Leaving the Land of Opportunity: Arkansas and the Great Migration
|
|
- Arabella Gladys Richards
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Leaving the Land of Opportunity: Arkansas and the Great Migration DONALD HOLLEY BETWEEN 1930 AND 1970, almost fifteen million Americans left their homes and farms to seek new opportunities in other states, one of the largest population movements in American history. 1 When popular literature and television documentaries describe this migration, the story usually involves black migrants who ride the Illinois Central out of the Mississippi Delta in a desperate escape from the malevolent effects of the mechanical cotton picker. 2 Yet this population movement involved more white migrants than black, and they headed to destinations all over the country. These migrants were searching for better jobs rather than fleeing mechanization. Arkansas s role in the Great Migration has been a closely guarded secret, or just ignored. Perhaps because migrants made a statement about Arkansas that is unsettling, most Arkansas historians have paid little attention to their leaving, though the migration was the largest domestic event of World-War-II-era and postwar Arkansas. C. Calvin Smith s study of Arkansas during World War II focuses on economic hardship and injustice and criticizes the failure of the state government to address these issues. By neglecting to mention migration, he ignores what people themselves did to better their lives. For all its encyclopedic coverage, Michael Dougan s Arkansas Odyssey makes only casual references to migration and twentieth- 1 U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), Series C 59, pp This is the total for migration nationwide. In this essay, migration refers in most cases to out-migration. 2 Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How it Changed America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991). See, however, Donald Holley, The Second Great Emancipation: The Mechanical Cotton Picker, Black Migration, and How They Shaped the Modern South (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2000). Donald Holley is professor of history at the University of Arkansas at Monticello. He is the author of Uncle Sam s Farmers: The New Deal Communities of the Lower Mississippi Valley (1976) and The Second Great Emancipation: The Mechanical Cotton Picker, Black Migration, and How They Shaped the Modern South (2000). An earlier version of this essay won the Arkansas Historical Association s Violet B. Gingles Award for THE ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY VOL. LXIV, NO. 3, AUTUMN 2005
2 246 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY century population changes. The textbook Arkansas: A Narrative History, by Jeannie Whayne, Thomas DeBlack, George Sabo, and Morris Arnold, does not even include the terms migration or population in the index, surely an indication of perceived lack of importance. 3 Other historians have treated migration at somewhat greater length. S. Charles Bolton has, in an essay, briefly commented on population losses during World War II and their effect on the state s economic development. In Arkansas in Modern America, Ben Johnson declares, The state s most dramatic net loss was its people, thereby placing migration more firmly within the framework of Arkansas history. Brooks Blevins s Hill Folks presents a valuable discussion of migration both into and out of the Arkansas Ozarks, showing how population changes shaped the region. 4 Yet we still lack a comprehensive treatment of migration s impact on the state as a whole. Migration represents one of the most enduring forces shaping Arkansas history. Pioneers emigrating mostly from Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia settled the state in the first half of the nineteenth century. 5 After the Civil War, Arkansas continued to gain population from in-migration. The state government, planters, and railroads encouraged settlement during this period, soliciting people from as far away as China, Germany, and Italy. 6 Unfortunately, good land soon ran out, leaving many of the state s rural areas overpopulated in relation to arable soil. The earliest out-migration, beginning in the 1890s, was in part a response to this fundamental problem. Population losses continued in the first two decades of the twentieth century. In the 1920s, Arkansas lost almost 200,000 people, a record high to that point. Migration slowed slightly during the depressed 1930s, but by the 1940s, when the national economy shifted to war production, the 3 C. Calvin Smith, War and Wartime Changes: The Transformation of Arkansas, (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1986); Michael B. Dougan, Arkansas Odyssey: The Saga of Arkansas from Prehistoric Times to the Present (Little Rock: Rose Publishing, 1994), 462, 476, ; Jeannie M. Whayne et al., Arkansas: A Narrative History (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2002). 4 S. Charles Bolton, Turning Point: World War II and the Economic Development of Arkansas, Arkansas Historical Quarterly 61 (Summer 2002): ; Ben F. Johnson III, Arkansas in Modern America, (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2000), 48-49, 52-53, 79, 116 (quotation), 189; Brooks Blevins, Hill Folks: A History of Arkansas Ozarkers and Their Image (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), , Robert B. Walz, Migration into Arkansas, : Incentives and Means of Travel, Arkansas Historical Quarterly 17 (Winter 1958): , is a pioneering study of the subject. 6 Kenneth C. Barnes, Who Killed John Clayton? Political Violence and the Emergence of the New South, (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 43-46; Jeannie M. Whayne, ed., Shadows over Sunnyside: An Arkansas Plantation in Transition (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1993).
3 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 247 migration stream that had previously been a steady leak turned into a torrential flood. Arkansas, in fact, lost population in every decade between 1890 and Still, migration remains one of the most under-researched topics in the state s past. We do not know much at all about these twentieth-century migrants: where they went, why they left, who they were, what kind of work they did, or what impact their departure had on their native state. Indeed, we have overlooked migration s impact on postwar agriculture, politics, and even civil rights. At the height of the migration, observers of the Arkansas scene were alarmed at the state s population losses. In 1940, University of Arkansas rural economist William H. Metzler accurately identified the problem that the state faced even as the Depression was ending. Our major problem is in agriculture, he declared in a prophetic statement. He continued: A study of the ratio of farm population to agricultural resources in the state indicates that we have from 350,000 to 500,000 more people in the farm areas of the state than can be supported at a desirable standard of living. Farm resources can be expanded but not enough to take care of them. These people will gradually be forced to migrate either to cities and towns or to other states. Metzler stated flatly, In relation to developed resources Arkansas is one of the most over-populated states in the Union. In 1935 there was an average of only 24 acres in crops to support each farm family in the state. Contrast this with the average of 48 acres in crops for each family in the United States, 76 acres per family in Illinois, 86 in Iowa, 147 in Nebraska, and 238 in North Dakota. As a result, Arkansas farmers were not making an adequate living, earning a per capita annual income of $185, compared to $503 for town people. The problem, Metzler added, was not lack of productivity of the soil but the fact that too many people are trying to make a living from the existing land in cultivation. A study of migration over the following decade seemed to confirm Metzler s argument, showing the largest losses continuing to occur in the rural population. 8 7 Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, William H. Metzler, Population Movement in Arkansas, Arkansas Gazette Sunday Magazine, April 7 (first quotation), 14 (second and third quotations), 21, 1940; Metzler, Population Trends and Adjustments in Arkansas, Bulletin No. 388 (Fayetteville: Agricultural Experiment Station, May 1940); James D. Tarver, Changes in Arkansas Population, Report Series 21 (Fayetteville: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1950). Also see Holley, Second Great Emancipation, 29-33; Carl H. Moneyhon, Arkansas and the New South, (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1997),
