of policies that will deal with land policies and basic needs, connective infrastructure and specific interventions. India also needs well managed cities with high quality services. Water supply and sanitation, urban transport and urban drainage are key local services to ensure the quality of living and sustained growth. Sustained energy supply, and affordable serviced land are services that are essential for the development of the economy. 7. References and Recommended Readings Government of India and United Nations Development Programme, 2002, Successful Governance Initiatives and Best Practices: Experiences from Indian States, Planning Commission, GoI and Human DevelopmentResource Centre, UNDP. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), 1995, National Family Health Survey India , National and various State Reports, Mumbai. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and ORC Macro, 2000, National Family Health Survey India , National and various State Reports, Mumbai. Mahbub ul Haq Human Development Centre, Various Years, Human Development in South Asia, Oxford University Press, Karachi.

16 16 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks Misra, Rajiv, Rachel Chatterjee, Sujatha Rao, 2003, India Health Report, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Prabhu, K. Seeta, and R. Sudarshan, 2002, Reforming India s Social Sector: Poverty Nutrition, Health and Education. Social Science Press, New Delhi. Sen, Abhijit and Himanshu, 2004, Poverty and Inequality in India, Economic and Political Weekly, 39(38). Sen, Amartya, 1999, Health in Development, Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, WHO, Geneva, 77(8).

17 Urban Population Management 17 UNIT 8 URBAN HEALTH AND SANITATION Contents Page No. 1. Introduction Policies Pertaining to Public Health and Sanitation Schemes on Health and Sanitation Priority Areas in Health and Sanitation Role of Education and Health Services References and Recommended Readings Introduction The urban population in India is expected to increase to more than 550 million by Currently, a sizable proportion of the population in most Indian cities lives in slum areas. The urban poor often face health threats that closely resemble the risk faced in rural areas.they can adopt pattern of health seeking behaviour that are hardly distinguishable from those of rural villages and the health services to which the urban poor have access can be little better in terms of quality than those located in rural areas. Today the urban settings of the wealthy nations were largely associated with opportunity, accumulation of wealth and better health than their rural counterparts. In the twenty-first century, demographic changes, globalisation and climate change are having important health consequences on wealthy nations and especially on low- and middle-income countries. The increasing concentration of poverty and significant inequalities between urban neighbourhoods and the physical and social environments in cities are important determinants of population health. It is important to identify the priority problems and outline solutions that can generate and sustain healthy urban environments. As per the statistics compiled by UN, if urbanisation continues at the present rate in India, the 46% of total population will live in urban areas by While JNURM is beginning to tackle urban infrastructure issues, urban health issues need immediate attention, especially in the context of urban poor. Another interlinked issue is urban sanitation. Sanitation is defined as safe disposal of human excreta including its safe confinement treatment disposal and associated hygiene practices. Sanitation is also depends on other elements like environmental sanitation along with the management of drinking water supply. The urban growth lead to an increase in the pollution levels and exposes population to serious environmental health hazards. Environmental pollution in urban areas is associated with excessive morbidity and mortality. Overcrowding and inadequate housing contribute to pollution related diseases such as respiratory diseases, acute water borne diseases, tuberculosis, meningitis and various other diseases. The solid waste generation in cities has increased from 6 million tonnes (mts) in 1947 to 48 mts in 1997 and is expected to increase to 300 mts by The average waste collection in Indian cities is, however, 72 per cent. Till recently medical wastes were also deposited and mixed with municipal waste collection. Monitoring of the urban environment in selected cities in recent years by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has identified 24 critically polluted areas in the country (10 th Five Year Plan).

