Page1 LMCMUN 2018 SURAT SESSION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS, 1907

Transcription

1 Page1 LMCMUN 2018 SURAT SESSION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS, 1907

2 Page2 CHAIRPERSON S ADDRESS Greetings delegates! The Indian National Movement saw millions and millions of lives being sacrificed. It saw blood, courage, death, destruction, but what it never saw were our freedom fighters surrendering to the hands of the British. There were several organizations, associations and parties which had been formed, one of them being the Indian National Congress. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an eminent leader of the INC once said, "भ रतक तबतकख नबह य ज रह ह, जबतकयह ससर फ क क ऱश षन रहज ए Keeping this in mind, we see that the INC held several sessions for the betterment of India and its people, and the Surat Session was unarguably one of the most significant sessions. Two distinct trends were associated with the Congress politics- the moderates and the extremists- associated with two different sets of Congress leaders. The difference in their ideologies had become palpable and this had led to alot of disagreement and rivalry between the two blocs in the National Camp. Lord Curzon, the Governor General of India from has very successfully implemented his policy of Divide and Rule time and time again. At the onset of the forthcoming session he said, The Congress is tottering to its fall one of my great ambitions while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise. Now, it is up to you, delegates, who will meet in the upcoming session in Surat from 26 th December,1907, to decide the fate of India and work effectively towards the attainment of Swaraj. A brief introduction of ourselves- I, Yashodhara Bhalotia, am a humanities student with special keenness for History and Art. I have attended a host of Model United Nations Conferences around the country and am particularly fond of Indian committees. Apart from

3 Page3 MUN and debate, I am also an avid golfer and spend most of my weekends on the golf course. My love for dogs is immeasurable and I absolutely relish Japanese food. I, Ishika Prasad, am a Commerce student and have a great interest in Economics. I have attended a few Model United Nations conferences and what I enjoy most are Indian committees. I am particularly fond of communiqués, and hope to see extremely comprehensive ones in our committee as well. Besides that, I also have a great passion for basketball. I love pizza, chocolate and anything pink. Hope to see you there! Yours truly, Yashodhara Bhalotia and Ishika Prasad, Co-chairpersons, Surat Session of the Indian National Congress, 1907, La Martiniere Calcutta Model United Nations, 2018.

4 Page4 CONTENTS 1. Formation of the Indian National Congress 2. Ideology of Moderates 3. Ideology of Extremists 4. Partition of Bengal 5. The 21 st Session of the Indian National Congress 6. The 22 nd Session of the Indian National Congress 7. Definition of Swaraj 8. The Swadeshi and Boycott Movements 9. Formation of the Muslim League 10.Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act, Surat Session of the Indian National Congress, Questions needed to be addressed by the delegates

5 Page5 FORMATION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS The formation of the INC was not a sudden event; it was the culmination of a process of political awakening that begun in the 1860s and 1870s. Factors, which led to the growth of nationalism in India- There were several causes, which led to growth of feelings of nationalism in the closure of the nineteenth century: 1. India had become merely an agricultural colony of the British, who mercilessly exploited the Indian economy. The suffering of the Indian peasants, stagnation of Indian industries, dissatisfaction of unemployed educated youths and the complete ignorance of people s welfare by the Government fuelled the sentiments of nationalism in the masses. 2. Racial discrimination was at its peak. The British rulers looked down at the Indians with contempt. Lord Lytton s repressive measures- the Vernacular Press Act and the Indian Arms Act- bear testimony to the practice of racial discrimination. 3. The Ilbert Bill controversy was proof of the fact that

6 Page6 the British considered themselves superior to Indians. The opposition of the bill by Lord Ripon called upon for the amendment of Criminal Procedure Code. 4. The lowering of the age limit for the Indian Civil Service Examination seemed like a calculated move to ruin the prospects of Indian candidates for the Indian Civil Service. 5. The development in the transport and communication systems by the British proved to be a blessing for the Indians who came together from all parts of the country, thus achieving political unity. A.O. Hume and the formation of the Indian National Congress- The problem was recognized at hand by the British exofficial Allan Octavian Hume who outlined in 1883 that there must be a body representing Indian interests in order to prevent another unrest in the form of a mass agitation. Hume had served as the Governor of the Etwah region. He was a first-hand witness to the destruction and devastation caused by the Mutiny of He saw the Mutiny as a wake up call to better the plight of Indians. Hume was a radical MP who questioned the British policies towards India. Out of his

7 Page7 loyalty to the Crown, he foresaw the impending danger and suggested the creation of a Union of 50 men in order to supply them with a medium to have healthy debate and dialogue with the Government and put forward the demands of the people. His open criticism of Lytton s repressive policies got him ex-communicated from the Secretariat prior to which he had already gone against the Government in However, with the Viceroyalty passing into the hands of Lord Dufferin, Hume his ideas did receive much support. Dufferin laid the foundation of the modern Indian Army by establishing the Imperial Service Corps, officered by Indians. Hume held the Theosophical Convention at Madras, in 1884, with seventeen Indians regarding the formation of an Indian Union. Eventually, Dufferin laid down the basis of the Indian National Congress according to his Safety Valve Theory, wherein the Indians would be given a medium to vent their grievances via their representatives. When Lord Dufferin expected a political organization to represent the best Indian opinion, he had not thought of suggesting an organization that would demand parliamentary government for India, or self-government even on colonial lines. What he aimed at was a sort of a harmless association, which should serve