4 248 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY In the 1950s, the national magazine Business Week pointedly asked, Why do Arkansans vanish? It was a valid question, and the answer was easy the lack of well-paying jobs. Arkansas s most significant export was not lumber, cotton, or bauxite, but people. According to Business Week, many shrugged off population losses by saying, We re just getting rid of our sub-marginal people who have been displaced by machines on the farm. But, as the magazine asserted, while the greatest loss was in farm population, the decline was heavier among the state s more prosperous, better-educated farmers than among sharecroppers and farm laborers. Young people from higher-income farm families were more ambitious and had greater expectations than others, the magazine argued. They tended to migrate more than any other group. There s nothing for me back home, one young migrant was quoted as saying. They are talking about a new factory, but I don t think they ll get it. I don t think any college graduates have ever come back to town since I can remember. 9 In reaching these conclusions, Business Week cited information from the Arkansas Industrial Development Commission, created in 1955 as a specific response to the job shortage that continued to embarrass the state. 10 Two economists, Phillips Brown and John Peterson, returned to this subject in They found that most Arkansas migrants, like those from other states, were young adults and very young children, and most of them came from rural areas. During the 1950s, according to their figures, Arkansas lost 27.6 percent of its rural population. People have generally left their farm homes because they have seen opportunities to earn a better living elsewhere, they concluded. The state simply lacked non-farm job opportunities to absorb the large numbers of people reared on and leaving Arkansas farms. 11 These studies offered worthwhile insights into the source of the migration, as well as its driving force, even as Arkansans were leaving the state. Unfortunately, research on Arkansas migration did not continue. The Great Migration has been explored in general works, but no fulllength scholarly study has been devoted to Arkansas s role Why Do Arkansans Vanish? Business Week, April 12, 1958, pp. 96 (first quotation), 98 (second quotation). 10 Arkansas: State Perked Up by Rockefeller, Business Week, December 22, 1956, pp ; Johnson, Arkansas in Modern America, Phillips H. Brown and John M. Peterson, The Exodus from Arkansas, Arkansas Economist 2 (Winter 1960): Chad Berry, Southern Migrants, Northern Exiles (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000); Jack Temple Kirby, The Southern Exodus, : A Primer for Historians, Journal of Southern History 49 (November 1983):
5 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 249 Despite this lack of scholarly work, good estimates for Arkansas outmigration have been available for more than twenty-five years in a basic census publication, Historical Statistics of the United States. 13 These estimates suggest that Arkansas lost over 1.2 million people between 1920 and The migrants were predominatly white, totaling one in five white residents between 1940 and 1960; but black migration was proportionately heavier, consisting of as much as a third of the statewide black population in the 1940s and 1950s, and almost as much again in the 1960s. These numbers are staggering. If those people had remained in the state, Arkansas s population might be as high as 3.9 million today, instead of the 2.7 million counted in This migration was not, of course, a movement that flowed in one direction. Hotel Arkansas was definitely not a reverse Hotel California, where migrants could check out anytime they liked but could never check in. In other words, while people were leaving, migrants from other states were moving into Arkansas. By 1960, 417,157 natives of states like Mississippi, Texas, and Missouri had adopted Arkansas as their home. 15 These people made up more than a fifth (23.3 percent) of the state s population. So Arkansas gained as well as lost migrants, but it experienced a net loss of people because more of its inhabitants left the state than it gained from other states and from natural increase. The use of migration estimates can be frustrating because they seem to vary widely. Demographers use two distinct methods for making estimates, and these methods produce highly dissimilar results. 16 According to the more conservative survivor ratio method, for example, the census bureau reported that over 320,000 people left Arkansas during the 1940s, or about 16.4 percent of the population (table 1). Using the components 13 Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, The total migration between 1920 and 1970 is found by adding the estimated losses of 191,300 between 1920 and 1930 and 128,800 between 1930 and 1940 and 919,000 between 1940 and 1970 (table 1). 15 Based on analysis of Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS), 1960 microdata sample. See note As a technique for calculating the percentage of people who survive over ten-year periods, the survivor ratio method is based on the assumption that national survivor ratios apply to individual states. For example, if the survivor ratio in the U.S. between the 1950 and 1960 censuses was 0.95, then multiplying the 1950 Arkansas population by 0.95 would yield how many people were expected to survive to the 1960 census. Thus, if the 1960 Arkansas population was less than the projected number, people who were missing were defined as migrants. The components of change method requires data on births and deaths, which are not available for Arkansas until This method calculates net migration by subtracting the natural increase (births minus deaths) from net change between, for example, the 1950 and 1960 censuses. For further explanation, see Everett S. Lee et al., Population Redistribution and Economic Growth: United States, (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1957), 1:
6 250 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY of change method, which always produces higher but arguably more accurate estimates, Arkansas lost 415,000 people or over 21.3 percent of its population in the same decade (table 1). The two estimates differ by 95,000 people, a rather large discrepancy. Still, by whatever method is used, the 1940s and 1950s recorded the state s highest population losses. Table 1: Arkansas Net Migration, , Based on Two Estimation Methods Total Survivor Ratio Total Migrants Percentage White Percentage Black Percentage Components of Change Total Migrants Percentage White Percentage Black Percentage indicates that data is not available Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), Series C 59, pp Percent refers to the migrants percentage of the statewide population (either total, white, or black). Foreign-born white migrants were omitted because of their small numbers. As a result, adding white and black migrants may not equal total migrants.
7 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 251 Arkansas lost a greater proportion of its African-American population than its white population as a result of the Great Migration. Courtesy Butler Center for Arkansas Studies, Central Arkansas Library System. Published migration estimates usually cover full decades rather than more limited periods. But we need to know more about migration during the four years of World War II. The existence of defense jobs elsewhere was clearly important in stimulating migration, but how important? Did the migration halt after the war? In order to address these questions, I used an annual estimate of the state s population, as well as reported birth and death data, to calculate annual variations in Arkansas migration. 17 As expected, the annual estimates showed that migration has been correctly associated with World War II, during which 150,000 people left the state. But the largest out-migration did not occur until the late 1940s, after the war was over (table 2). After people had experienced better circumstances during the war, they did not intend to return to life as it had been. As it turned out, then, migration did not depend on the war as its driving force. Indeed, Arkansas lost people during the early 1950s at a slightly 17 I first determined the state s annual natural increase (births minus deaths), added it to the current population, and then subtracted the total from the next reported (or estimated) population to calculate net migration. For example, Arkansas s 1950 population was 1,909,511. The state s natural increase that year was 36,419 (51,830 births minus 15,411 deaths), yielding a total of 1,945,930. Since the estimated population for 1951 is 1,901,000, there are 44,930 (1,901,000 minus 1,945,930) people who are expected but not present in the state. They are defined as migrants. The source for state data is Arkansas Statistical Abstract (Little Rock: State Data Center, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, ).
