COUNTRY BRIEF SWEDEN INSTITUTE. Valeriya Mechkova Frida Andersson Staffan I. Lindberg. Country Brief. January 2016

Transcription

1 INSTITUTE COUNTRY BRIEF SWEDEN Valeriya Mechkova Frida Andersson Staffan I. Lindberg January 2016 Country Brief SERIES 2016:03 THE VARIETIES OF DEMOCRACY INSTITUTE

2 Please address comments and/or queries for information to: V-Dem Institute Department of Political Science University of Gothenburg Sprängkullsgatan 19, PO Box 711 SE Gothenburg V-Dem Working Papers are available in electronic format at Copyright 2015 University of Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute. All rights reserved.

3 About V-Dem Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) is a new approach to conceptualizing and measuring democracy. V-Dem s multidimensional and disaggregated approach acknowledges the complexity of the concept of democracy. The V-Dem project distinguishes among five high-level principles of democracy: electoral, liberal, participatory, deliberative, and egalitarian, which are disaggregated into lower-level components and specific indicators. Key Features of V-Dem: Provides reliable data on five high-level principles and 22 lower-level components of democracy such as regular elections, judicial independence, direct democracy, and gender equality, consisting of more than 400 distinct and precise indicators; Covers all countries and dependent territories from 1900 to the present and provides an estimate of measurement reliability for each rating; Makes all ratings public, free of charge, through a user-friendly interface. With four Principal Investigators, two Project Coordinators, fifteen Project Managers, more than thirty Regional Managers, almost 200 Country Coordinators, several Assistant Researchers, and approximately 2,600 Country Experts, the V-Dem project is one of the largest-ever social science data collection projects with a database of over 15 million data points. The database makes highly detailed analysis of virtually all aspects of democracy in a country possible, while also allowing for summary comparisons between countries based on aggregated indices for different dimensions of democracy. The V- Dem online analysis tools found on the project s website, are available to users all over the world. Governments, development agencies, and NGOs can benefit from the nuanced comparative and historical data when making critical decisions such as selecting country program priorities, informing program designs and monitoring the impact of their programs. Methodology: Unlike extant data collection projects, which typically use a small group of experts who rate all countries or ask a single expert to code one country, the V-Dem project has recruited over 2,600 local and cross-national experts to provide judgments on various indicators of democracy. The V-Dem dataset is created by combining factual information from existing data sources about constitutional regulations and de jure situations with expert coding for questions that require evaluation. Experts ratings are aggregated through an advanced statistical model that takes into account the possibilities that experts may make mistakes or have different scales in mind when coding. In addition, bridge-coders - experts who code multiple countries - are recruited to calibrate the scales of estimates cross-nationally 1. 1 For further details and information about the V-Dem methodology, see 2

4 Introduction This V-Dem data brief illustrates the democratic development of from 1900 to The purpose is to provide a concise overview of the V-Dem data collected for. The historical development of the five V-Dem principles of democracy - electoral, liberal, egalitarian, deliberative and participatory is analyzed, accompanied by an overview of the female rights. In addition, the brief drills down into the different components and detailed indicators of the main principles of democracy 2. We anticipate that this brief will be a useful resource for policy-makers, practitioners and citizen-led democracy assessments. has a peaceful modern history with the last war which was fought directly taking place in In 1905 the union with neighboring Norway was peacefully dissolved. managed to stay independent and neutral during both World War I and II, although the country became involved in humanitarian assistance in terms of receiving refugees from parts of Germanoccupied Europe. is a monarchy and a parliamentary democracy with direct elections held since It is acknowledged to be one of the most gender equal countries in the world, with women receiving the legal right to vote in The country was ruled by the Social Democrats from 1932 to 1976 and during the 1950s and 1960s the party invested great effort in developing the Swedish welfare state, known by many as the Swedish or the Nordic model. Principles of Democracy The radar chart in Figure 1 provides a quick overview of the five V-Dem high-level indices of democracy at four different points in time: 1905, 1950, 1995 and All indices in the figure range from 0 to 1, where a score of 0 suggests that a country did not evince the characteristics of democracy relevant to this particular at this point in time, while 1 corresponds to the best possible situation for this, according to the V-Dem measures. In the V-Dem conceptual scheme, the electoral component of democracy is fundamental and understood as an essential element of the other principles of representative democracy liberal, participatory, deliberative, and egalitarian; without it, we cannot call a regime democratic. However, we recognize that countries can have democratic qualities, without being democracies. As a result, the aggregation formulae for all high-level principles of democracy include the measure of electoral democracy. Thus, for example, Participatory Democracy is a composite score of the electoral and in the participatory components. 2 All indicators and indices can be found in Glossary of Terms in Appendix I. For an overview of the structure of the indices, please see Appendix II. 3