8 Page8 more as a safety valve than as a Nationalist organization. Allan Octavian Hume Forerunners of the Congress- The second half of the 19th century witnessed the growth of several political associations, which were born out of political consciousness and nationalist sentiments. These organizations emerged in different parts of India but they had a common motive, that is, to unite the masses for a common cause and make them aware about the ills prevalent in the British rule. These organizations were local or sectional in character

9 Page9 however they played a key role in the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) in Thus, they are called the forerunners of the INC. The forerunners/precursors of the Indian National Congress: 1. The Landholders; Society (founded in 1837) headed by Dwarkanath Tagore was an organization aimed at securing the interests of peasants in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. 2. The Bengal British Indian Society (founded in 1843) aimed at protecting the interests of the general public. 3. The British India Association of Bengal was founded in 1851 as a result of the merger of the Landholders; Society and the Bengal British Indian Society. 4. The Bombay Association (1852) and the Madras Native Association (1852) were established to make administrative reforms and to encourage educational activities. 5. East India Association (1866) was founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London to make the British aware of the grievances of the Indians.

10 Page10 6. The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) was established to draw opinion and the Government s attention to people s problems. The Indian League formed in1875 aimed at promoting the sense of Nationalism in people. 7. The Indian Association (1876) was founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose. Its objective was to create public opinion on political matters and evoke a common political programme. 8. With a view of bringing representatives from all over India to a common platform, the Indian Association organized All-India National Conferences twice in 1883 and However, post the The All India National Conference December 1883, Nationalist sought to centralize the force of the National awakening under a single center - one that they found in the Indian National Congress. Eventually, The Indian Association merged with the Indian National Congress in December 1886, thereby completely centralizing and strengthening the movement.

11 Page11 The First Session of the Indian National Congress (28-31December)- The first session of the INC was supposed to be held in Poona, but due to a cholera outbreak, it was shifted to Bombay. It was presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee and attended by 72 delegates. Some of the aims outlined by WC Bonnerjee in the first session of the INC were as follows-: 1. To promote friendly relations among nationalist workers in different parts of the country. 2. To develop and strengthen feelings of national unity throughout the country. 3. To formulate popular demands and to place them before the British government. 4. To train and organize public opinion in the country. The demands/ immediate objectives of the INC were as follows: 1. More representation for Indians in the government and in administration. 2. Indians must be placed in higher position in the government so Civil Service Examinations were to be

12 Page12 held simultaneously in India as well as in Britain. 3. The judiciary must be separated from the executive. 4. Repeal of the Arms Act as well as the freedoms of speech and expression. 5. Reduction in revenue, taxes, cut in military expenditure and channeling these funds into irrigation purposes. 6. They proposed the creation of Legislative Council for the North- Western Provinces, Sindh and Awadh and an increase in the Indian representation in all such Councils. They demanded that the Indians be given the right to question and discuss the budget laid down by the Crown and participate in the debate regarding policies, which are to be laid down by the Government. FIRST SESSION OF THE INC

13 Page13 IDEOLOGIES OF THE MODERATES 1. Moderates believed that a direct struggle for political emancipation of country was not yet on the agenda. What was on the agenda was the arousal and consolidation of national feeling, bringing of a large number of Indians into the vortex of nationalist politics and their training in politics and political agitation. The popular demands had to be formulated on a country wide basis so that the emerging public opinion might have an All-India focus. 2. The moderate leaders made modest demands from the British rulers in a very cautious and peaceful manner, primarily because they had an eternal connection to the British way of life. They believed in the British sense of justice and fair play and were deeply grateful towards the British for the boons that their rule had conferred upon the nation. According to them, the modern ideas of liberty, equality, democracy and dignity of the individual had been brought out into the open due to, and only due the British rule and English education. The much -needed law and order, and effective administration which India had been lacking for years was established due to the British. The moderates were also aware that the INC was a young organization in its early stage of development. They did not want to

14 Page14 incur the wrath of the British rulers, which could have resulted in suppression of their activities and nipped the Congress in the bud. 3. The moderates genuinely believed that India had gained from the political connection with the British and often acknowledged their loyalty to British rule. However, this did not mean that they were not patriotic. 4. The moderates disfavored a direct confrontation with the British rulers, but wanted to change their rule to reflect the interests of the country. Later, when many of the moderate leaders realized that British rule had done a lot more harm to the country than good, they underwent a change of heart and began to press for Swaraj or self-government for India within the British Empire. They were aware that national consciousness among the Indian people had to be promoted and consolidated before throwing a direct challenge to the British rule. The moderate leaders adopted the strategy of influencing and organizing public opinion to compel the British to approve their (moderates ) demands bit by bit. 5. Their political strategy was to emphasize building-up public opinion in India as well as outside India, especially in Britain. In India, they sought to promote national consciousness and educate the people on political issues by submitting petitions to British authorities, organizing

15 Page15 meetings, passing resolutions and giving speeches. Outside India, in Britain, they made efforts to familiarize the people of Britain and the Parliament with the real conditions in India. They carried out active propaganda to influence the public opinion in Britain by sending delegations of leading Indians to Britain. In 1889, a British Committee of the INC was founded. A journal called India was commenced by this committee in Dadabhai Naoroji spent a major part of his life as a representative of India in Britain, and played an exemplary role in making a pitch for India s case. 6. Justified from their respective viewpoints, the Moderates acclaimed the British rule as most advanced in comparison to India s position prior to the appearance of the British. The Moderate ideology was established on obedience to the Empire up to the time of 1905 Bengal partition that had exhibited marks of splits in the consequences of heinous acts, dealt with those resisting Curzon s authoritative layout of maneuvering a division among the Indians by projecting their religious schism. 7. The new nationalist approach, sketched by the Extremists approached comprehensively on an unyielding anti-imperial attitude that also nurtured the revolutionary terrorist activities in the late nineteenth and early years of the twentieth century. This was not supported by the moderates.