8 252 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY higher rate than during the 1940s. Over the ten years between 1946 and 1955, more than a half million people caught their last glimpse of Arkansas in their rearview mirrors. The year of the heaviest migration was 1948, when the state lost nearly 104,000 people. Nothing could have been more ironic: the state s migration peaked between 1951 and 1955, just as Arkansas officially adopted the Land of Opportunity as its nickname. By the late 1950s, the population movement lost momentum as the state s economy improved. Table 2: Arkansas Population Losses in Five-Year Periods, Population Losses , , , , , ,807 Source: Arkansas Statistical Abstract (Little Rock: State Data Center, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, ). Estimation Method: Components of Change. Arkansas s population losses can be compared with those of other states (table 3). In the 1940s, Arkansas experienced the third largest population loss among all forty-eight states (Oklahoma was first, and Mississippi ran a close second). Over 21.3 percent of its population left, a startling one in every five people. In the 1950s, Arkansas s out-migration percentage increased to 22.7 and ranked second, trailing slightly behind West Virginia, which lost 23.2 percent. Over the two decades from 1940 and 1960, Mississippi s population losses exceeded Arkansas s by 18,000. No state, however, lost a greater proportion of its people than did Arkansas over this period. Arkansas s loss averaged 22.0 percent per decade during these twenty years. The total out-migration from the eleven states that lost the most people was 6,594,000; so about 15 percent of those participating in this huge population movement came from Arkansas. However we measure it, Arkansas played a leading role in the Great Migration.
9 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 253 Table 3: Migration Losses, Arkansas and Selected States, (1,000s) 1940s Percent 1950s Percent Totals Average loss (Percent) Arkansas Mississippi North Dakota West Virginia Oklahoma South Dakota Kentucky South Carolina North Carolina Georgia Pennsylvania Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), Series C 59, pp Estimation Method: Components of Change. These figures indicate the magnitude of this migration, but they do not tell us anything about the migrants themselves. According to the research of Metzler and others, most migrants were young people from high-income farm families, but we need to learn more. The opportunity to do so became available with the 1997 release of the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series by the University of Minnesota (often called the IPUMS microdata samples). 18 The data consist of samples drawn from the manuscript census schedules. These samples 18 Steven Ruggles et al., Integrated Public Use Microdata Series: Version 2.0 (Minneapolis: Historical Census Projects, University of Minnesota, 1997). This data may be downloaded from
10 254 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY cover thirteen censuses from 1850 to 1990, with the exception of the 1890 and the 1930 censuses. A fire consumed the former, and coders are currently working on the latter. Microdata focus on the smallest units. They are samples of households but contain detailed demographic information about individuals living within those households. Microdata are far superior to historical census data that are available in aggregated tables for states and, in some cases, counties. Without the manuscript schedules, which are currently unavailable after 1920, there is no way to focus on individuals. Microdata also make it possible to examine data from across the entire United States for a given census. 19 Using the IPUMS data extraction system, researchers can create sets of data tailored to their particular interests. Then they can analyze their data with programs like Statistical Analysis System or Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. I chose to study the 1950, 1960, and 1970 samples because they cover the period when migration was heaviest. I extracted a dataset that included individuals who were born in Arkansas but who resided in any state except Arkansas. These persons were defined as migrants. Since the IPUMS microdata include all the detail originally recorded in the census schedules, each person in the sample is identified by state of residence, birthplace, age, sex, race, family size, rural or urban residence, education, and income. Thus the depth of information is remarkable. We can know where migrants moved, i.e., to what states. We can find out if their new residence was rural or urban, what jobs they held, as well as their income and socioeconomic status. We can also know the educational level they achieved. Since the samples are weighted, we can estimate how many people each sampled person represents. Though the possibilities are not endless, the microdata contain a wealth of information never before available. IPUMS microdata samples revealed, first of all, that the most popular destination for Arkansas migrants in the 1940s and 1950s was California, followed by three adjacent states, Texas, Oklahoma, and Missouri (table 4). But every state on the west coast made the list of the top twenty most popular destinations, along with most of the industrial states of the Midwest. By multiplying each person in the sample by the number of 19 For discussion of microdata in the study of migration, see James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora and the Urban Dispossessed: Demonstrating the Census Public Use Microdata Samples, Journal of American History 82 (June 1995): ; Robert Adelman, Chris Morett, and Stewart E. Tolnay, Homeward Bound: The Return Migration of Southern-Born Black Women, 1940 to 1990, Sociological Spectrum 20 (no. 4, 2000): ; Stewart E. Tolnay, The Great Migration Gets Underway: A Comparison of Black Southern Migrants and Non-Migrants in the North, 1920, Social Science Quarterly 82 (June 2001):
11 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 255 people that individual represented in the population, for example, we find that in ,004 Arkansas natives lived in California. Table 4: Top Twenty Destinations of Arkansas Migrants, 1960 State of Residence Number of Migrants California 313,004 Texas 173,535 Oklahoma 131,108 Missouri 127,280 Illinois 103,226 Michigan 72,987 Louisiana 53,855 Tennessee 47,319 Kansas 41,949 Indiana 29,884 Arizona 27,807 Washington 26,595 Ohio 23,890 Oregon 21,301 Florida 19,227 Mississippi 19,018 Colorado 15,948 New Mexico 15,942 Alabama 10,160 New York 9,867 Source: Analysis of IPUMS microdata samples. The number of migrants is the cumulative total of persons born in Arkansas living in these states in 1960.