18 18 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks 2. Policies Pertaining to Public Health and Sanitation By 2001, India s urban population had reached 286 million (the second largest national urban population in the world) and projections suggest it will have reached 358 million by India also has among the world s largest urban population with below poverty line incomes and the world s largest population living in slums. In , 80.8 million urban dwellers (25.6 per cent) were below the poverty line and the largest concentrations of urban poor populations were in Maharashtra (14.6 million), Uttar Pradesh (11.7 million) and Madhya Pradesh (7.4 million), and Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (each with between million). This is also likely to be an underestimate, for reasons discussed later. The 2001 census recorded 42.6 million people living in slums but, as discussed above, this too is likely to be an underestimate. Until recently, urban health and sanitation was not the main focus of public health policies, since the majority of the population lived in rural areas. It was often assumed that the heavy concentration of health facilities and personnel in urban areas, particularly in the private sector, would automatically take care of the increasing urban population and its health needs. During the Fifth Plan ( ), policy-makers started to address health alongside other development programs. The Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) promised to address all this but became an instrument through which only health infrastructure in the rural areas was to be expanded and further strengthened. It called for integration of peripheral staff of vertical programmes but the population control programmes got further impetus during the Emergency ( ) and most of the basic health workers got sucked into the family planning programmes. The Chaddha Committee Report (1963), the Kartar Singh Committee Report on Multipurpose Workers (1974) and the Srivastava Committee Report on Medical Education and Support Manpower (1975) remained focused on giving recommendations on how the health cadres at the primary level should be distributed. With the widespread disillusionment with vertical programmes worldwide and the need to provide universal health services came the Primary Health Care Declaration at Alma Ata in 1978, which India was a signatory to. The Sixth Plan ( ) was influenced by two policy documents: the Alma Ata Declaration and the ICMR/ICSSR report on Health for All by The ICMR/ICSSR Report (1980) was in fact a move towards articulating a national health policy that was thought of as an important step to realise the Alma Ata Declaration. It was realised that one had to redefine and rearticulate and get back into track an integrated and comprehensive health system that policy-makers had wavered from. It reiterated the need to integrate the development of the health system with the overall plans of socio-economic and political change. The National Health Policy, 1983 attempted to incorporate all these. Provision of universal, comprehensive primary health services was its goal. The Seventh Plan ( ) restated that the rural health programmes and the threetier health services system need to be strengthened and that the government had to make up for the deficiencies in personnel, equipment and facilities.

19 Urban Health and Sanitation 19 The Eighth Plan ( ) distinctly encouraged private initiatives, private hospitals, clinics and suitable returns from tax incentives. With the beginning of structural adjustment programmes and cuts in social sectors, excessive importance was given to vertical programmes such as those for the control of AIDS, tuberculosis, polio and malaria funded by multilateral agencies with specified objectives and conditions attached. Both the Ninth ( ) and the Tenth Five-Year Plans ( ) start with a dismal picture of the health services infrastructure and go on to say that it is important to invest more on building good primary-level care and referral services. Even courts on various occasions have declared in unequivocal terms that maintenance of health, preservation of sanitation falls within the purview of Article 21 of the Constitution as it adversely affects the life of the citizen and it amounts to slow poisoning and reducing the life of the citizen because of the hazards created, if not checked. The court have also declared that it is a primary, mandatory and obligatory duty of the municipal corporations/ councils to remove rubbish, filth, night soil or any noxious or offensive matter. The Pollution Boards and its officers have a basic duty under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to stop unauthorised movement and/or disposal of the waste. They are also empowered to take action against erring industries and persons. In Virendar Gaur v. State of Haryana and in many other cases, the Supreme Court has time and again declared that right to life under Article 21 encompasses right to live with human dignity, quality of life and decent environment. Thus, pollution free environment and proper sanitary condition in cities and towns, without which life cannot be enjoyed, is an integral facet of right to life. 1 It is obvious that effective policies for poverty reduction depend on the availability of good data on who is poor and the nature of their deprivation. The data are needed not only for national populations but also for states, rural and urban populations and cities. Many comparisons of health-related deprivation are made between rural and urban areas, but far less attention has been given to identifying the range of health-related deprivation within urban populations. Estimates as to the proportion of the urban population in India that faces deprivation can be drawn from three different data sets. The first is based on expenditure on consumption goods, from which a poverty line is derived. Official statistics suggest that around 24 per cent of India s urban population was poor in 2001, with an expenditure on consumption goods below the poverty line of Rs 454 per month. 2 Estimates for , with some revisions in the methodology for setting the poverty line, suggested 25.7 per cent. 3 But there are worries that the poverty line is set too low in relation to the costs of non-food needs in many urban areas, especially in successful cities where the costs of non-food needs are particularly high. The second is based on housing conditions (e.g. the proportion living or not living in slums). But this depends on accurate and complete surveys. Official statistics on the proportion of the population living in slums are known to be inaccurate for many cities in India because they do not include unaccounted for and unrecognised informal settlements Solid Waste Management An Indian Legal Profile by Prof. Satish. C. Sastri. GOI (2001), Poverty estimates for , Planning Commission, New Delhi, accessed 31 December at planningcommission.gov.in/ hindi/reports/articles/ncsxna/ index.php?repts=ar_pvrty.htm. Government of India (2009), Report of the expert group to review the methodology for estimation of poverty, Planning Commission, New Delhi.