16 Page16 8. On one hand the Moderates upheld the achievement of self government by way of progressive reforms, the Extremists demanded complete Swaraj. 9. Extremists were not in two minds in supporting violence, if required, to promote the interests of the nation whereas the Moderates were in favour of championing constitutional and peaceful measures as most desirable to prevent immediate conflict with the ruler. 10. The Extremists turned to boycott and swadeshi that never received encouragement from the Moderates. 11. The Moderates seemed to be complacent under the British maybe because of their conviction that Indians were deficient of self-rule. 12. They lacked faith in the common people, did not work among them and consequently failed to acquire any roots among them. Even their propaganda did not reach them. Nor did they organize any all-india campaigns and when, during , such an all-india campaign did come up in the form of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, they were not its leaders. Their politics was based on the assumption that they would be able to persuade the rulers to introduce economic and political reforms but their practical achievement in this field was meagre. Instead of respecting them for their moderation British treated them with contempt.

17 Page The moderates believed in England s providential mission in India and thus wanted Dominion Status or self-government within the British Empire and wanted to make India a country like the two British colonies of Australia and Canada. They believed in the policy of the 3ps Prayer, Protest and Petition. This method was called the 'method of mendicancy. They believed that constitutional and peaceful methods could help them gain Swaraj. 14. The moderates were loyal to the British rulers. For Moderate leaders, British rule was a boon, and they worked to ensure that the British government fulfilled the promises they had held out to their worthy colonial subjects. They were staunch believers of liberalism and moderate politics. Many such leaders, in fact, were editors of either English or Indian language newspapers and wielded their pen powerfully. They thought that it was only the bureaucracy which stood between the people and their rights. 15. It can thus be concluded that the Moderates believed in-the efficacy of peaceful and bloodless means and constitutional methods. They used the Press as the platform to discuss various British policies and disseminated these articles, thereby creating awareness. Sessions were also used as platforms to pass resolutions or to discuss/protest against the discriminatory laws.

18 Page18 IDEOLOGIES OF THE EXTREMISTS 1.) The Moderates were a party whom the British would try to pacify by momentarily placating their demands by false illusions. The political complacency of the Moderates gave rise to one of the most significant blocs ever in Indian History, The Extremist faction of the Indian National Congress. The extremists had only one goal- Swaraj, i.e., complete independence from the British. As Mr. Tilak explained: Swaraj or self-government is essential for the exercise of Swadharma. Without Swaraj, there could be no social reform, no industrial progress, no useful education and no fulfillment of national life. 2.) On the one hand where the Moderates looked upon the passage of the various Acts as means to curtail their civil liberties as a threat, the Extremists looked upon them as a wakeup call- a signal which marked the ripening of time. They foresaw the power which a public agitation had and felt that these Acts were passed as the British could see the impending danger if the masses propagated the Extremist led movements like the Swadeshi and

19 Page19 Boycott. Hence, the Extremists chose to pick up the nature of their campaign from a non-cooperation movement which would shake the very foundation of the Government thereby facilitating the potential overthrow of the imperial rule. 3.) This faction which advocated direct confrontation and resistance symbolized the Stick of the Carrot and Stick Policy, in the sense that their determination and steadiness of purpose to achieve their political goal of the attainment of Swaraj was not one which could be placated or pacified and hence the Government looked to them as an impending threat and in order to keep them in check, attacked the bloc and tried to suppress them time and time again. 4.) The extremists used the methods of the Irish terrorists and the Russian Nihilist, that is, to assassinate unpopular officers. They preached non-cooperation with the government and boycott of all things British. The extremists advocated and adopted the method of passive resistance. It consisted in refusing in an organized way to do anything that might help the government and thereby make the administration impossible. Boycott meant far more than a mere boycott of British goods. It also included boycott of government services, honors and titles.

20 Page20 5.) The extremists aimed at organizing the civil life of the people independently of government help and control. They included in their programmes the organization of villages, talukas and districts, the establishment of Panchayats for administration of justice and schools and colleges for public education. 6.) They wanted the participation of the masses and wanted to drive a direct and strategized struggle to overthrow the then existing exploitative system of Governance. The Extra- Constitutional means adopted by the bloc paved way for the rise of numerous underground associations who were willing to take a violent recourse and some of which had even planned as far as to infiltrate the Indian Army to carry out a full-fledged coup. 7.) Many revolutionary terrorist organizations had also been established the early 1900s. Two such important organizations were the Abhinav Bharat Society and the Anushilan Samiti. 8.) By reviving Hindu festivals like the Shivaji festival and Ganapati festival and by giving a religious tinge to the movements initiated by them, the extremists managed to gain the support of the Hindu majority but unintentionally discouraged Muslim participation. 9.) The emergence of the bloc marked the spiritual orientation of