5 Figure 1. Principles of Democracy Indices Egalitarian Democracy Deliberative Democracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Democracy Participatory Democracy The largest democratic change in can be noted between 1905 and In 1905, the country achieves scores of only around.2 on the electoral, participatory, deliberative and egalitarian democracy indices, although the level of the liberal democracy is slightly higher. The low scores on the indices suggests that there was a lot of room for improvement in terms of making rulers responsive to the citizens through electoral competition, the political and civil society organizations being able to operate freely, an extensive freedom of expression. The participatory principle being far from achieved means that active participation by citizens in all political processes, electoral and non-electoral is restricted. The data also suggests that deliberative processes, in which public reasoning focused on the common good motivates political decisions are not a natural part of the political life at that point in time. In addition, power is not evenly distributed across social groups and the protection of individual and minority rights against the tyranny of the state is limited. In 1950, a level of.7 or more is reached on all varieties, except for the participatory democracy. During the second half of the century up to 2014, the various principles of democracy continue to improve. As of 2014, reaches near top scores on all democracy indices, except for the participatory, in which the country scores near.7 on the ranging from 0 to 1. In the V-Dem conceptual scheme, the electoral component is fundamental and understood as an essential element of the other conceptions of representative democracy liberal, participatory, deliberative, and egalitarian; without it, we cannot call a regime democratic in any sense. At the same time, we recognize that countries can have democratic qualities in areas outside of the electoral aspect, without being democracies. Hence, the aggregation formula for all high-level principles of democracy discussed above includes the measure of electoral democracy, but the other components are also explored separately further in the country brief. 4

6 In Figure 2 below, we drill down into the above indices and graph the components that go into the five higher level principle indices of democracy: the electoral, liberal, egalitarian, participatory and deliberative components, accompanied by the female rights 3 Even in the beginning of the 20 th century, all components except two have crossed the middle of the scale. The score of the liberal component around.9 suggests that strong protection of individual and minority rights against the state and the majority has been in place for over a hundred years. There is, according to the deliberative component, respectful and inclusive public dialogue at all levels from preference formation to final decision among informed and competent participants who are open to persuasion. As measured by the egalitarian component, all social groups in have, since the 1920s approximately equal participation, representation, agenda-setting power, protection under the law, and influence over policymaking and policy implementation. The development in terms of the electoral democracy component is slower, marked in particular by the 1917 and the 1921 elections when first male, and then female, universal suffrage were first implemented. The country reaches a score of.8 only in the 1950s and takes a final big step forward with the 1974 revised constitution. Since then, responsiveness and accountability between leaders and citizens through the mechanism of competitive elections is achieved to a high extent. The democracy component with the lowest performance is the participatory component. It is only slightly higher at present than it was in 1900, as reflected by the score of.6 as of The scale of each and indicator is specified within parentheses in the legend of each figure. In all indicators and indices graphed, a lower score corresponds to a less democratic level, while a higher score suggests a more democratic level. Please see the Appendix for more information on each of the variables. 5

7 In order to track down more specific aspects within these various democratic developments, in the following section, we further explore each of the six components of democracy by graphing the indicators and indices constituting them. The Electoral Component The V-Dem electoral democracy component measures the core value of making rulers responsive to citizens through competition for the approval of a broad electorate during periodic elections; whether political and civil society organizations can operate freely; whether elections are clean and not marred by fraud or systematic irregularities; and whether the chief executive of a country is selected (directly or indirectly) through elections. Figure 3 displays the four indices that constitute the electoral component. The first direct election during the period was held in 1902, and according to the clean elections, the Swedish elections have historically been clean, with scores of around.9 or above since the 1920s. This indicated an electoral tradition of absence of challenges such as registration fraud, systematic irregularities, government intimidation of the opposition, vote buying, and election violence. The variable share of population with suffrage measures the share of adult citizens with the legal right to vote in national elections and as evidenced, the indicator reflects the first election with universal suffrage which was held in Freedom of association is widespread throughout the century, and the suggests that parties, including opposition parties, have been allowed to form and participate in elections relatively free of constraints since the beginning of the 20 th century. Civil society organizations have also been able to form and operate freely during this period. The elected executive reflects that executive power was not appointed through direct or indirect popular elections in the beginning of the century, and that the monarchy retained some executive powers until the 1974 constitutional reform. 6