12 256 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY This is just the beginning. An analysis of 1950, 1960, and 1970 microdata samples reveals not only characteristics of the migrants but also enables us to compare them with non-migrant Arkansans. 20 Migrants and non-migrants were about the same average age, with migrants having slightly smaller family size than non-migrants (table 5). Whites made up four of every five migrants, blacks one in five. Females slightly outnumbered males in all categories. The most marked contrast between migrants and non-migrants was their income. We must interpret reported income with caution since many migrants (mostly children) had no income to report, but the contrast is still striking. In 1950, migrants reported an average annual income that was 58 percent higher than the average income non-migrants earned. Migrants total income was 23 percent higher (table 5, part A). By 1960, after a decade of heavy migration, the gap between migrants and non-migrants showed increasing advantages in income for those who hit the road. Their average income was more than 50 percent higher than those who stayed at home (table 5, part B). Migrants were more than twice as likely to earn an annual income of more than $5,000 an amount that equals almost $30,000 today, or about $10,000 higher than the state s current per capita income. 21 By 1970, when the migrants were in their peak earning years, they reported an average annual income of $4,038, compared to $2,900 for nonmigrants. The mean income for migrants had increased 62 percent since Their total reported income was two and a half times higher than non-migrants. Between the 1960 and 1970, the number of migrants who reported earning $5,000 or more doubled (table 5). These figures confirm that the major motive for leaving was to seek better jobs. Between push and pull motives, pull predominated the pull of more money and a better life. Did migration pay off for the migrants? Clearly it did. The migrants were looking for the money, and they found it. Another indicator of social and economic success is the Duncan Socioeconomic Index (SEI), a constructed variable that measures occupational status based upon the income level and educational attainment associated with each occupation. 22 In 1950, migrants socioeconomic status exceeded that of natives by 22.6 percent. Ten years later, the SEI index for both 20 For non-migrants, I selected a sample of persons residing in Arkansas, regardless of where they were born. 21 U.S Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 2004), 434. For converting the value of money, see the Economic History Service s website, 22 O. D. Duncan, A Socioeconomic Index for All Occupations, in Occupations and Social Status, ed. A. Reiss et al. (New York: Free Press, 1961),
13 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 257 groups was higher, but migrants exceeded non-migrants by 17.1 percent. The 1970 data show the gap narrowing to 13.2 percent. Table 5: Migrants and Non-Migrants, Selected Characteristics, 1950, 1960, and 1970 Censuses Migrants Non-Migrants Part A, 1950 Average Age Average Family Size Average Annual Income $1,342 $849 Total Income $4,206,696 $3,430,544 Income over $5,000 (number) Income over $5,000 (percentage) SEI Race (percentage) W=79.6/B=20.4 W=78.1/B=21.8 Sex (percentage) M=47.5/F=52.5 M=49.1/F=50.9 Farm (percentage) Non-Farm (percentage) Number in Sample 3,135 4,039 Part B, 1960 Average Age Average Family Size Average Annual Income $2,496 $1,591 Total Income $30,343,485 $19,981,840 Income over $5,000 (number) 2, Income over $5,000 (percentage) SEI
14 258 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY Table 5: Migrants and Non-Migrants, Selected Characteristics, 1950, 1960, and 1970 Censuses Migrants Non-Migrants Race (percentage) W=79.2/B=20.7 W=80.7/B=19.2 Sex M=48.9/F=51.2 M=48.2/F=51.8 Farm (percentage) Non-Farm (percentage) Number in Sample 12,158 12,560 Part C, 1970 Average Age Average Family Size Average Annual Income $4,038 $2,900 Total Income $63,021,008 $25,444,354 Income over $5,000 (number) 4,724 1,615 Income over $5,000 (percentage) SEI Race (percentage) W=79.3/B=20.5 W=82.9/B=16.9 Sex (percentage) M=47.8/F=52.2 M=47.4/F=52.6 Farm (percentage) Non-Farm (percentage) Number in Sample 15,606 8,773 Note: The income data reported in table 5 include only persons who reported income, including losses, for the previous year. The number of cases is also based on this sample. Migrants are defined as persons born in Arkansas who were living outside of the state at the time of the census. Non-migrants are defined as all persons living in Arkansas whether born in the state or not. Data for income and educational attainment are not directly comparable with the same data from other censuses. Microdata samples also provide information about the educational achievement of migrants. Did Arkansas lose its best and brightest people
15 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 259 High school graduates, like these members of the Ashdown class of 1936, were more likely to migrate out of Arkansas than their less educated neighbors. Courtesy Southwest Arkansas Regional Archives, Washington, AR. as many critics have suggested? In 1950, migrants reported significant educational achievement over Arkansans who stayed at home. The microdata indicate that 17.7 percent of migrants had completed high school and 9.8 percent had done some college work, compared to 13.6 percent of high school graduates among non-migrants and 7.1 percent with college credit. By the 1960 and 1970 censuses, both migrants and natives were better educated and the educational differences between them had narrowed, but migrants still maintained their lead (table 6). The microdata do not indicate where individuals attended school, but migrants clearly had pursued educational goals more successfully than homebodies. As has long been suspected, Arkansas seems to have lost many of its most educable people. Higher percentages of Arkansas natives with high school diplomas and college experience lived out of state than lived in state. Besides earning more and achieving greater occupational status, migrants did something else: they left the farm. The microdata samples indicate that in 1950 less than 12 percent remained in agriculture, compared to more than 60 percent of non-migrants. In 1960, only 6.2 percent of migrants lived on a farm. More than three-fourths of them lived in urban areas. Reflecting the decline of the farm population, the 1970 census data show that less than 5 percent of migrants lived on farms (table 5, part C).
16 260 ARKANSAS HISTORICAL QUARTERLY. Table 6: Migrants and Non-Migrants, Educational Achievement, 1950, 1960, and 1970 Censuses Migrants Nonmigrants Difference 1950 Average Grade Completed Completed High School (percentage) Attended College (percentage) Average Grade Completed Completed High School (percentage) Attended College (percentage) Average Grade Completed Completed High School (percentage) Attended College (percentage) The loss of 848,000 people in the 1940s and 1950s had a profound influence on wartime and postwar Arkansas. The absence of this vast pool of workers created severe labor shortages, especially in agriculture. These shortages remained critical even after the war and destroyed the old, inefficient plantation system, which had always been based on cheap labor. 23 In postwar Arkansas, the number of sharecroppers and tenant farmers plunged so significantly that by 1959 the agricultural census stopped collecting data on them. In the same period, the number of farms declined, but the average size of farms increased. There were fewer farmers, but machines made them more productive. The out-migration solved the state s 23 See Paul H. Williams, The Rise and Fall of the Great Plantations, Arkansas Times 9 (July 1983):
17 ARKANSAS AND THE GREAT MIGRATION 261 longstanding problem of rural overpopulation, and did so without creating social upheaval. Migration and attendant labor shortages not only destroyed the oldtime plantations but also stimulated agricultural mechanization. Despite the myth of machines displacing labor, tractors and mechanical cotton pickers replaced labor that had already fled the farm. For example, 500,000 Arkansas natives already lived out of state by the time the first mechanical harvesters appeared in Arkansas cotton fields in Machines did not pick the bulk of Arkansas s cotton crop until the early 1960s that is, after out-migration began to taper off. Facing labor shortages, large and small farmers turned to machines in an attempt to stay in agriculture. Migration made labor more expensive, motivating farmers to switch to machines. 24 These extraordinary forces of change that converged in postwar Arkansas also stimulated the civil rights movement. While labor shortages gave black workers more clout, mechanization made their labor superfluous. Jim Crow segregation, when employed as a form of labor control, had played a supportive role in plantation agriculture. But the disappearance of labor and agricultural mechanization signaled the vulnerability of Jim Crow, which suddenly became an anachronism. For the first time since the Civil War, the cotton areas of the South had less at stake in segregation, which in turn opened the way for the civil rights movement. The civil rights movement was the product of many forces, but migration and mechanization played key roles. 25 They also contributed to political shifts. As rural communities declined, Arkansas, like other southern states, saw its population become more urban. Congressional and legislative redistricting brought political power to urban areas at the expense of rural Arkansas. At the same time, the loss of population cost the state three congressional districts by As a consequence of the Great Migration, Arkansas and the rural South experienced a revolution that made life better for everyone, though it is too often overlooked today and sometimes disparaged. The nostalgia for the old homestead is clearly misplaced; small, hardscrabble farms corresponded to a lack of educational opportunity, poor housing, and low income. 26 Not only did Arkansas s migrants benefit from higher incomes and better schools, the state began to industrialize its economy. The Great Migration embodies a remarkable success story for migrants as well as for Arkansas itself. 24 For a full discussion, see Holley, Second Great Emancipation, 97-99, Ibid., Arthur Raper, Machines in the Cotton Fields (Atlanta: Southern Regional Council, 1946), 19.