21 Page21 the movement. The Extremists used the Indian scriptural texts to restore to the people their self-reliance and belief and to inspire them to resist the radical Westernization, thereby moving one step closer to resenting the Government as a whole. They took great pride in the cultural heritage of the Nation and worked towards the revival of the indigenous industries which had been destroyed by the introduction of foreign capital. 10.) The Extremists laid emphasis of National Education by the means of an educational system run and regulated by the countrymen. National Education comprised vocational, religious, social and secular education. 11.) Within the very bloc itself, they took a number of initiatives to try to better the plight of their needy brethren: Voluntary associations were set up for rural sanitation, preventive police duties, regulation of pilgrim gathering and providing relief against calamities. Arbitration committees were established to take up civil and non- cognizable disputes in smaller towns and villages and to expose the imperialistic and inhumane behavior of the British. 12.) Tilak said: Political rights will have to be fought for. The Moderates think that it can be won by persuasion. We think that they can only be got by strong pressure. The extremists lived a life

22 Page22 of utmost sacrifice. They never bent to pressure of any kind. Their objective was Purna Swaraj and they refused to budge an inch from that position. EMINENT EXTREMIST LEADERS

23 Page23 Difference in ideologies between the Moderates and the Extremists- MODERATES ( ) EXTREMISTS ( ) The bloc comprised of chiefly the The bloc comprised of men from all minority of Indians from the upper spheres of social life but mainly the middle social strata and educated lower middle class who Zamindars who had been educated were adamant to overthrow the in Britain and considered existing tyrannical order and themselves to be the intelligentsia reconstruct the system into a representatives of their democratic one with equal rights countrymen. for all. Their ideologies and inspiration They gained inspiration from stemmed from European history. They relied on complacent Constitutional means such as the 3Ps to achieve their political goal, the 3Ps being- Petition, Prayer and Protest. The nature of the campaign being relatively passive, they were easily suppressed and momentarily placated. Hence, they represented the Carrot of the Carrot and Stick Policy. They aimed at improving the existing system of administration and sought to win the foreigner. They believed in England s Providential Mission. They wanted to limit the Swadeshi Movement solely to Bengal as they feared that a widespread agitation Indian history at large. They were advocate of direct confrontation and extra- Constitutional means such as mass agitations and the Swadeshi and Boycott movements. Having not the least bit of faith in the British means of fair play, they recourse taken by them was radical and something which the Government would never placate. Hence, they represented the Stick of the Carrot and Stick Policy. Their radical means paved way for Revolutionary Terrorism. They aimed at completely reconstructing the system thereby potentially replacing the foreigner. They disregarded England s Providential Mission. They wanted the spread of the Swadeshi to all parts of the Nation in the hope to completely

24 Page24 would have an adverse effect on the Morley Minto Reforms which were to come. They believed that the Boycott movement was just to be the Preferential Boycott of foreign goods. They were a class who always had some say and representation in the administration. Being British loyalists, the masse but naturally resented them. They followed the exclusive policy of being the representatives of the Nation. They believed that the movement must be solely limited to the bloc and that the masses were not to be involved. They were advocates of cooperation and mendicancy. They believed that the Crown could be talked into their demands. They primarily wanted greater representation in the administration. They were not sectarian in the nature of their campaign. overthrow the imperialistic drain in economy which was the Crown s chief interest in the colony thereby, simultaneously reviving indigenous industries. They advocated the Boycott to all spheres of life. They wanted to completely do away with all things English be it the legislative institutions, educational centres, shops or courts. They were a bloc of people completely detested and alienated from the British and hence, their strength of purpose in ousting the imperial reign won them the support of the masses. The bloc propagated the democratic participation of the people and empowered them to lead a non-cooperation movement. They foresaw the strength of such a large scale movement. They strongly believed in direct confrontation. They knew that the only way to achieve their goal was to pressurize the Government. They wanted to overthrow the existing administration. They were relatively communal in the Nature of their campaign.

25 Page25 PARTITION OF BENGAL,1905 Bengal, Bihar and Orissa had formed a single province in British Indian since1765. This province, Bengal, was the biggest and most populated province of India at that time. It was also the centre of nationalism and its solidarity posed a great threat to the British. Therefore, on 20 th July, 1905, the announcement of the partition of Bengal was made. However, the proposal of this partition had been put forward much before in 1903 and that alone had met with unprecedented opposition, especially from the influential, educated middle-class Hindus. But no opposition could ve kept Curzon from carrying out his plan of partition, so on 16th October 1905 Bengal was divided into East Bengal which consisted of Tripura, Chittagong, Dhaka, Rajshahi (excluding Darjeeling), the district of Malda and Assam and on the west, Bengal would merge with Sambalpur and 5 other Uriya-speaking states from the Central Provinces. This partition was done in such a way that it left the eastern province with a Muslim majority whereas the western one had a Hindu majority.

26 Page26 Government s Reason for Partition- LORD CURZON, Governor General (1899=1905) The following were the reasons put forward by the government for the partition of Bengal- 1. To relieve the government of Bengal of a part of the administrative burden and to assure more efficient administration in the outlying districts. 2. The government wished to promote the development of Assam by enlarging its jurisdiction so as to provide it with an outlet to the sea. 3. The government felt the necessity to unite the scattered Uriya-speaking population under one single administration. Reaction to the Partition- The partition was opposed through an intensive use of conventional moderate methods such as press campaign. Numerous meetings were held and petitions were put forward. The student community had been actively involved in the anti-partition protests. Initially the demonstrations were joined by both, the Hindus and the Muslims, in vast proportions. However, when these techniques failed, new more aggressive methods were taken up by the protestors. Thus, the partition of Bengal gave birth to the boycott and Swadeshi movement and also to revolutionary terrorism. The swadeshi and boycott movement urged the people to give up foreign goods and clothes and use the ones which were made by the people of India. The students of schools and colleges were active participants of this movement. To curb this movement the government issued the Carlyle Circular (10th October, 1905)which prohibited the students from participating in any such nationalist activities. It also threatened the withdrawal of grants and scholarships from nationalist dominated