8 The Liberal Component The liberal dimension of democracy embodies the intrinsic value of protecting individual and minority rights against a potential tyranny of the state. This is achieved through constitutionally protected civil liberties and strong rule of law, and effective checks and balances by the judiciary and the legislature that limit the use of executive power, all of which are captured by the V-Dem for the liberal component. Liberal democracy was one of the highest scoring indices in Figure 2 with very small changes over time. When graphing the three components going into the component, as in Figure 4, it becomes clear that the trend is rather similar for all aspects. The high levels of equality before the law and individual liberty demonstrate that, to a very large extent, laws are transparent and rigorously enforced and that public administration is impartial. In addition, Swedish citizens enjoy access to justice, secure property rights, freedom from forced labor, freedom of movement, physical integrity rights and freedom of religion. The second indicator, legislative constraints on the executive, measures the extent to which the legislature and government agencies are capable of questioning, investigating, and exercising oversight over the executive. The data reveal that this occurs to a very great extent in the case of. The extent to which the executive respects the constitution and complies with court rulings, as well as the extent to which the judiciary is able to act in an independent fashion, shows again achieving a top score, as reflected in the judicial constraints on the executive. 7

9 The Participatory Component The participatory dimension of democracy embodies the values of direct rule and active participation by citizens in all political processes; it emphasizes non-electoral forms of political participation through such channels as civil society organizations and through the mechanism of direct democracy. Figure 5. Participatory Democracy Component, year Civil society participation (0-1) Direct Popular Vote Index (0-1) Local Government (0-1) Regional Government (0-1) Figure 5 displays the indices that go into the participatory democracy component. The scores of the different indicators vary from the very bottom of the scale to the very top, indicating that in, some aspects of participatory democracy are very developed, while others are much less so. The civil society participation indicator reflects a historically robust Swedish civil society with extensive involvement of citizens in civil society organizations, including freedom of participation for women. In addition, civil society organizations are routinely consulted by policymakers. The country s low score in terms of the direct popular vote, on the other hand, suggests a limited degree of institutionalized processes by which the Swedish citizens could express their choices or opinions on specific issues. Hence, the institutionalization of direct popular vote in the form of referendums, initiatives, and plebiscites is very limited. The particularly low scores for this component seem to be the main explanation as to the poor performance of participatory democracy when compared to the other dimensions. s slightly above medium scores of local and regional governments indicate that it is a country where the ideal of directly elected local and regional governments operating autonomously from unelected actors at local and regional levels is not fully achieved. 8

10 The Deliberative Component The deliberative component of democracy captures the core value that political decisions are guided by the pursuit of the public good and should be informed by respectful and reasonable dialogue at all levels rather than by emotional appeals, solidary attachments, parochial interests, or coercion. Figure 6. Deliberative Democracy Component, year Reasoned justification (0-3) Common good (0-4) Respect counterarguments (0-5) Range of consultation (0-5) Engaged society (0-5) Note, that the indicators displayed in Figures 6, 7 and 8 have different scales, which are specified in parentheses in the legend of each figure. The indicators constituting the deliberative component, shown in Figure 6, reflect a somewhat overall coherent development, although at different levels and with variation over time. The indicator reasoned justification (green line), ranging from 0 to 3, measures the extent to which political elites give public and reasoned justifications for their positions when important policy changes are being considered. The top score indicates that sophisticated reasoning has taken place since the 1950s, meaning that elites tend to offer more than one or more complex, nuanced and complete justifications for their position on a particular issue. An engaged society plays a central role in a deliberative democracy. has experienced a top score in the indicator engaged society (blue line) since the late 1990s, suggesting that a large number of non-elite groups, as well as ordinary people, tend to discuss major policies among themselves, in the media, in associations or neighborhoods, or in the streets. Hence, grass-roots deliberation is common and unconstrained. The variable respect counterarguments (orange line) is based on the question of to what extent political elites acknowledge and respect counterarguments when important policy changes are being considered. ends up around 3.5, implying that elites in general tend to acknowledge counterarguments without making explicit negative or positive statements about them. The indicator for justification of positions by political leaders in terms of the common good (purple line) reflects that scores at the top with justifications that are for the most part almost always based on explicit statements of the common good for society, understood either as the greatest good for the greatest number, or as helping the least advantaged in a society. 9