18
The Impact of Ebbing Immigration in Los Angeles: New Insights from an Established Gateway
The Impact of Ebbing Immigration in Los Angeles: New Insights from an Established Gateway Julie Park and Dowell Myers University of Southern California Paper proposed for presentation at the annual meetings
More informationNational Population Growth Declines as Domestic Migration Flows Rise
National Population Growth Declines as Domestic Migration Flows Rise By William H. Frey U.S. population trends are showing something of a dual personality when viewed from the perspective of the nation
More informationUnion Byte By Cherrie Bucknor and John Schmitt* January 2015
January 21 Union Byte 21 By Cherrie Bucknor and John Schmitt* Center for Economic and Policy Research 1611 Connecticut Ave. NW Suite 4 Washington, DC 29 tel: 22-293-38 fax: 22-88-136 www.cepr.net Cherrie
More informationIn the 1960 Census of the United States, a
AND CENSUS MIGRATION ESTIMATES 233 A COMPARISON OF THE ESTIMATES OF NET MIGRATION, 1950-60 AND THE CENSUS ESTIMATES, 1955-60 FOR THE UNITED STATES* K. E. VAIDYANATHAN University of Pennsylvania ABSTRACT
More informationThe Changing Face of Labor,
The Changing Face of Labor, 1983-28 John Schmitt and Kris Warner November 29 Center for Economic and Policy Research 1611 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 4 Washington, D.C. 29 22-293-538 www.cepr.net CEPR
More informationImmigration Policy Brief August 2006
Immigration Policy Brief August 2006 Last updated August 16, 2006 The Growth and Reach of Immigration New Census Bureau Data Underscore Importance of Immigrants in the U.S. Labor Force Introduction: by
More informationThe Economic and Political Effects of Black Outmigration from the US South. October, 2017
The Economic and Political Effects of Black Outmigration from the US South Leah Boustan 1 Princeton University and NBER Marco Tabellini 2 MIT October, 2017 Between 1940 and 1970, the US South lost more
More informationMIGRATION STATISTICS AND BRAIN DRAIN/GAIN
MIGRATION STATISTICS AND BRAIN DRAIN/GAIN Nebraska State Data Center 25th Annual Data Users Conference 2:15 to 3:15 p.m., August 19, 2014 David Drozd Randy Cantrell UNO Center for Public Affairs Research
More informationNew data from the Census Bureau show that the nation s immigrant population (legal and illegal), also
Backgrounder Center for Immigration Studies October 2011 A Record-Setting Decade of Immigration: 2000 to 2010 By Steven A. Camarota New data from the Census Bureau show that the nation s immigrant population
More information2010 CENSUS POPULATION REAPPORTIONMENT DATA
Southern Tier East Census Monograph Series Report 11-1 January 2011 2010 CENSUS POPULATION REAPPORTIONMENT DATA The United States Constitution, Article 1, Section 2, requires a decennial census for the
More informationChapter 12: The Math of Democracy 12B,C: Voting Power and Apportionment - SOLUTIONS
12B,C: Voting Power and Apportionment - SOLUTIONS Group Activities 12C Apportionment 1. A college offers tutoring in Math, English, Chemistry, and Biology. The number of students enrolled in each subject
More informationGrowth in the Foreign-Born Workforce and Employment of the Native Born
Report August 10, 2006 Growth in the Foreign-Born Workforce and Employment of the Native Born Rakesh Kochhar Associate Director for Research, Pew Hispanic Center Rapid increases in the foreign-born population
More informationTable Annexed to Article: Wrongfully Established and Maintained : A Census of Congress s Sins Against Geography
Purdue University From the SelectedWorks of Peter J. Aschenbrenner September, 2012 Table Annexed to Article: Wrongfully Established and Maintained : A Census of Congress s Sins Against Geography Peter
More informationWYOMING POPULATION DECLINED SLIGHTLY
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Wednesday, December 19, 2018 Contact: Dr. Wenlin Liu, Chief Economist WYOMING POPULATION DECLINED SLIGHTLY CHEYENNE -- Wyoming s total resident population contracted to 577,737 in
More informationATTACHMENT 16. Source and Accuracy Statement for the November 2008 CPS Microdata File on Voting and Registration
ATTACHMENT 16 Source and Accuracy Statement for the November 2008 CPS Microdata File on Voting and Registration SOURCE OF DATA The data in this microdata file are from the November 2008 Current Population
More informationNew Census Estimates Show Slight Changes For Congressional Apportionment Now, But Point to Larger Changes by 2020
[Type here] Emerywood Court Manassas, Virginia 0 0.00 tel. or 0 0. 0 0. fax Info@electiondataservices.com FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Date: December, 0 Contact: Kimball W. Brace Tel.: (0) 00 or (0) 0- Email:
More informationComponents of Population Change by State
IOWA POPULATION REPORTS Components of 2000-2009 Population Change by State April 2010 Liesl Eathington Department of Economics Iowa State University Iowa s Rate of Population Growth Ranks 43rd Among All
More informationThe 2,000 Mile Wall in Search of a Purpose: Since 2007 Visa Overstays have Outnumbered Undocumented Border Crossers by a Half Million
The 2,000 Mile Wall in Search of a Purpose: Since 2007 Visa Overstays have Outnumbered Undocumented Border Crossers by a Half Million Robert Warren Center for Migration Studies Donald Kerwin Center for
More informationHousehold Income, Poverty, and Food-Stamp Use in Native-Born and Immigrant Households
Household, Poverty, and Food-Stamp Use in Native-Born and Immigrant A Case Study in Use of Public Assistance JUDITH GANS Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy The University of Arizona research support
More informationMore State s Apportionment Allocations Impacted by New Census Estimates; New Twist in Supreme Court Case
[Type here] 6171 Emerywood Court Manassas, Virginia 20112 202 789.2004 tel. or 703 580.7267 703 580.6258 fax Info@electiondataservices.com FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Date: December 22, 2015 Contact: Kimball
More informationMap of the Foreign Born Population of the United States, 1900
Introduction According to the 1900 census, the population of the United States was then 76.3 million. Nearly 14 percent of the population approximately 10.4 million people was born outside of the United
More informationNew Americans in. By Walter A. Ewing, Ph.D. and Guillermo Cantor, Ph.D.
New Americans in the VOTING Booth The Growing Electoral Power OF Immigrant Communities By Walter A. Ewing, Ph.D. and Guillermo Cantor, Ph.D. Special Report October 2014 New Americans in the VOTING Booth:
More information12B,C: Voting Power and Apportionment
12B,C: Voting Power and Apportionment Group Activities 12C Apportionment 1. A college offers tutoring in Math, English, Chemistry, and Biology. The number of students enrolled in each subject is listed
More informationState of Local and State Government Workers Engagement in the U.S.