27 Page27 institutions. However, this further aggravated the situation as the students decided to boycott official educational institutions and national schools and colleges were organized. An anti-circular society under the leadership of Sachidranath Basu and Ramakanta Roy was also formed (4th Nov, 1905). The younger generation, which got sucked into the politics immediately, adopted terrorist methods by using firearms, pistols and bombs indiscriminately. Several assassinations were also committed in this period. The British has to start using military forces to curb the agitation. A network of secret revolutionary organizations such as the Anusilan Samiti and Dhaka Anusilan Samiti were established to collect arms. British officials were being killed and robbed by members of such organistaions, especially the jailors. This military opposition was growing stronger in Bengal, Punjab, UP as well as London. When the proposal of the partition was first put forward in 1903 it also faced firm opposition from the Muslim community. The Moslem Chronicle and the Central National Mohammedan Association condemned this measure. Even Khwaja Salimullah (who later became one of the major leaders of the Muslims against the anti-partition movement) termed it as beastly, initially. A manifesto signed by 7leading Muslim personalities was circulated to the Muslims in both East and West Bengal to give their full support to the antipartition movement. However, the Muslim intelligentsia criticized the extremists militant nationalism which they believed was against the spirit of Islam. Despite their early support, later the Muslims sided with the British as they realized that the creation of a new province would do much for the betterment and development of the Muslim community. The British, too, started favoring the Muslims to win their support. For example, on March 5th, 1907 a serious fight took place between lathi-bearing Hindus and Muslims. Several Hindus were arrested and even charged for murder but no Muslim was arrested.

28 Page28 The Islam Pracharak described the Swadeshi movement as a Hindu movement and expressed grave concern saying that it would eventually destroy the lives of the common people. Muslims even tried to unite different sections of their own community as they felt that the Hindu agitation against the partition was a communal movement and a threat to them. The insecurities of the Muslims were also sparked when Bampfylde Fuller, who was accused of being extremely partial towards the Muslims by the antipartition leaders, resigned and his resignation was accepted immediately. This was considered a political victory for the Hindus by the Muslims. However, the real reason for his resignation was that the British government had refused to retaliate against the agitators in Sirajganj.But some Muslims still wanted to put an end to the Hindu-Muslim antagonism. A group of important members of both the communities met Viceroy Lord Minto on 15th march, 1907 with suggestions to quell the violence and promote harmony. Khwaja Atiqullah was one of the most prominent leaders of the Muslims who supported the antipartition movement. In the Calcutta session of the INC he even moved a resolution denouncing the partition. There were several Muslim preachers of Swadeshi ideas too, like Din Muhammad and Abdul Gaffar. However, some of the Muslims who supported the Swadeshi movement didn t support the boycott agitation. A section of the Muslim press tried to promote harmonious relations between both the communities. Another important fact that must be mentioned is that some of the Hindus were alarmed by the revolutionary terrorism and decided to side with the British government. To prove their loyalty to the government they even stood beside their Muslim brothers and took a stand against the anti-partition agitators. The Annulment of the Partition- Owing to mass political protests, the partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911.Its consequences were as follows:-

29 Page29 1. New provinces were created based on linguistic lines rather than religious lines. The Bihar and Orissa Province was carved out of Bengal. Bihar and Orissa became separate provinces in A separate Assam province was created. 2. The capital of British India was moved to Delhi from Calcutta in 1911 after King George V s announcement. 3. Despite the annulment, the partition did create a communal divide among the Hindus and Muslims of Bengal. 4. In 1947, Bengal was partitioned for the second time, solely on religious grounds, as part of the Partition of India, following the formation of the nations, India and Pakistan. PARTITION OF BENGAL

30 Page30 CONGRESS SESSION OF 1905 President-Gopal Krishna Gokhale Location-Benaras Days of the Conference- 27th to 30th of December GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE The most significant incident that took place in that year was the partition of Bengal, effected from 16 th October The entire nation and the province of Bengal in particular rose up in protest against this outrageous act of repression. The Congress session of 1905 addressed this issue. The president, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, was a moderate, however, he showed his support for the Swadeshi and Boycott movements. His address said The true Swadeshi movement is both a patriotic and an economic movement Mr. Gokhale was also a part of the small congress delegation that had gone to England to plead for the repealment of the partition of Bengal. In this session, a resolution regarding Boycott was put forth, which was given effect in the 1906 session. Women took the initiative of holding their own session for the first time. Over 600womengathered and gave speeches about patriotism, duties of women and national education for females. These were primarily in Hindi and Bengali. The main purpose of this meeting was solidarity across India and mobilization of female support for the nationalist movement.

31 Page31 Analysis of the session- Judging by the fact that the session was presided over by a moderate, it is understood that the moderates were still the more popular sect and they were the ones holding the reins of the Congress. The Congressmen in general still had faith in British system and believed in imbibing the British systems of democracy and representative institutions for India. They refused to move outside the field of constitutional agitation, or doing anything that would displease the government. However, Mr. Gokhale clearly showed his support for the Swadeshi and Boycott movements, provided that they did go beyond the field of Constitutional agitation. In Mr. Gokhale s words The field of Constitutional agitation was a very wide one. Three things were excludedrebellion, abetting or aiding as foreign invasion, resorting to crime. Thus, the congress was still against the idea of activism and direct actions desired by the assertives under Tilak.