11 Finally, the range of consultation (red line) indicator measures the range of consultation at elite levels when important policy changes are being considered. The score of about 4.5 indicates that consultation includes the elite plus a select range of society, labor, or/and business representatives. The Egalitarian Component The egalitarian idea is that material and immaterial inequalities inhibit the actual exercise of formal rights and liberties; hence a more equal distribution of resources, education, and health across socioeconomic groups should enhance political equality. Figure 7. Egalitarian Democracy Component, year Power distributed by socioecon. position (0-4) Power distributed by social group (0-4) Social group equality for civil liberties (0-4) Educational equality (0-4) Health equality (0-4) Power distributed by gender (0-4) Particularistic or public goods(0-4) Means-tested vs. universalistic (0-5) Figure 7 shows that most indicators included in the egalitarian component have followed a similar path from the beginning of the 20 th century, with more substantial increases around 1920, 1950 and between 1960 and The largest change has taken place in terms of power distributed by gender (green line) and in terms of the indicator means-tested vs universalistic (light blue line). According to the former, men had a near-monopoly on political power until the 1920s, but after a gradual increase in female rights, men and women have had roughly equal political power since the 90s. A sharp increase can be noted around 1920, related to women gaining full suffrage. The means-tested vs universalistic indicator reflects that until the 1920s welfare state policies in general were evenly divided between means-tested targeting poor, needy, or otherwise underprivileged constituents (e.g. cash-transfer programs) and universalistic, potentially benefiting everyone (e.g. education, national health care schemes, and retirement programs). After gradual changes nearly all welfare state policies have become universal since In the V-Dem conceptual scheme, welfare programs that benefit everyone and do not stigmatize certain unprivileged groups, such as poor people, are more democratic from an egalitarian perspective than means-tested programs which only target these particular groups. The country s score on the indicator power distributed by socioeconomic position (red line) has also improved over time. Before, wealthy people at the beginning of the 20 th century had a very strong hold on political power and people of average or lower income had only some degree of influence, and only on issues that mattered less for wealthy people. Today the power gap has 10

12 decreased significantly between wealthy and poor people, despite only a slight decrease beginning in the 1990s. Particularistic or public goods (yellow line) measures the amount of social and infrastructural spending in the national budget which is allocated to public/common goods. This indicator along with social group equality for civil liberties (orange line), power distributed by social group (black line), health equality and educational equality (purple and blue line) are all gathered around the level of 3 in the beginning of the 20 th century and after a gradual improvement over time, they all either reach or nearly reach the top of the scale, which is a 4 in these cases. Female Rights Equality between women and men is indivisible from democracy at all levels, and is broadly recognized as a pre-condition for truly representative and responsive governments. The V-Dem female rights focuses on the ability of women to participate in open discussion of political issues, participation in civil society organizations, freedom of movement, the right to private property, access to justice, freedom from forced labor, and an equal share in the overall distribution of power. Figure 8 depicts developments for the indicators constituting the. has a long tradition of protecting women s rights with many indicators reaching close to top scores since the 1920s. These results suggest that for over a hundred years most women have generally enjoyed full property rights (yellow line), freedom of movement and freedom of speech (black and purple line); that female servitude or other kinds of forced labor (orange line) have been virtually non-existent; and that women have almost never been prevented from participating in civil society organizations (CSOs) (red line). Even so, the indicator power distributed by gender (light blue line) reflects the relatively slow developments in terms of the political dimension of equality. It took decades for women to come close to having as much political power as men, indicated by top scores first appearing in the 1990s. 11

13 Concluding Remarks This data brief depicts the democratic development of from 1900 to 2014, based on key V-Dem indices and indicators. Even at the beginning of the 20 th century, on all but two V-Dem principles of democracy, s score cross the middle of the scale and most are clustered around the level of.8. The development of electoral democracy is slower as the country reaches a score of.8 in the 1940s, after an incremental gradual improvement over the first half of the century in terms of suffrage expansion and more democratic composition of the executive. The component in which shows the weakest performance is within the participatory aspect of democracy. This remains on approximately the same levels in 2014 as it was in Many of the indices and indicators register high scores throughout the 20 th century all the way up to Thus, the country receives a score of.8 or above in all liberal indicators for the whole period. Similarly, Swedish civil society has been constantly rated as robust by the multiple V-Dem coders. However, other aspects of participatory democracy are less developed. The historically low score of the direct popular vote reveals that this form of participation has been utilized to a limited extent, although an increase since the 1980s is evident. The indices on local and regional governments have not yet reached top levels, suggesting that the ability for these subnational governments to act independently from unelected officials at the local and regional levels needs to be expanded if this aspect of participatory democracy is to be improved. In terms of the characteristics of deliberative and egalitarian democracy, receives the highest scores on the V-Dem measures constituting these indices in the 1940s and the 1980s, respectively. The exception is power distributed by gender where the advancement has been historically slower. All other female rights captured in this V-Dem composite measure were largely protected after the 1920s. 12