State of Local and State Government Workers Engagement in the U.S. We change the world one client at a time through extraordinary analytics and advice on everything important facing humankind. JIM CLIFTON,
More informationWhite Pages Copymasters Blue Pages Answer Keys. Introduction... v Class Record...ix. Student Activities
The Nystrom Atlas of United States Histor y Student Activities Contents White Pages Copymasters Blue Pages Answer Keys Introduction......................................................... v Class Record........................................................ix
More informationIncarcerated America Human Rights Watch Backgrounder April 2003
Incarcerated America Human Rights Watch Backgrounder April 03 According to the latest statistics from the U.S. Department of Justice, more than two million men and women are now behind bars in the United
More informationEmployment debate in the context of NAFTA. September 2017
Employment debate in the context of NAFTA September 217 1 Take-away points The employment debate in the context of NAFTA Unemployment is mostly a macroeconomic phenomenon; unemployment in the Midwest is
More informationBackgrounder. This report finds that immigrants have been hit somewhat harder by the current recession than have nativeborn
Backgrounder Center for Immigration Studies May 2009 Trends in Immigrant and Native Employment By Steven A. Camarota and Karen Jensenius This report finds that immigrants have been hit somewhat harder
More informationAmerica is facing an epidemic of the working hungry. Hunger Free America s analysis of federal data has determined:
Key Findings: America is facing an epidemic of the working hungry. Hunger Free America s analysis of federal data has determined: Approximately 16 million American adults lived in food insecure households
More informationCenter for Immigration Studies
Center for Immigration Studies Immigrants in the United States A Profile of America s Foreign-Born Population By Steven A. Camarota i About the Center The Center for Immigration Studies, founded in 1985,
More informationChapter 7. Migration
Chapter 7 Migration Chapter 7 Migration Americans have traditionally been highly higher levels of educational attainment than Figure 7-1. mobile, with nearly 1 in 7 people changing residence each year.
More informationDepartment of Justice
Department of Justice ADVANCE FOR RELEASE AT 5 P.M. EST BJS SUNDAY, DECEMBER 3, 1995 202/307-0784 STATE AND FEDERAL PRISONS REPORT RECORD GROWTH DURING LAST 12 MONTHS WASHINGTON, D.C. -- The number of
More information2015 ANNUAL OUTCOME GOAL PLAN (WITH FY 2014 OUTCOMES) Prepared in compliance with Government Performance and Results Act
Administration for Children & Families 370 L Enfant Promenade, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20447 Office of Refugee Resettlement www.acf.hhs.gov 2015 ANNUAL OUTCOME GOAL PLAN (WITH FY 2014 OUTCOMES) Prepared
More informationHow Many Illegal Aliens Currently Live in the United States?
How Many Illegal Aliens Currently Live in the United States? OCTOBER 2017 As of 2017, FAIR estimates that there are approximately 12.5 million illegal aliens residing in the United States. This number
More informationRepresentational Bias in the 2012 Electorate
Representational Bias in the 2012 Electorate by Vanessa Perez, Ph.D. January 2015 Table of Contents 1 Introduction 3 4 2 Methodology 5 3 Continuing Disparities in the and Voting Populations 6-10 4 National
More informationChapter 6 Shaping an Abundant Land. Page 135
Chapter 6 Shaping an Abundant Land Page 135 Waves of immigrants came to the U.S. in order to find a better life. Push-pull factors were at play. Immigration is not the only movement of people in the U.S.
More informationTHE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS This PDF is available at http://www.nap.edu/23550 SHARE The Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Immigration DETAILS 508 pages 6 x 9 PAPERBACK ISBN 978-0-309-44445-3 DOI: 10.17226/23550
More informationPRESENT TRENDS IN POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
PRESENT TRENDS IN POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Conrad Taeuber Associate Director, Bureau of the Census U.S. Department of Commerce Our population has recently crossed the 200 million mark, and we are currently
More information2008 Voter Turnout Brief
2008 Voter Turnout Brief Prepared by George Pillsbury Nonprofit Voter Engagement Network, www.nonprofitvote.org Voter Turnout Nears Most Recent High in 1960 Primary Source: United States Election Project
More informationAn economic profile of Right-to-Work states
ILLINOIS POLICY JANUARY 2015 An economic profile of Right-to-Work states Paul Kersey, Director of Labor Policy The problem Unions are powerful in Illinois, and the state allows them to sign contracts with
More informationCIRCLE The Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
FACT SHEET CIRCLE The Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement Youth Voter Increases in 2006 By Mark Hugo Lopez, Karlo Barrios Marcelo, and Emily Hoban Kirby 1 June 2007 For the
More informationTHE CALIFORNIA LEGISLATURE: SOME FACTS AND FIGURES. by Andrew L. Roth
THE CALIFORNIA LEGISLATURE: SOME FACTS AND FIGURES by Andrew L. Roth INTRODUCTION The following pages provide a statistical profile of California's state legislature. The data are intended to suggest who
More informationCountries Of The World: The United States
Countries Of The World: The United States By National Geographic Kids, adapted by Newsela staff on 06.26.18 Word Count 859 Level MAX Image 1: U.S. Route 101 in Oregon. This highway runs along the entire
More informationBeyond cities: How Airbnb supports rural America s revitalization
Beyond cities: How Airbnb supports rural America s revitalization Table of contents Overview 03 Our growth in rural areas 04 Creating opportunity 05 Helping seniors and women 07 State leaders in key categories
More informationState Estimates of the Low-income Uninsured Not Eligible for the ACA Medicaid Expansion
March 2013 State Estimates of the Low-income Uninsured Not Eligible for the ACA Medicaid Expansion Introduction The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) will expand access to affordable health
More informationBackground Information on Redistricting
Redistricting in New York State Citizens Union/League of Women Voters of New York State Background Information on Redistricting What is redistricting? Redistricting determines the lines of state legislative
More informationImmigrants and the Direct Care Workforce
JUNE 2017 RESEARCH BRIEF Immigrants and the Direct Care Workforce BY ROBERT ESPINOZA Immigrants are a significant part of the U.S. economy and the direct care workforce, providing hands-on care to older
More informationRacial Disparities in Youth Commitments and Arrests
Racial Disparities in Youth Commitments and Arrests Between 2003 and 2013 (the most recent data available), the rate of youth committed to juvenile facilities after an adjudication of delinquency fell
More informationWomen in Federal and State-level Judgeships
Women in Federal and State-level Judgeships A Report of the Center for Women in Government & Civil Society, Rockefeller College of Public Affairs & Policy, University at Albany, State University of New
More informationDecember 30, 2008 Agreement Among the States to Elect the President by National Popular Vote
STATE OF VERMONT HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES STATE HOUSE 115 STATE STREET MONTPELIER, VT 05633-5201 December 30, 2008 Agreement Among the States to Elect the President by National Popular Vote To Members