32 Page32 CONGRESS SESSION OF 1906 President-Dadabhai Naoroji Location-Calcutta Days of Conference- 26th to 29th of December DADABHAI NAOROJI This was one of the most significant sessions in the history of the Congress. The difference in ideologies of constitutional agitation of the Moderates and the activism of the Assertive had become so sharp, that it was difficult for the two sects to coexist and work under the banner of the same organization. The Assertive proposed the name of their foremost leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak as president. This alarmed the Moderates. Tilak was well known for his belief in Swaraj, and his determination to achieve it through applying strong pressure

33 Page33 on the government, by mobilizing the masses and converting the demand for Swaraj into a mass movement. The moderates at no cost wanted to be tagged as radical. They still held the attainment of Dominion Status as their ultimate objective. Thus, they propose the name of Dadabhai Naoroji as president. Dadabhai was specially called from England for this purpose. Dadabhai served as a consensus candidate and even the assertive couldn t oppose him. This was deliberately done to prevent Tilak from becoming President. However, Dadabhai showed dynamism in his speech, by first mentioning the word Swaraj, where the congress had been harping on only Dominion Status since its inception. In his presidential address, he said All taxation, legislation and all the powers of spending the taxes were in the hands of the representatives of the people in the United Kingdom, so it should be in India. The Congress passed resolutions on Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott and National Education in this session. The assertive were reluctant to accept such plans and wanted to tone down the resolution by inserting a clause that self-government means that obtaining the self -governing British Colonies. Thus, the whole meaning of Swaraj of the Assertive was changed. The Assertive were defeated in this politics and the difference became apparent. Congress was now bound to split. Analysis of the session- This Session showed that reluctance to stick to merely constitutional means was gaining grounds in the Congress. However, the Moderates were unhappy with such developments. They did not want to take any action that would give the government an opportunity to declare the Congress illegal. They still had immense respect and belief in the Government. However, the Assertive had no faith in the government and they demanded Swaraj. i.e., self-government. Thus,the split that was to come became evident from this session.

34 Page34 DEFINITION OF SWARAJ Swaraj is life, it is nectar and salvation. Swaraj in a nation is the breath of life. Without breath of life a man is dead. So also without Swaraj a nation is dead. -Sri Aurobindo Ghose The term Swaraj can be interpreted as self (swa) government (raj). The word Swaraj was pronounced by the outstanding Extremist leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak as early as 1896, when he said Swaraj is my birth-right and I will have it. With Dadabhai Naoroji as the President, the Indian National Congress in its Calcutta Session of 1906, adopted Swaraj as the ultimate goal of India. Tilak was highly influential when it came to making people conscious about self-governance. He said that people s rule in lieu of bureaucracy is Swaraj. To him, Swaraj meant Home Rule. According to him, under Swaraj, the ruler and those being ruled over must reside in one nation and belong to one group. He laid emphasis on the State being governed by law. The government would be elected by the people thereby making it responsible to the Citizens. The State should be established for the overall development of the individuals. He said, We demand Swaraj, as it is the foundation and not the height of our prosperity Tilak looked at Swaraj to be not only a right, but a

35 Page35 dharma, a religion. The leaders wanted all those who propagated Swaraj to firstly reject and completely uproot the foreign enemy from their community and drive them out of the country and secondly invigorate new reference points, systems, and structures thus allowing overall development. The adoption of Swaraj introduced a system where the state machinery was to be demolished and the power was to reside in and only in the hands of the people. This concept of Swaraj that was adopted by the Congress and more-so the extremists is somewhat similar to the demand for Purna Swaraj or Complete Independence made by Mahatma Gandhi in the late 1930 s.however, it must be kept in mind that the Extremists demand for Swaraj in and after 1907 was much different from Gandhi s idea of Swaraj because the Extremists, unlike Gandhi did not propose any clear-cut political structure of the state that would be established after attaining the status of a self-ruling state. Tilak was not an idealist thinker like Plato, Hegel, Rousseau or Green. He never thought of any ideal State. His main aim was the political emancipation of India. He was realistic in his political thought and believed in supremacy of the concept of freedom. Swaraj is a kind of Individualist Anarchism. To gain independence, it was important for India to give birth to a mechanism in order to attain the twin objectives of empowerment of people alongside the

36 Page36 empowerment of the State. Swaraj was therefore a two-pronged maneuver of resistance (to the State) and reconstruction (through voluntary participation for social welfare). At a national level, Swaraj was popularized as an integral revolution which encompassed all spheres of life? At the individual level Swaraj had a vital connection with the capacity of human beings for abstract selfassessment, incessant self-purification and thriving self-reliance. Politically Swaraj meant a relentless and unceasing effort to be independent of the control of the government, whether it was the foreign government or whether the national. In other words, Swaraj focused on the attainment of sovereignty of the people on the lines of pure moral authority. Economically, Swaraj meant full economic freedom for the toiling masses. Moreover, Swaraj in its fullest sense was much more than the mere freedom from all constraints. It was self-rule. It was self-restraint. Swaraj, at the time could be equated with Moksha or salvation. For the Moderates, Swaraj meant self-government for the people of India under the British Government like the self-governing colonies of Canada and Australia. This meant that although the country will be administered by the Indians, India would still remain under the imperial crown. For the Extremists, Swaraj meant Complete Independence or Poorna Swaraj.