14 Appendix. Structure of Aggregation Indices and Indicators Democracy Indices Names Mid-Level Democracy and Governance Indices Names Lower-Level Democracy and Governance Indices Names Names Indicators v2_tag Indices and Indicators Electoral democracy Expanded freedom of expression Alternative source information Freedom of association (thick) Share of population with suffrage Clean elections Government censorship effort - Media Government censorship effort - Internet Harassment of journalists Media self-censorship Media bias Print/broadcast media critical Print/broadcast media perspectives Freedom of discussion for men Freedom of discussion for women Freedom of academic and cultural expression Media bias Print/broadcast media critical Print/broadcast media perspectives Party ban Barriers to parties Opposition parties autonomy Elections multiparty CSO entry and exit CSO repression Percent of population with suffrage EMB autonomy EMB capacity v2x_polyarchy v2x_freexp_thick v2mecenefm v2mecenefi v2meharjrn v2meslfcen v2mebias v2mecrit v2merange v2cldiscm v2cldiscw v2clacfree v2xme_altinf v2mebias v2mecrit v2merange v2x_frassoc_thick v2psparban v2psbars v2psoppaut v2elmulpar v2cseeorgs v2csreprss v2x_suffr v2elsuffrage v2xel_frefair v2elembaut v2elembcap 13

15 Election voter registry v2elrgstry Election vote buying v2elvotbuy Election other voting v2elirreg irregularities Election government v2elintim intimidation Election other electoral violence v2elpeace Elected executive (de jure) Election free and fair v2elfrfair v2x_accex Lower chamber elected v2lgello Upper chamber elected v2lgelecup Legislature dominant chamber v2lgdomchm HOS selection by legislature in v2exaphos HOS appointment in v2expathhs HOG selection by legislature in v2exaphogp HOG appointment in v2expathhg HOS appoints cabinet in v2exdfcbhs HOG appoints cabinet in v2exdjcbhg HOS dismisses ministers in v2exdfdmhs HOG dismisses ministers in v2exdfdshg HOS appoints cabinet in v2exdfcbhs Liberal democracy Electoral democracy Liberal component Equality before the law and individual liberty Rigorous and impartial public administration Transparent laws with predictable enforcement Access to justice for men Access to justice for women Property rights for men Property rights for women Freedom from torture Freedom from political killings Freedom from forced labor for men v2x_libdem v2x_polyarchy v2x_liberal v2xcl_rol v2clrspct v2cltrnslw v2clacjstm v2clacjstw v2clprptym v2clprptyw v2cltort v2clkill v2clslavem 14

16 Deliberative democracy Egalitarian democracy Index Electoral democracy Deliberative component Electoral democracy Egalitarian component Judicial constraints on the executive Legislative constraints on the executive Equal protection Freedom from forced labor for women Freedom of religion Freedom of foreign movement Freedom of domestic movement for men Freedom of domestic movement for women Executive respects constitution Compliance with judiciary Compliance with high court High court independence Lower court independence Legislature questions officials in Executive oversight Legislature investigates in Legislature opposition parties Reasoned justification Common good Respect counterarguments Range of consultation Engaged society Access to justice for men Access to justice for women Social class equality in respect for civil liberties Social group equality in respect for civil liberties v2clslavef v2clrelig v2clfmove v2cldmovem v2cldmovew v2x_jucon v2exrescon v2jucomp v2juhccomp v2juhcind v2juncind v2xlg_legcon v2lgqstexp v2lgotovst v2lginvstp v2lgoppart v2x_delibdem v2x_polyarchy v2xdl_delib v2dlreason v2dlcommon v2dlcountr v2dlconslt v2dlengage v2x_egaldem v2x_polyarchy v2x_egal v2xeg_eqprotec v2clacjstm v2clacjstw v2clacjust v2clsocgrp 15