More informationBackgrounder. Immigrants in the United States, 2007 A Profile of America s Foreign-Born Population. Center for Immigration Studies November 2007
Backgrounder Center for Immigration Studies November 2007 s in the United States, 2007 A Profile of America s Foreign-Born Population By Steven A. Camarota This Backgrounder provides a detailed picture
More informationVolume Title: Domestic Servants in the United States, Volume URL:
This PDF is a selection from an out-of-print volume from the National Bureau of Economic Research Volume Title: Domestic Servants in the United States, 1900-1940 Volume Author/Editor: George J. Stigler
More informationPERMISSIBILITY OF ELECTRONIC VOTING IN THE UNITED STATES. Member Electronic Vote/ . Alabama No No Yes No. Alaska No No No No
PERMISSIBILITY OF ELECTRONIC VOTING IN THE UNITED STATES State Member Conference Call Vote Member Electronic Vote/ Email Board of Directors Conference Call Vote Board of Directors Electronic Vote/ Email
More informationSTATE LAWS SUMMARY: CHILD LABOR CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS BY STATE
STATE LAWS SUMMARY: CHILD LABOR CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS BY STATE THE PROBLEM: Federal child labor laws limit the kinds of work for which kids under age 18 can be employed. But as with OSHA, federal
More informationElection of Worksheet #1 - Candidates and Parties. Abraham Lincoln. Stephen A. Douglas. John C. Breckinridge. John Bell
III. Activities Election of 1860 Name Worksheet #1 Candidates and Parties The election of 1860 demonstrated the divisions within the United States. The political parties of the decades before 1860 no longer
More informationDecision Analyst Economic Index United States Census Divisions April 2017
United States s Arlington, Texas The Economic Indices for the U.S. s have increased in the past 12 months. The Middle Atlantic Division had the highest score of all the s, with an score of 114 for. The
More informationNational State Law Survey: Statute of Limitations 1
National State Law Survey: Limitations 1 Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware DC Florida Georgia Hawaii limitations Trafficking and CSEC within 3 limit for sex trafficking,
More informationFUNDING FOR HOME HEATING IN RECONCILIATION BILL? RIGHT IDEA, WRONG VEHICLE by Aviva Aron-Dine and Martha Coven
820 First Street NE, Suite 510 Washington, DC 20002 Tel: 202-408-1080 Fax: 202-408-1056 center@cbpp.org www.cbpp.org December 9, 2005 FUNDING FOR HOME HEATING IN RECONCILIATION BILL? RIGHT IDEA, WRONG
More informationOklahoma, Maine, Migration and Right to Work : A Confused and Misleading Analysis. By the Bureau of Labor Education, University of Maine (Spring 2012)
Oklahoma, Maine, Migration and Right to Work : A Confused and Misleading Analysis By the Bureau of Labor Education, University of Maine (Spring 2012) The recent article released by the Maine Heritage Policy
More informationThe Effects of Immigration on Age Structure and Fertility in the United States
The Effects of Immigration on Age Structure and Fertility in the United States David Pieper Department of Geography University of California, Berkeley davidpieper@berkeley.edu 31 January 2010 I. Introduction
More informationIdaho Prisons. Idaho Center for Fiscal Policy Brief. October 2018
Persons per 100,000 Idaho Center for Fiscal Policy Brief Idaho Prisons October 2018 Idaho s prisons are an essential part of our state s public safety infrastructure and together with other criminal justice
More informationIMMIGRANTS. Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy The University of Arizona
ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTIONS of IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES A Regional and State-by-State Analysis JUDITH GANS Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy The University of Arizona research support provided
More informationNew Population Estimates Show Slight Changes For 2010 Congressional Apportionment, With A Number of States Sitting Close to the Edge
67 Emerywood Court Manassas, Virginia 202 202 789.2004 tel. or 703 580.7267 703 580.6258 fax Info@electiondataservices.com EMBARGOED UNTIL 6:0 P.M. EST, SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 26, 200 Date: September 26, 200
More informationShould Politicians Choose Their Voters? League of Women Voters of MI Education Fund
Should Politicians Choose Their Voters? 1 Politicians are drawing their own voting maps to manipulate elections and keep themselves and their party in power. 2 3 -The U.S. Constitution requires that the
More informationIn the Margins Political Victory in the Context of Technology Error, Residual Votes, and Incident Reports in 2004
In the Margins Political Victory in the Context of Technology Error, Residual Votes, and Incident Reports in 2004 Dr. Philip N. Howard Assistant Professor, Department of Communication University of Washington
More informationAt yearend 2014, an estimated 6,851,000
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Correctional Populations in the United States, 2014 Danielle Kaeble, Lauren Glaze, Anastasios Tsoutis, and Todd Minton,
More informationFOCUS. Native American Youth and the Juvenile Justice System. Introduction. March Views from the National Council on Crime and Delinquency
FOCUS Native American Youth and the Juvenile Justice System Christopher Hartney Introduction Native American youth are overrepresented in the juvenile justice system. A growing number of studies and reports
More informationTHE EFFECT OF EARLY VOTING AND THE LENGTH OF EARLY VOTING ON VOTER TURNOUT
THE EFFECT OF EARLY VOTING AND THE LENGTH OF EARLY VOTING ON VOTER TURNOUT Simona Altshuler University of Florida Email: simonaalt@ufl.edu Advisor: Dr. Lawrence Kenny Abstract This paper explores the effects
More informationMatthew Miller, Bureau of Legislative Research
Matthew Miller, Bureau of Legislative Research Arkansas (reelection) Georgia (reelection) Idaho (reelection) Kentucky (reelection) Michigan (partisan nomination - reelection) Minnesota (reelection) Mississippi
More informationOriginal data on policy leaders appointed
DEMOCRACY UNREALIZED: The Underrepresentation of People of Color as Appointed Policy Leaders in State Governments A Report of the Center for Women in Government & Civil Society University at Albany, State
More informationWe re Paying Dearly for Bush s Tax Cuts Study Shows Burdens by State from Bush s $87-Billion-Every-51-Days Borrowing Binge
Citizens for Tax Justice 202-626-3780 September 23, 2003 (9 pp.) Contact: Bob McIntyre We re Paying Dearly for Bush s Tax Cuts Study Shows Burdens by State from Bush s $87-Billion-Every-51-Days Borrowing
More informationFederal Rate of Return. FY 2019 Update Texas Department of Transportation - Federal Affairs
Federal Rate of Return FY 2019 Update Texas Department of Transportation - Federal Affairs Texas has historically been, and continues to be, the biggest donor to other states when it comes to federal highway
More informationComplying with Electric Cooperative State Statutes
Complying with Electric Cooperative State Statutes Tyrus H. Thompson (Ty) Vice President and Deputy General Counsel Director and Member Legal Services Office of General Counsel National Rural Electric
More informationTFigure 1. Indiana Population Change in the 1990s: A Graphic View
Indiana Population Change in the 1990s: A Graphic View TFigure 1 Morton J. Marcus Director, Indiana Business Research Center, Kelley School of Business, Indiana University Figure 2 Indiana's Population
More informationHow Have Hispanics Fared in the Jobless Recovery?