37 Page37 They believed that no self-rule was possible under British rule, therefore Swaraj stood for complete autonomy, absolutely free from British control. India would be administered by the people of India and would accept no foreign power as a more superior authority. This clear difference of ideologies was one of the main reasons why the Congress split in the Surat Session of the Indian National Congress in 1907.

38 Page38 Militant Nationalism- THE SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT MOVEMENTS From the 1890s, there was a growth in militant nationalism. This was caused due to: 1. Loss of faith in the British government and moderate efforts, 2. The belief that only an Indian government could bring about progress, 3. The growth of education with unemployment, 4. Fear of losing Indian culture due to westernization, 5. Reactionary policies of Curzon (partition of Bengal, Indian universities act and Calcutta corporation act). The Swadeshi and Boycott movements were the results of the above mentioned grievances and causes. PROTESTS DURING THE SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT MOVEMENTS

39 Page39 The Swadeshi Movement Background: The Swadeshi movement was initiated primarily to condemn the partition of Bengal and the reactionary policies of Curzon. The term Swadeshi means adoption of indigenous products. In the 1905 Banaras Session presided over by Gokhale, it was decided to support the anti-partition and Swadeshi Movement of Bengal. The extremists thought these were very mild steps. The Swadeshi Movement, known as the Make in India campaign, was proclaimed on 7th August, 1905, at the Calcutta Town Hall. In the 1906 Calcutta session presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, the popularity of the extremists was recognized and it was declared that the main goal was the attainment of Swaraj. Later the extremists gave a call for the boycott of British goods and institutions and wide passive resistance. This movement was lead by Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak and received the support of the youth. Nature: 1. It called for boycott of all British goods and to buy Indian products only. This led to increase in demand for indigenous goods of the domestic market. British cloth, sugar, salt and other goods were boycotted. Those using these were socially boycotted and the shopkeepers who sold imported items were picketed. Public burning of the foreign cloths started too. 2. An important aspect of the Swadeshi Movement on which a lot of emphasis was placed was self-reliance or Atma Shakti. 3. Many indigenous or Swadeshi enterprises like textile mills, tanneries, banks, soap and match factories were set up. 4. The nationalists criticized English education as they thought it neglected vernacular languages and indigenous values. Thus a parallel and

40 Page40 independent system of national education was started. Within a short duration of time, numerous national schools and colleges sprang up in different parts of the country where vernacular languages were used as a medium of communication, instead of English. Two such examples were Bengal National College and Jadavpur Engineering College. The credit for popularizing and organizing national education goes to Satish Chandra Mukherjee and his Dawn Society. 5. The school and college students were proactive in this movement. Teachers and students boycotted English schools and colleges. In spite of circulars being issued by the British, the students set up Anti-circular Society with the objective of rallying through processions, picketing, collection of funds and creating awareness. 6. Swadeshi and Boycott spread to Poona and Bombay under Tilak, Punjab under Lala Lajpat Rai, Delhi under Syed Haider Raza, and Madras under Chidambaram Pillai. Thus, a nationwide wave was seen in India. 7. Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh wished to take it beyond boycott to a fullfledged agitation for swaraj which was not acceptable to the moderates as they believed reforms were on their way. 8. The impact of the Swadeshi movement on art, culture, science and press was immense. Patriotic pieces composed by Tagore and other literary persons, revival of Ganapati and Shivaji festivals by Tilak, publications of original research work by learned men like P.C Ray and J.C Bose, and creation of awareness regarding the partition of Bengal through the 4leading newspapers of Calcutta, were all a part of this impact. Result: Although the British took certain measures to curb Swadeshi such as Regulation Lathis and issuing of instructions, the movement resulted successfully in: 1. Disappearance of social barriers like cast and creed. 2. Sacrificial sprit of the youth.

41 Page41 3. Taught the people to defy British authority. 4. The fearlessness of the Press. 5. Emergence of secret revolutionary organizations. The Boycott Movement Background: The Boycott Movement was started after the failure of peaceful campaigns and petitions. The Bengalis adopted the boycott movement as a last resort since their moderate methods were not working. A concrete initiative was required to remove the British Empire from India and improve the economic situation of the nation. Nature: 1. There was demand for indigenous products and thus the boycott movement provided momentum for the Indian industry especially the cotton mills such as the ones in Bombay and Ahmadabad. 2. Factories were set up, including the Bengal Chemicals Factory and Tata Iron and Steel. 3. The boycott included burning of the Manchester made goods such as the cloth, which enjoyed a good market in Bengal. Due to the boycott, it suffered a setback. 4. In the social boycott movement, it was preached to go against the government. Those who opposed Swadeshi or Boycott or supported the British would be subjected to various levels of public humiliation. 5. Women stopped wearing foreign bangles and using glass utensils and students refused to use foreign paper. 6. Homespun Indian cloth was encouraged.