20 20 Other Urban Regulatory Frameworks and people residing in poor quality housing in inner-city areas, on construction sites, in urban fringe areas and on pavements. For instance, a study in Indore showed that there were 438 officially recognised slums but a process of mapping found an additional 101 slums. Official statistics suggest that of Indore s 1.5 million inhabitants in 2001, 261,000 lived in slums (17.7 per cent of Indore s population). If a more realistic estimate of the slum population of the city is considered, including the population in the additional 101 slums, more than 40 per cent of Indore s population lives in slums/urban poor settlements. 4 In Delhi, the 2001 census estimated an urban slum population of 1.85 million, which was 18.7 per cent of Delhi s urban population. But if full account is taken of unauthorised settlements, including jhuggi jhodpi clusters (squatter settlements), slum-designated areas (slums recognised by the government, many of which are in the walled city), unauthorised colonies and jhuggi jhodpi resettlement colonies (squatter resettlement colonies), these are estimated to have a population of 9.84 million in 2011 and thus represent more than half of Delhi s total population, which is estimated to be 19 million in A further 100,000 people are homeless and reside on pavements, under bridges and by the roadside; many are rickshaw pullers and casual workers. 6 Thus, any statistic on slum population for a city or state has to be viewed with caution, as it may only include settlements that have been officially classified as slums or notified slums. As a large proportion of low-income urban clusters are informal or illegal, they are not part of official slum lists and hence are often not part of the public authorities mandate to provide basic services such as drainage, water, sanitation and health care. According to National Sample Survey 58 th Round (2002), 49.4 per cent of slums were non-notified. Another reason for the undercount of India s slum population was that in the 2001 census, data on slums were only collected for urban centers with 50,000+ inhabitants; the total slum population in India would be higher if the census had covered all urban centers. Data from the 2001 census showed that many urban centers in India had more than one-quarter of their population in slums, including some with more than 40 per cent and a few with more than one-half. The third set of estimates on urban deprivation in India is based on a wealth index constructed from data in the National Family Health Survey This allows the urban population to be classified according to their wealth, based on an index that includes consideration of 33 assets and housing characteristics. 7 This allows comparisons between the poorest quartile of the population calculated using this wealth index and the rest of the population Taneja, S and S Agarwal (2004), Situational Analysis for Guiding USAID/EHP India s Technical Assistance Efforts in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India, Environmental Health Project Activity Report 133, Washington DC. Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (2006), Economic Survey of Delhi , Planning Department, page 364; also Bhan, Gautam (2009), This is no longer the city I once knew; evictions, the urban poor and the right to the city in Millennial Delhi, Environment and Urbanization Vol 21, No 1, April, pages Agarwal, S, A Srivastava, B Choudhary and S Kaushik (2007), State of Urban Health in Delhi, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India and Urban Health Resource Centre, Delhi, page 14. These include a range of housing characteristics (including electrification, type of windows, drinking water source, type of toilet facility, flooring, roofing and exterior walls materials, cooking fuel, house ownership) and a range of assets (including ownership of a mattress, chair, cot/ bed, table, electric fan, radio, television, sewing machine, mobile or other phone, computer, fridge, watch or clock, bicycle or motorcycle).