17 Participatory democracy Electoral democracy Participatory component Equal distribution of resources Civil society participation Direct popular vote Weaker civil liberties population Power distributed by socioeconomic position Power distributed by social group Educational equality Health equality Power distributed by gender Encompassingness Means-tested vs. universalistic Candidate selection-- National/local CSO consultation CSO participatory environment CSO womens participation Initiatives permitted v2clsnlpct v2xeg_eqdr v2pepwrses v2pepwrsoc v2peedueq v2pehealth v2pepwrgen v2dlencmps v2dlunivl v2x_partipdem v2x_polyarchy v2x_partip v2x_cspart v2pscnslnl v2cscnsult v2csprtcpt v2csgender v2xdd_dd v2ddlegci Initiatives signatures % v2ddsigcip Initiatives signature-gathering time limit Initiatives signature-gathering period Initiatives level v2ddgrtlci v2ddgrgpci v2ddlevci Initiatives participation threshold Initiatives approval threshold v2ddbindci v2ddthreci Initiatives administrative threshold Initiatives super majority v2dddistci v2ddspmjci Local government Regional government Occurrence of citizen-initiative this year Local government elected Local offices relative power Local government exists v2ddciniyr v2xel_locelec v2ellocelc v2ellocpwr v2ellocgov v2xel_regelec 16

18 Core civil society Regional government elected Regional offices relative power Regional government exists v2elsrgel v2elrgpwr v2elreggov v2xcs_ccsi Party institutionalization Women political empowerment Electoral regime Women civil liberties Women civil society participation Women political participation Legislative or constituent assembly election Legislature closed down or aborted Presidential CSO entry and exit CSO repression CSO participatory environment Party organizations Party branches Party linkages Distinct party platforms Legislative party cohesion Freedom of domestic movement for women Freedom from forced labor for women Property rights for women Access to justice for women Freedom of discussion for women CSO womens participation Percent (%) female journalists Power distributed by gender Lower chamber female legislators v2eltype v2eltype v2eltype v2eltype Legislature bicameral v2cseeorgs v2csreprss v2csprtcpt v2xps_party v2psorgs v2psprbrch v2psprlnks v2psplats v2pscohesv v2x_gender v2x_gencl v2cldmovew v2clslavef v2clprptyw v2clacjstw v2x_gencs v2cldiscw v2csgender v2mefemjrn v2x_genpp v2pepwrgen v2lgfemleg v2x_elecreg v2xel_elecparl v2eltype_0 v2eltype_1 v2eltype_4 v2eltype_5 v2xlg_leginter v2lgbicam v2xel_elecpres 17

19 Corruption Electoral component election Chief executive no longer elected Public sector corruption Executive corruption Freedom of association (thick) Share of population with suffrage Clean elections v2eltype v2eltype HOS = HOG? HOG appointment in HOS appointment in Legislature corrupt activities Judicial corruption decision Public sector corrupt exchanges Public sector theft Executive bribery and corrupt exchanges Executive embezzlement and theft Party ban Barriers to parties Opposition parties autonomy Elections multiparty CSO entry and exit CSO repression Percent of population with suffrage EMB autonomy EMB capacity Election voter registry Election vote buying v2eltype_6 v2eltype_7 v2x_hosinter v2exhoshog v2expathhg v2expathhs v2x_corr v2lgcrrpt v2jucorrdc v2x_pubcorr v2excrptps v2exthftps v2x_execorr v2exbribe v2exembez v2x_edcomp_thick v2x_frassoc_thick v2psparban v2psbars v2psoppaut v2elmulpar v2cseeorgs v2csreprss v2x_suffr v2elsuffrage v2xel_frefair v2elembaut v2elembcap v2elrgstry v2elvotbuy Election other voting v2elirreg irregularities Election government v2elintim intimidation Election other electoral violence v2elpeace Election free and fair v2elfrfair 18

20 Elected executive (de jure) v2x_accex Lower chamber elected v2lgello Upper chamber elected v2lgelecup Legislature dominant chamber v2lgdomchm HOS selection by legislature in v2exaphos HOS appointment in v2expathhs HOG selection by legislature in v2exaphogp HOG appointment in v2expathhg HOS appoints cabinet in v2exdfcbhs HOG appoints cabinet in v2exdjcbhg HOS dismisses ministers in v2exdfdmhs HOG dismisses ministers in v2exdfdshg HOS appoints cabinet in v2exdfcbhs Freedom of expression Government censorship effort - Media Harassment of journalists Media self-censorship Freedom of discussion for men Freedom of discussion for women Freedom of academic and cultural expression v2x_freexp v2mecenefm v2meharjrn v2meslfcen v2cldiscm v2cldiscw v2clacfree 19