42 Page42 Result: 1. The moderates were not willing to extend open support for the boycott movement, but due to the efforts of the Bengali delegates of the INC, a colorless compromise resolution was passed although it was unclear whether the boycott of foreign goods was approved or not. 2. In the 1906 INC Session, the extremists succeeded in securing the support of the moderates, who expressed their cordial support for Swadeshi and termed Boycott as legitimate. A resolution was passed which emphasized on national education for both girls and boys. 3. The extremists wanted to extend the movement to the rest of India, as a full-fledged mass struggle, for the attainment of Swaraj, but the moderates were not ready for this. 4. The Charkha, which was a spinning wheel, represented the country s economic self-sufficiency. 5. The movement encouraged purchasers to buy native goods, thereby boycotting British products. 6. Import of British cotton declined for 2-3 years. ALL-INDIA MULIM LEAGUE

43 Page43 CAUSES AND A DETAILED SERIES OF EVENTS WHICH LED TO THE FORMATION OF THE LEAGUE: Indifference of the Congress towards the Muslim community- The foundation of Indian National Congress in 1885 was an attempt to narrow the Hindu-Muslim divide and place the grievances and interests of all communities alike before the British. But Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and a few other Muslim leaders viewed the Congress to be a representative body for the Hindus and thwarted this initiative of forming a united front representing both, the Hindus and Muslims. In the first session of the Congress, out of the seventy-two delegates, only two were Muslims. This shows how the Muslim leaders strongly believed that being a part of this so-called Hindu representative body would create complications and give rise to an unfavorable reaction among the British towards the Muslim community. Muslim orthodoxy or its patrons in elite sections in the community challenged the political awakening in Indian society. They viewed the democratic and secular movements launched by the Congress as a threat to their supremacy and power established in society and deliberated upon whether their status in society was directly or indirectly affected by these advancements. They started feeling the need for taking some actions themselves. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan-

44 Page44 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was a great religious and educational reformer who played a key role in the establishment of the All-India Muslim League. He realized that the reason for Muslim backwardness was their lack of education and encouraged education. He tried to bring the teachings of Quran in line with modern ideas and stressed upon the value of service. He established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh. This college played a vital role in revitalizing the Muslims. Sir Syed who was once an ardent supporter of nationalism became apprehensive with the rise of the Indian National Congress, as aforementioned, and soon launched a countermovement. He was afraid that if the British withdrew, the Hindus would rule India and this would be unfair to the Muslims. Sir Syed, under the influence of Theodore Beck, the Principal of the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental (MAO) College, Aligarh had advised the Muslims to stay loyal to the British crown and support their rule in India. He also advised them not to associate themselves with the Congress or the Hindus. He feared that the Muslim community would be dominated by the Hindus if the Congress were to come to power. In 1893, under the influence of the Principal of the MAO College, Aligarh, the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Defense Association was founded to oppose the INC. The British through this association wanted to dissuade the Muslims from joining the INC. Hindi-Urdu Controversy (1900)- In Uttar Pradesh, Urdu had been the court language. This means that all petitions had to be written in Urdu. However, many people from the Hindu community protested against this and demanded that they should be allowed to submit petitions in Hindi in Devanagri script, and that the court summons and official announcements should be issued in Hindi and Urdu. The Government granted their request. This action was greatly resented by the Muslim community, and this controversy further strained the relations between the two communities.

45 Page45 Representation of the Muslims in Legislative Bodies- On July 20, 1906, John Morley ( ), the Secretary of State for India, while delivering his budget speech in the House of Commons, hinted towards introduction of reforms and extension of the representative element in the Indian Legislative Council. The speech created great concern among the Muslims as it meant permanent Hindu domination. Infect there was a general feeling among the young educated Muslims that old Aligarh leadership by refusing to join politics, remained unable to safeguard the Muslim political interests, and they did not suggest any plans for the future except asking for funds to strengthen the Mohammaden Anglo Oriental College. There was also a general consensus that no Muslims could get into the legislative councils by election and the Muslim appointed nomination could not be considered their true representatives. Therefore, in case of introduction of election element on a larger scale, the Hindus would capture the seats because of their majority, and consequently, the Muslims would remain unable to get into the councils by the elections. The fear of Hindu domination among the Muslims was justified as they had always been outstripped by the Hindus in every sphere of life. For example, in Bengal: 1. In 1901 only 22 out of every 10,000 Muslims in Bengal knew English compared to 114 out of every 10,000 Hindus 2. Muslims held only 41 of the high appointments under the government, while the Hindus, who were less than twice as numerous, held 1,235 posts. 3. Muslims held less than one sixth of the appointments although they made up two thirds of the population in the new province. (in 1906)

46 Page46 4. In the Eastern Bengal Range, where the Muslim equaled 59 percent of the population, they held 4 out of 54 Inspectorships, 60 out 484 Sub-Inspectorships, 45 of the 450 head constableships and 1027 of the 4594 constableships. Thus, the Muslims felt the need to establish an organization, which would bring the Muslim apprehensions to the Viceroy s notice. Resignation of Fuller- Lieutenant-Governor Fuller was sympathetic to the cause of the Muslims. However, he resigned and both Morley and Minto promptly accepted his resignation. This made many of the Muslim leaders unsure of their position. In fact, a meeting, attended by 30,000 people, was held to deplore the resignation. Simla Deputation- In 1906, a group of Muslim landed barons and chiefs organized the Viceroy, lord Minto s deputation at Simla and pleaded for a few concessions in relation to the Muslim community of India. It is said that the Simla Deputation was a pre-planned move of the British. Within a few months, a forum of the

47 Page47 communalist Muslims emerged. Nawab Salimullah of Dacca took initiative in organizing a conference of the communalist Muslims. At this conference, a resolution was adopted which favored the foundation of an All-India Muslim League. Soon, in 1906, the Muslim League was set up. Apart from these there were several other factors as well, such as educational backwardness, economic exploitation and Hindu-Muslim disputes, which triggered orthodox Muslim sentiments and thus led to the formation of the Muslim League. LOGO OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE Objectives of the League- 1. To inculcate among Muslims a feeling of loyalty to the government and to disabuse minds of misunderstandings and misconceptions of its actions and intentions.