How Have Hispanics Fared in the Jobless Recovery? William M. Rodgers III Heldrich Center for Workforce Development Rutgers University and National Poverty Center and Richard B. Freeman Harvard University
More informationGender, Race, and Dissensus in State Supreme Courts
Gender, Race, and Dissensus in State Supreme Courts John Szmer, University of North Carolina, Charlotte Robert K. Christensen, University of Georgia Erin B. Kaheny., University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
More informationU.S. Sentencing Commission Preliminary Crack Retroactivity Data Report Fair Sentencing Act
U.S. Sentencing Commission Preliminary Crack Retroactivity Data Report Fair Sentencing Act July 2013 Data Introduction As part of its ongoing mission, the United States Sentencing Commission provides Congress,
More informationThe Great Immigration Turnaround
The Great Immigration Turnaround New Facts and Old Rhetoric Dowell Myers USC Sol Price School of Public Policy Overview Where is immigration growing fastest? Divided opinion and fears about immigration
More informationGrades 2-7. American Government and the Election Process Unit Study SAMPLE PAGE. A Journey Through Learning
A J T L Grades 2-7 American Government and the Election Process Unit Study A Journey Through Learning www.ajourneythroughlearning.com Copyright 2008 A Journey Through Learning 1 Authors: Paula Winget and
More informationCampaign Finance E-Filing Systems by State WHAT IS REQUIRED? WHO MUST E-FILE? Candidates (Annually, Monthly, Weekly, Daily).
Exhibit E.1 Alabama Alabama Secretary of State Mandatory Candidates (Annually, Monthly, Weekly, Daily). PAC (annually), Debts. A filing threshold of $1,000 for all candidates for office, from statewide
More informationPeruvians in the United States
Peruvians in the United States 1980 2008 Center for Latin American, Caribbean & Latino Studies Graduate Center City University of New York 365 Fifth Avenue Room 5419 New York, New York 10016 212-817-8438
More informationBeyond cities: How Airbnb supports rural America s revitalization
Beyond cities: How Airbnb supports rural America s revitalization Table of contents Overview 03 Our growth in rural areas 04 Creating opportunity 05 Helping seniors and women 07 State leaders in key categories
More informationAppointed Policy Makers in State Government GLASS CEILING IN GUBERNATORIAL APPOINTMENTS,
Appointed Policy Makers in State Government GLASS CEILING IN GUBERNATORIAL APPOINTMENTS, 1997-2007 A Report of the Center for in Government & Civil Society University at Albany, State University of New
More informationSMALL STATES FIRST; LARGE STATES LAST; WITH A SPORTS PLAYOFF SYSTEM
14. REFORMING THE PRESIDENTIAL PRIMARIES: SMALL STATES FIRST; LARGE STATES LAST; WITH A SPORTS PLAYOFF SYSTEM The calendar of presidential primary elections currently in use in the United States is a most
More informationState Trial Courts with Incidental Appellate Jurisdiction, 2010
ALABAMA: G X X X de novo District, Probate, s ALASKA: ARIZONA: ARKANSAS: de novo or on the de novo (if no ) G O X X de novo CALIFORNIA: COLORADO: District Court, Justice of the Peace,, County, District,
More informationBefore They Were States. Finding and Using Territorial Records by Jack Butler
Before They Were States. Finding and Using Territorial Records by Jack Butler The United States was born owning territory outside the 13 original states. In the end, thirty three U. S. States were U. S.
More informationVeterans Migration Patterns and Population Redistribution in the United States,
Veterans Migration Patterns and Population Redistribution in the United States, 1960-2000 1 Amy Kate Bailey Office of Population Research Princeton University Extended abstract submitted September 2008
More informationThe Electoral College And
The Electoral College And National Popular Vote Plan State Population 2010 House Apportionment Senate Number of Electors California 37,341,989 53 2 55 Texas 25,268,418 36 2 38 New York 19,421,055 27 2
More informationProbation and Parole in the United States, 2015
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics December 2016, NCJ 250230 Probation and Parole in the United States, 2015 Danielle Kaeble and Thomas P. Bonczar, BJS Statisticians
More informationAMBER WAVES VOLUME 2 ISSUE 5
VOLUME 2 ISSUE 5 20 Eyewire Anatomy of Nonmetro High-Poverty Areas Common in Plight, Distinctive in Nature Calvin L. Beale cbeale@ers.usda.gov FEBRUARY 2004 21 The 1990s saw growing U.S. prosperity, ending
More informationMathematics of the Electoral College. Robbie Robinson Professor of Mathematics The George Washington University
Mathematics of the Electoral College Robbie Robinson Professor of Mathematics The George Washington University Overview Is the US President elected directly? No. The president is elected by electors who
More informationINSTITUTE of PUBLIC POLICY
INSTITUTE of PUBLIC POLICY Harry S Truman School of Public Affairs University of Missouri ANALYSIS OF STATE REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES Andrew Wesemann and Brian Dabson Summary This report analyzes state
More informationIllinois: State-by-State Immigration Trends Introduction Foreign-Born Population Educational Attainment
Illinois: State-by-State Immigration Trends Courtesy of the Humphrey School of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota Prepared in 2012 for the Task Force on US Economic Competitiveness at Risk:
More informationEndnotes on Campaign 2000 SOME FINAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOTER OPINIONS
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE: Thursday, December 21, 2000 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION: Andrew Kohut, Director Endnotes on Campaign 2000 SOME FINAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOTER OPINIONS Overlooked amid controversies over
More informationU.S. Sentencing Commission 2014 Drug Guidelines Amendment Retroactivity Data Report
U.S. Sentencing Commission 2014 Drug Guidelines Amendment Retroactivity Data Report October 2017 Introduction As part of its ongoing mission, the United States Sentencing Commission provides Congress,
More informationProbation Parole. the United States, 1998
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Revised 0/0/ pages -4, - th Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin August, NCJ 834 Probation and Parole in the United States, 8 By Thomas P. Bonczar
More informationThe Economic Impact of Spending for Operations and Construction in 2014 by AZA-Accredited Zoos and Aquariums
The Economic Impact of Spending for Operations and Construction in 2014 by AZA-Accredited Zoos and Aquariums By Stephen S. Fuller, Ph.D. Dwight Schar Faculty Chair and University Professor Center for Regional
More informationNotice N HCFB-1. March 25, Subject: FEDERAL-AID HIGHWAY PROGRAM OBLIGATION AUTHORITY FISCAL YEAR (FY) Classification Code
Notice Subject: FEDERAL-AID HIGHWAY PROGRAM OBLIGATION AUTHORITY FISCAL YEAR (FY) 2009 Classification Code N 4520.201 Date March 25, 2009 Office of Primary Interest HCFB-1 1. What is the purpose of this
More informationCRS Report for Congress
Order Code RS20273 Updated September 8, 2003 CRS Report for Congress Received through the CRS Web The Electoral College: How It Works in Contemporary Presidential Elections Thomas H. Neale Government and
More information4/3/2016. Emigrant vs. Immigrant. Civil Rights & Immigration in America. Colonialism to Present. Early Civil Rights Issues
Civil Rights & Immigration in America Colonialism to Present Emigrant vs. Immigrant An emigrant leaves his or her land to live in another country. The person is emigrating to another country. An immigrant
More information